how to use phd in a sentence

How to use the PhD title and all the little doctorate “rules”… use ph.d etc the correct way.

There are many conventions in the academic world that can make it difficult to navigate the philosophiae doctor title. The PhD title is awarded to those who have completed a doctoral degree but, not many people know how to use it once they have it.

It’s best to use PhD not Ph.D in most cases!

This article will go through everything you need to know about using the PhD title and when you can start using it.

The “rules” are relatively simple and can be broken as they are not officially set in stone – other than when you can officially call yourself a doctor.

There is no one correct answer but it may be misleading if you use the PhD title incorrectly. Here are the recommendations for effective communication for a PhD graduate.

It very much depends on the setting. Here are some examples of how I would use both the titles awarded to me after my PhD degree.

How do you Write PhD correctly after a name? Is it ph d or phd and ph.d? Abbreviation explained

It can be confusing to know exactly how to write PhD after your name as a person with a doctoral degree. Which bits are capitalised for a person with a doctoral degree? Is there a ‘.’ In the middle?

When writing a name with a PhD after it, the correct way to do so is to use “PhD” or “Ph.D. or Ph D”

Depending on the preference of the individual, either form can be used.

However, if the individual has a business card that states their degree in full, then the more formal “Doctor of Philosophy” should be used.

It is important to note that using “PhD” without any periods is incorrect; this abbreviation should only be used in informal contexts such as emails or text messages. I tend to use PhD in my YouTube videos and some people have pointed out that this is incorrect…

Following the individual’s preferred format will ensure that their name and credentials are properly represented.

Should you use Dr as well as PhD?

Some people like to use Dr and PhD in their official titles. There are a couple of important points that you need to know about markers and academic titles.

• A person can have more than one marker in their name. For example my full title is Dr Andrew Stapleton, PhD, MChem.
• The doctor title at the front can be used as a variant to the PhD at the end.

It can be a little bit ambiguous if I was to use Dr Andrew Stapleton, PhD as there are two markers. This could mean that I have two PhD’s, it could mean that I have a PhD and a medical doctorate, or it could just be that I want to use both the doctor and the PhD tags for the one degree.

However, in my experience, I still like to use both the title of doctor at the front and the PhD tag at the end of my name for official purposes.

Academics would rarely use the PhD suffix in everyday communication. They would much rather just use the doctor title.

What is the proper title for a PhD with a doctorate degree?

The proper title for a PhD is Doctor of Philosophy. However, some teachers and professors like to be referred to without their official title.

If you are not sure about how your professor, lecturer, or friend with a PhD wishes to be officially addressed you can ask them.

Most of the time, I like to refer to my colleagues with their doctor title for official purposes, but I do not include the type of doctoral degree at the end of their name. That is much better suited to a business card.

Your lecture may wish to be referred to as:

• Dr [last name]
• Dr [first name]

Asking them in the early stages of your relationship is the best way to work out which one they prefer.

If in doubt, always go for the more formal name and nomenclature.

When can you start to use your PhD title after your doctorate? As a PhD student? After your phd thesis?

When you have earned your PhD, you, as a person with a doctoral degree, can start using your title immediately. Although, it can be a little bit confusing as to when you have actually passed your PhD. Is it when you have submitted your dissertation for the advanced degree? Is it when you have received the comments back?

The University of Adelaide says that you can use it from your conferral date:

Students can be conferred on one of five dates during the year and for PhD students the conferral date will be the first available following the completion of all the academic requirements of your degree, including final thesis lodgement and the disbursement of any outstanding financial obligations to the University.

I started using my PhD title as soon as my confirmation letter arrived at my house. It was the first letter from the University that referred to me as Dr Stapleton. I was incredibly excited.

Generally, it is acceptable to use the title “Dr.” both professionally and socially but socially, people very rarely use it – at least in Australia. But you should never use it if you are a PhD student, PhD candidate or enrolled in a PhD program without a previous PhD qualification. 

I do use it in professional settings but it always makes me feel a little bit awkward.

However, there may be some restrictions for certain settings . For example, if have a research degree resulting in a doctor title and you are working in a medical setting – some institutions do not like you to use Dr as it can confuse patients into thinking that you have a medical degree. 

Instead, they ask that you use the PhD tag at the end of your name rather than the doctoral title for official and professional communications.

What is the correct way to write PhD?

When writing about someone’s PhD, the correct way is to write the term in full and capitalize each letter.

This should be done for all academic degrees, not just PhDs.

For example, it would be “Doctor of Philosophy” or “PhD” instead of “Ph.D.”, “Dr.”, or “DPhil”.

Additionally, it is common to mention the field of study in which the degree was earned if known, such as “Doctor of Philosophy in Mathematics”. It is also good practice to include the institution that granted the degree if it is a recognized one.

When writing about someone’s PhD, use proper capitalization and include relevant information like field of study and institution if known to ensure accuracy.

How do you put a PhD in a title?

Putting a PhD in a title is not as complicated as it may sound.

Generally speaking, the proper way to list a PhD in an academic or professional setting is by writing “Dr.” before the name, followed by the person’s full name and the appropriate abbreviations for their degree.

For example, if John Smith has earned a doctorate in psychology, his credentials would be listed as “Dr. John Smith, Ph.D.”

In some cases, such as when addressing someone formally in speech or on a business card, it may also be acceptable to list their credentials as “John Smith, Ph.D.”

Depending on context and personal preference, some people may also choose to list their higher degrees after their names by writing out the entire degree instead of just its abbreviation.

For example, John Smith could choose to write his full title as “John Smith, Doctor of Psychology”

However, I have not seen this in real academic life.

Should the font size of Ph.D. be the same as someone’s name?

The question of whether the font size of a Ph.D. should be the same as someone’s name is an interesting one.

On one hand, it could be argued that the Ph.D. deserves to be highlighted and therefore should be given a larger font size than someone’s name to denote its importance.

On the other, it could be argued that this would not be necessary or appropriate, and that treating everyone equally regardless of their title or degree is more important.

It depends on context and usage – if both names appear in the same document then they should likely have the same font size; however, if one appears in a formal setting such as a diploma or certificate, then it may make sense to give it a larger font size than someone’s name to emphasize its importance and significance.

Ph.Ds (or PhDs) are an important academic achievement and should be respected accordingly but without going overboard by giving them overly large fonts sizes which can take away from rather than add to their importance.

Wrapping up – doctoral title rules

this article has been over everything you need to know that using the PhD title properly and effectively.

The doctor title can be used in place of the PhD and for incredibly formal communications, such as a business email or card, you can use both.

However, sometimes using both can cause confusion as to whether or not there is a reason first using both the doctor and PhD tags. Nonetheless, many people still use both.

Frequently Asked Questions about using PhD or Ph.d

1. what does phd stand for.

A PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy , which is a doctoral degree that represents the highest level of academic achievement in a specific field of study.

2. Is Ph.d the same as PhD?

Yes, Ph.d is the abbreviation for Doctor of Philosophy , and both terms are used interchangeably to refer to the same academic degree .

3. Can I use the title ‘Doctor’ with a PhD?

Individuals who hold a PhD have the right to use the title “Doctor” in front of their name as they are a person with a doctoral degree .

4. What is the correct way to write PhD?

The correct way to write PhD is with no spaces and with both letters capitalized, following the standard abbreviation for Doctor of Philosophy .

5. How do I abbreviate Doctor of Philosophy?

You can abbreviate Doctor of Philosophy as PhD , which is the most commonly used abbreviation for this type of doctoral degree .

6. Can I use both the title ‘Dr.’ and ‘PhD’ together?

Yes, you can use both the title ‘Dr.’ and ‘PhD’ together to denote your academic achievement as a holder of a doctorate degree .

7. What is a dissertation in relation to a PhD?

A dissertation is a scholarly document that Ph.D candidates are required to submit as part of their research degree in a specific field.

8. Who is considered a PhD candidate?

A PhD candidate is a student enrolled in a PhD program working towards the completion of their doctoral studies.

9. Is a PhD also referred to as a Doctorate?

Yes, a PhD is also commonly referred to as a Doctorate , signifying the attainment of the highest

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

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How to Correctly Use the Titles Dr. & PhD With a Name

How to Reference a Person With a PhD

When someone has earned a Doctor of Philosophy, or Ph.D., degree, that person is subsequently referred to as “doctor” in formal speech. The same is true of a person who is a medical doctor, psychologist, dentist or veterinarian. In formal speech, that person should be referred to as “doctor.” However, the rules are different in written form when addressing someone who is called “doctor” in formal speech. In written form, the titles “Dr.” and “Ph.D.” are not interchangeable.

Determine the Type of Doctor

First, you should identify what type of doctor you are addressing. Doctors of medicine and psychology, doctors of dentistry and doctors of veterinary medicine must be addressed differently in comparison to academic doctors who have earned a Doctor of Philosophy doctoral degree. Be advised that there are different types of doctoral degrees. A Doctor of Philosophy degree is just one kind of doctoral degree. There’s also, for example, a Doctor of Education doctoral degree and a Doctor of Psychology doctoral degree. The titles associated with the various doctoral degrees are not interchangeable. Only a person who has earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree should be addressed as Ph.D.

Addressing a Doctor in Writing

Place the title of “Dr.” before the name of a person who is a doctor of medicine or psychology, doctor of dentistry, or doctor of veterinary medicine. For example Dr. George Ross. Always write the word “doctor” in its abbreviated form when it goes before the person’s name. Never write, for example, Doctor George Ross. Do not combine the title of “Dr.” with any other title even if the person could appropriately be addressed by a different title. Never write, for example, “Dr. George Ross, Ph.D.,” even if the person is a medical doctor who has also earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree. Pick one title. Do not use the “Dr.” title when referring to someone who is solely an academic doctor.

Put a comma followed by the title “Ph.D.” after the name of a person who has earned a Doctor of Philosophy doctoral degree. For example Stacey Childs, Ph.D. Do not combine the title of “Ph.D.” with any other title even if the person could appropriately be addressed by a different title. For instance, even if the person being addressed is a doctor of medicine who has also earned a Ph.D., never write, for example, Dr. Stacey Childs, Ph.D. Pick one title. Do not use the “Ph.D.” title when referring to someone who not earned a Doctor of Philosophy doctoral degree.

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Maya Austen began freelance writing in 2009. She has written for many online publications on a wide variety of topics ranging from physical fitness to amateur astronomy. She's also an author and e-book publisher. Austen has a Bachelor of Arts in communications from the New England Institute of Art and currently lives in Boston, Mass.

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abbreviation or noun

Definition of phd, examples of phd in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'PhD.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

New Latin philosophiae doctor

1839, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near PhD

Cite this entry.

“PhD.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/PhD. Accessed 3 Aug. 2024.

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How To Refer To And Punctuate Your Degree Properly

• Are Degrees Capitalized
• Abbreviate Degree Names?
• Degree Punctuation
• Styles For Degrees

For college students, the end of the school year is extra special if it means they finally get to hold their degree. The best part of graduation just might be that moment when a student officially receives the diploma that they worked so hard for. Now that all the hard work is done, they can proudly say that they earned a college degree. But how should they refer to that degree? There are lots of different degrees, and each one has different rules about how to correctly refer to them. Don’t worry, though, because we are offering an exclusive crash course in the correct ways to refer to all of those different college degrees.

⚡️ Commence with the high marks by taking our snappy quiz on the ways to punctuate and refer to degrees here !

Are degrees capitalized?

In general, major style guides agree that the names of specific degrees should be capitalized and the words referring to types of general degrees shouldn’t be capitalized. For example:

• My mother has a master’s degree .
• Jeff earned a Bachelor of Science degree . (A Bachelor of Science is a specific degree, whereas a bachelor’s degree is the more general name or category.)
• Professor Andrews has two doctorates: a Doctor of Fine Arts degree and a Doctor of Music degree . (Similarly, a Doctor of Fine Arts is a specific degree within the general category of doctoral degrees .)

Of course, many universities have their own rules and style guides about how they refer to the degrees that they offer. Because of this, a university may capitalize the names of their degrees differently than the style guide that you use.

Should we abbreviate names of degrees?

In general, the rules around abbreviating names of degrees will depend on the style guide you use. For example, The Associated Press’s style recommends not abbreviating degree names at all and only allows it in order to avoid long sentences that include multiple degrees and people. If you are using AP style, the following example would apply:

❌ Incorrect:  Dr. Smith, who has a Ph.D , taught the class. ✅ Correct:  Dr. Smith, who has a doctorate in philosophy , taught the class.

Other major style guides are typically less strict about using abbreviations. Generally, the important thing is to remain consistent if you decide to use abbreviations or not.

Graduating from a college or a university? Learn the difference between them.

How are degrees punctuated?

If we are using abbreviations, the punctuation will depend on the style guide that you use. According to AP style, degrees that have two-letter abbreviations use periods while longer abbreviations do not. For example, Bachelor of Science would be abbreviated as B.S. while Bachelor of Fine Arts would be abbreviated as  BFA . If you’re using The Chicago Manual of Style , no periods are used in abbreviations of any degree unless it is required or part of tradition. Again, a particular university may also have their own preferences regarding how they punctuate their degree names.

In AP style, abbreviations must follow a person’s full name. For example:

❌ Incorrect: Dr. Nguyen , DDS ✅ Correct: Dr. Angela Nguyen , DDS

Here’s how to style the most common types of degrees

With all of that out of the way, let’s look specifically at how we typically refer to the different types of degrees. In the American university degree system, there are typically four major types of degrees. While the specific names of degrees are usually consistent, the abbreviations will often vary depending on the style guide or university.

Associate degree

An associate degree is an undergraduate degree typically earned in two to three years of study. The name associate’s degree is also commonly used to refer to this degree, but some style guides may consider that incorrect. When written out, the names of associate degrees typically begin with Associate of .

There are many different types of associate degrees. Some common examples include:

• Associate of Science (AS or A.S.)
• Associate of Arts (AA or A.A.)
• Associate of Applied Science (AAS or A.A.S.)

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Bachelor’s degree

A bachelor’s degree is an undergraduate degree that typically takes around four years of study to earn. The name bachelor degree  is also commonly used but may be considered incorrect by style guides. When written out, the names of bachelor’s degrees typically begin with Bachelor of . Unlike the general name, the specific names do not use the possessive bachelor’s .

There are many different bachelor’s degrees. Some examples include:

• Bachelor of Arts (BA/B.A. or AB/A.B.)
• Bachelor of Science (BS/B.S. or SB/S.B or BSc/B.Sc. or ScB/Sc.B.)
• Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA)
• Bachelor of Architecture (B. Arch.)
• Bachelor of Education (B. Ed.)
• Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA)
• Bachelor of Criminal Justice (BJA)

Master’s degree

A master’s degree is a graduate degree that typically takes at least five years to earn. The name master degree  is also commonly used but style guides may consider this name to be incorrect. Typically, the specific names of master’s degrees begin with Master of . As with bachelor’s degrees, the possessive master’s is not used in specific degree names.

There are many different master’s degrees. Some examples include:

• Master of Arts (MA/M.A. or AM/A.M.)
• Master of Science (MS/M.S. or MSc/M.Sc. or SM/S.M. or ScM/Sc.M.)
• Master of Chemistry (MChem)
• Master of Psychology (MPsych/M.Psych. or PsyM/Psy.M.)
• Master of Engineering (ME/M.E. or MEng/M.Eng.)

A doctorate , also known as a doctoral degree , is typically the highest level degree offered by universities. The specific names of doctorates usually begin with Doctor of .

There are many different doctorates. Some common examples include:

• Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D./PhD)
• Doctor of Medicine (M.D./MD)
• Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS)
• Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM or VMD)
• Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D./JD)

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From admission to dissertation. Tips on making the PhD journey happy, productive and successful

How To Write PhD? Is it ph d or phd

How do you write phd correctly after a name is it ph d or phd, here are the steps to write phd correctly:.

• Firstly, “P” must be in a capital case.
• Secondly, “h” is in small case with no space after “P”
• Thirdly, use period/full-stop after “h”
• Fourthly, Write “D” in capital case.
• Fifthly, keep Period after “D”
• Finally, the correct way to write is Ph.D .
• Or, It can be also written as PhD in a sentence.
• As per APA style, write Ph. D
• As per Chicago style, write PhD
• As per MLA style, write it as Ph. D.

For example this is how to write PhD title after your name: Dr.John Mathew, Ph.D. You can write PhD after name on your business cards, resumes, CV’s or identity cards or on nameplates etc. Some have confusion with the use of comma and full stops while writing PhD title after name. Here is my indepth review how to write out properly PhD.

Writing a PhD title after name

Use capital “p” and “d” in the word ph.d..

You must write ‘P’ as capital and ‘D’ as capital letters. Though there is no strict rule on how to use capital and small letters, many of them do this way. Both letters which I have just mentioned must be written in Capital because those letters are the heart of the abbreviationPh.D. There is no other way of writing. Even if you search the whole world and ask many people and read many books, this is how PhD title is written.  Sometimes there are possibilities that both letters are written in small letters by mistake. You need to correct instantly if such is the case. Otherwise, it looks awkward when someone looks at it or reads it.  Usually, mistaken words are clearly observed than that of rightly written ones.

Use small letter ‘h’ in the word Ph.D.

The letter ‘h’ is what written small letter in this 3 letter word is.  We write it in a small letter after name because this letter ‘h’ is in the middle of the word Ph.D.  Here also don’t write mistake by using capital letters. This is the reason why many people write a PhD title after the name wrongly. They are confused about where to use capital letters and were not to use small letters. I suggest you practice all the letters in one or other way.

Why do we write a PhD title after the name?

We write a PhD title after the name to know that one has completed his doctoral studies and it is a sign of knowledge and status.  We write a Ph.D. even for other purposes. For example, if someone is working in a university, it is mandatory that his qualification must be known to all the students and as well as the staff. This is why we write the Ph.D. title after the name. Not only in the university but also to the competent authorities who come for an inspection to the university must know the status of the faculty profiles.  So the title Ph.D. is written after every faculty name as a title.

Should we use bold letters

I say a big no. You cannot write bold and fashioned way while writing PhD title after your name. As you write you must make it look similar along with the name without any difference. There is no way that you must write the Ph.D. title in bold fonts. This way, it looks very odd for those who look. Instead of reading your name, they will read Ph.D. firstly. So there is a chance of not remembering your name. So never use bold fonts while writing PhD title after your name.

Should we use Italic Letters

Again it is a big no. Do be too creative while writing a Ph.D. after your name. The use of italics is a big mistake. Do not use such writing in italics. Every time you use italic, again it looks very different from the original name adjacent to it.

Is Ph.D. a title after your name?

Do you think it is a PhD title or just a status?  It is both status and title.  Though in my personal opinion it is not a title, many call it as a title. But if you ask me I would tell it is a status word that is symbolically represented a matter of qualification. This is only my personal opinion about the title of Ph.D. So if at all you have some doubts about how this title arose as a part of history, you must read a vast number of history books about the Ph.D. title. It all requires for you to understand that a Ph.D. is not a title finally and just a resemblance of qualification.

Is it good to put PhD after title in your identity cards?

No, you must not use the title Ph.D. after your name in any type of identity card. These cards are existing irrespective of your qualification. This is meant to identify you as you are. There is no necessity what you have achieved. There is no need for knowing your qualifications. So in any type of identity card which is issued by the government like passport and voter card etc, you cannot use such title after your name. But there is one exception that the identity card at university or college or at job area must be given with Ph.D. title. If you ever need expert help with writing your Doctoral level papers, go to WriteMyPaperHub and send your request to  write my PhD thesis for me .

Should we use the subject name when using a Ph.D. with the name?

This thought is quite awkward. But I must still mention this. There are some who use the subject name after the Ph.D. title along with the name. Like for example Dr. Luke, Ph.D. in Linguistics. Using this way is quite reasonable if there are some important debates or international meetups. Otherwise, I don’t suggest such type of writing after your name.

What happens if you don’t use a Ph.D. after your name?

If you do not use the Ph.D. title after your name, people around you won’t know that you are a doctoral research fellow. So it is very important to let them know it. You can only use this if at all there are some students around you or any known people. If there are unknown people around you, then there is no way that it is mandatory to use a Ph.D. after your name. Anyhow, I say that there is no danger of not using Ph.D. after your name.

Should comma be addded before or after PhD

Yes, a comma is a mandatory thing to be added after Ph.D. This is a rule. Otherwise, it is mixed combined with your original name. It will become part of your name. So comma is good after your name. I have already given the example above on how to put a comma after your name. But let me give here one more example as a matter of understanding.  Dr.Mohima, Ph.D. If you see the name, for example, there is a comma used after the name to separate Ph.D. from it. So try to put a comma. But never use another punctuation mark as such full stop or colon after your name. I have seen people using other punctuation marks like semicolon after name and then they write the title Ph.D. Some don’t use at all. All such things are mistakes. Use the only comma after your name always.

Can we write Dr instead of Ph.D. after the name?

Writing a doctor instead of a Ph.D. means a different thing. So you cannot use such way. As this is not the right format. ‘Dr’ is used at the beginning of the name as another title. But after the name, it must be a Ph.D. and not ‘Dr’

Should we write a Ph.D. at all after one’s name that is too long?

Sometimes it so happens that your name is too long to write Ph.D. after it. During this trouble, you must cut out some part of the name and type PhD as a title after your name. There is no other way to do it.  Usually, longs name are common in some countries like Germany and India. But in the USA we have shorter names. Whatever may be the length, you must try to use the most used name and eliminate the rest of the name. This way you can use the title Ph.D. comfortable after your name. Always try to use the same name. Don’t change the name or cut your name in different ways on different days. These will again a problem to your recognition.

Should we write phd or ph d on business card, welcome banners during functions?

On welcome banners and business cards, it is very important to mention the title Ph.D. This will be more serious if you do not use the Ph.D. title after the name. There are many people watching that public banner. If you do not write the title after the name, you are disrespecting the guest totally. So be aware of using the title ofPh.D. whenever you have public functions or welcome banners or during some important meetings.  This is a sign that others should treat the guest better than the other out there.

Should the font size of Ph.D. be the same as someone’s name?

The name and the title Ph.D. must be in the same size. There must not be unusual differences. Font sizes matter a lot. Don’t use wrong font size or awkward fonts while using your title Ph.D. after your name. The best font could be like Ariel, Lato, Times New Roman, etc. These fonts will look better as a Ph.D. title after your name. Initially, there is some confusion about using the right font. But once you learn the size usage, you are comfortable using them rightly. Even when you write manually, you can easily write with similar size throughout. This requires a good amount of practice to write the Ph.D. title after your name with good font limitations.

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Syam Prasad Reddy T

Hello, My name is Syam, Asst. Professor of English and Mentor for Ph.D. students worldwide. I have worked years to give you these amazing tips to complete your Ph.D. successfully. Having put a lot of efforts means to make your Ph.D. journey easier. Thank you for visiting my Ph.D. blog.

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Word Use, Syntax & Sentence Structure in PhD Theses – Grammar Advice

Posted by Rene Tetzner | Oct 29, 2021 | PhD Success | 0 |

5.4 Word Use, Syntax and Sentence Structure

Although the advice on writing formal scholarly prose provided in this section will prove especially helpful for those who are just developing their scholarly voice (as is the case with many doctoral candidates) and/or those whose first language is not English, even students who consider their English writing skills excellent may well find some of the information useful. Please note that while the focus here is on words and their order in English sentences, a sentence must also be properly punctuated to function effectively, so Section 5.6 on various marks of punctuation and their use should be consulted in conjunction with this section. Some matters of punctuation can be determined by author preferences or university or department guidelines because there is more than one correct approach (using a serial comma or not, for instance: see Section 5.6.1): in such cases one acceptable method should be chosen and used consistently. With other aspects of punctuation, however, there are right and wrong ways of proceeding (a comma splice should always be avoided, for example: again, see Section 5.6.1), and in those cases the correct punctuation should be used in all relevant instances. In all cases, punctuation should enhance and clarify the structure, language and meaning of your sentences whether they are short and simple or long and extremely complex.

5.4.1 Using Words in a Scholarly Fashion without Bias

Word use is not only an enormous and wide-ranging topic, but, like punctuation, the use of individual words can be not only correct or incorrect, but also a matter of authorial choice, which means that the writer of a thesis must choose his or her words with care. Dehumanising language, for instance, should always be avoided when writing about human beings, and words that assert the presence or role of human beings in a study should not be omitted. There is a tendency, however, for study participants to be reduced through a kind of shorthand to the condition they represent in a study: ‘diabetes and nondiabetes’ might be used, for instance, instead of the more humanising ‘participants with and without diabetes’ or ‘participants with and without a diagnosis of diabetes.’ While such shorthand language is sometimes necessary to convey results efficiently, especially in tabular form, it should be avoided as much as possible and certainly not used when first introducing the people involved in a study. Some departments or thesis committees may even frown upon the use of ‘subjects’ instead of ‘individuals’ or ‘people’ because it is too impersonal, and most will want the age of participants and other people to be referred to accurately: young men and women, for instance, should not be called ‘boys’ and ‘girls,’ which, as a general rule, should be used only of children 12 years of age and under. It can therefore be helpful to discuss such language with your supervisor and check university or department guidelines for any restrictions of this kind, and it is also important to keep the particular context in mind and use common sense while considering each term. For example, while referring to a 25-year-old man as a ‘boy’ is inappropriate in most cases, referring to a 40-year-old prostitute as a ‘working girl’ may not be if that is what the prostitute calls herself and you use the term in quotations and/or with appropriate explanation.

Appropriate word use of this kind is a matter of achieving precision and avoiding bias. If, for instance, an author refers to a 30-year-old man as a ‘man,’ but refers to a woman of the same age as a ‘girl,’ or uses the masculine pronoun ‘he’ when writing of doctors and the feminine pronoun ‘she’ when writing of nurses without specifying a context and details that justify this treatment, it may not be a deliberate distinction, but it will come across as both inaccurate and biassed. Bias can occur in terms of race, nationality, sex/gender, class, education, age and so on, and can involve arbitrarily prioritising one group of people over another or stereotyping any particular group of people (see the advice on avoiding bias of various kinds in the Publication Manual of the APA , 2010, pp.73–77). Some readers might extend this to historical times and their people (the idea, for example, that any one time is better than another or the common notion that people now are more intelligent or more imaginative than people were in the past) as well as to animals and other creatures (with the prioritisation of people over animals or the environment, for instance, smacking of anthropocentrism). Avoiding gender bias is particularly important in western (including English-speaking) societies of the twenty-first century, so be sure to reflect on any instances in which you mention men or women alone: if women are the only subjects of the study or if women alone are relevant for a particular statement (only women can actually bear children, for instance), using ‘women’ alone is appropriate, but if both men and women are involved (both men and women can be parents, for example), both should be mentioned or an alternative that implies both (such as ‘parents,’ ‘people’ or ‘participants’) should be used.

5.4.2 The Precise and Appropriate Use of Pronouns

Although uncomplicated in many instances, the gender-specific pronouns ‘he’ and ‘she’ must always be used with care. Their use is straightforward when speaking of a male or female person, but when ‘a person’ (singular) is used more generally or hypothetically, problems can arise because ‘he’ (once used in most situations of this sort: e.g., ‘When a person is learning to write scholarly prose, he requires sound examples’) is no longer acceptable as a neutral pronoun, and although ‘she’ is now used as neutral by some authors, it really just inverts rather than solves the problem. A better choice is the singular pronoun ‘one,’ which is suitably neutral but can sound artificial to some writers and readers, or ‘he or she’ (or ‘s/he’) which covers the necessary ground but can come across as awkward, especially if used frequently. Some writers uncomfortable with using ‘one,’ ‘he or she’ or ‘s/he’ (as well as ‘him or her,’ ‘his or her,’ ‘himself or herself’ and ‘him/herself’) would argue that ‘they’ (along with ‘them,’ ‘their’ and ‘themselves’) is an acceptable non-gender-specific substitute for the singular forms (When a person is learning to write scholarly prose, they require sound examples). However, ‘they,’ ‘them,’ ‘their’ and ‘themselves’ are all plural, so they are not really appropriate or correct as pronouns referring to singular nouns, and using them as though they are can quickly become extremely confusing. So if you use ‘a person,’ ‘an individual’ or similar phrasing, you need a singular pronoun, and both ‘he’ and ‘she’ are required to render the language inclusive: ‘When a person is learning to write scholarly prose, he or she requires sound examples.’ Only if the noun is plural is the plural pronoun appropriate: ‘When students are learning to write scholarly prose, they require sound examples.’ Careful proofreading of your own writing will catch most problems associated with gender-specific language, but for more information on sexist and nonsexist language, see Miller and Swift (1995).

Pronouns can be problematic in a number of other ways as well. On the topic of referring to people appropriately, for instance, a person, participant, student, woman, father, teenager or child is never an ‘it,’ which as a neuter pronoun should be used of inanimate objects (e.g., ‘When the questionnaire is finished, it will be circulated online’) and is appropriate when referring to countries, which, like ships, are generally not referred to with feminine pronouns as they once were (Canada should reconsider its treatment of immigrants). ‘It’ should not be used when referring to people, however (When the student wrote the exam, he was feeling ill). Relative pronouns should be used similarly, with ‘who,’ ‘whom’ and ‘whose,’ not ‘that,’ representing people – ‘the student who wrote the exam’ or ‘the woman who felt depressed,’ not ‘the student that wrote the exam’ or ‘the woman that felt depressed’ – although conversely the possessive form ‘whose’ can be used of inanimate objects as well as of people (‘the house whose door was purple,’ which is often preferred to ‘the house of which the door was purple’). The essential point is that pronouns – ‘it,’ ‘who,’ ‘he,’ ‘she’ and others – should be used with the utmost accuracy so that the relationship between each pronoun and its antecedent is clearly established, leaving no doubt about the meaning of the pronoun. For example, in ‘The boy thought his sister was lost. She was actually at a friend’s house,’ ‘She’ can only refer to the sister, so there is no risk of confusion. However, in ‘The girl lost her cat Tigress. She was actually at a friend’s house,’ the antecedent of ‘She’ is not clear. Since the ‘girl’ is the subject of the first sentence, the reader might expect ‘She’ in the second sentence to refer to the ‘girl’ as well, but it could also refer to the female cat named Tigress, so confusion is created about what is actually being said and thus about the implications of the text. Is the cat safe at a friend’s house, or did the girl lose the cat at a friend’s house and thus in a less familiar and potentially more dangerous landscape? Is there continuing cause for worry or not?

The ambiguity possible even in so simple a sentence hints at the kind of confusion that can result if a long and complex sentence reporting and discussing detailed results and conclusions opens with ‘It’ and contains two more instances of that pronoun as well as a ‘they’ and a ‘them.’ Such a sentence may fail to communicate your meaning clearly to your intended audience, especially if you are also dealing with the challenge of writing in a language not your own and perhaps use one ‘it’ when referring to a plural antecedent and ‘them’ for a singular one by mistake. In most cases, five pronouns are too many for a sentence in any case, but whether you use many pronouns or only one in a sentence, it is vital that the antecedent for each can be identified readily and with certainty. Sometimes the grammar-checking function in Word will catch an incorrectly or oddly used pronoun, but much like the spell-checking function, this is far from reliable. If you detect the potential for ambiguity in your use of pronouns, your meaning would definitely be clearer were you to use nouns or noun phrases instead. Beware in particular of using pronouns to refer to large or abstract ideas which are difficult to define or explain: such concepts are far clearer and more effective in scholarly writing if they are referred to via precise terminology and carefully explained, difficult though that may be, so such an approach will not only improve your writing style, but also your argument in major as well as minor ways.

As a general rule, the pronoun ‘you’ (as well as ‘your’ and ‘yourself’) should be avoided altogether in academic and scientific prose. In quotations such as those from the direct speech of interviews or the informal answers on questionnaires, ‘you’ is fine because it is not expressed in the author’s own voice, but the reader should not be addressed directly in this way in scholarly prose: in most contexts using ‘you’ simply establishes too personal a voice for formal academic or scientific writing. This is rarely a problem for authors, but since I use the second-person voice frequently and informally in this book to adopt a casual tone and facilitate concise expression of the advice I am offering, I thought I best mention the discrepancy (definitely an instance of ‘do as I say’ rather than ‘do as I do’). ‘I’ (as well as ‘me,’ ‘my’ or ‘mine’ and ‘myself’ in the other cases) can usually be used, however, when referring specifically to yourself as the author of the thesis (e.g., ‘I circulated the questionnaire,’ ‘I detected in the results’ and ‘I discovered a striking difference’). In fact, when used specifically and with discretion, ‘I’ is often preferable to potentially awkward third-person circumlocutions such as ‘the present author’ and ‘the present investigator.’ Do check with your supervisor or department before using the first-person voice, however, as its use varies among disciplines, and deliberately avoiding this voice (perhaps to create an impression of objectivity) is still considered standard for scholarly writing in certain fields. If you do decide to use the first-person voice at times, remember that ‘I’ should never be considered interchangeable with ‘we’: a thesis has only one author and ‘we’ is never appropriate when referring to yourself. If you had assistance in conducting certain parts of your research, ‘we’ might be appropriate when you are describing what was done, but you must also make it clear who exactly you are referring to when you use ‘we.’ ‘We’ can also be used successfully (though with care) when referring to researchers or practitioners as a group, such as ‘we geologists’ or ‘we as manuscript specialists,’ especially if the thesis relates to methodology, the accumulated knowledge of a discipline and/or the self-awareness or education of the group concerned.

‘We’ used in a general or fictional sense that implicitly includes the reader or even the whole of humanity is best avoided in scholarly writing, however. Phrases such as ‘we can observe that,’ ‘we see here,’ ‘we now know that’ and ‘we human beings do not’ in which the author implies or assumes that the reader (and others) are part of that ‘we’ may be acceptable for writing in some areas and media, but they are not, generally speaking, a feature of academic and scientific theses, and avoiding them is one of the characteristics of a professional scholarly voice. The use of the fictional ‘we’ can be particularly problematic when it is used to include the reader in assumptions that have not yet been proved with convincing results or established via analysis and an effective argument, and using the ‘we now know’ stance as a substitute for true scholarly argumentation is simply unacceptable and can weaken both your writing and your thesis. It is therefore a good idea to do a search (by using the Find and Replace box in Word’s Home menu, for instance) for all occurrences of ‘we’ and perhaps ‘I’ once you have your thesis drafted, and to consider each instance carefully to be sure that you are using these pronouns accurately, effectively and professionally.

Why PhD Success?

To Graduate Successfully

This article is part of a book called "PhD Success" which focuses on the writing process of a phd thesis, with its aim being to provide sound practices and principles for reporting and formatting in text the methods, results and discussion of even the most innovative and unique research in ways that are clear, correct, professional and persuasive.

The assumption of the book is that the doctoral candidate reading it is both eager to write and more than capable of doing so, but nonetheless requires information and guidance on exactly what he or she should be writing and how best to approach the task. The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples.

The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples. PhD Success provides guidance for students familiar with English and the procedures of English universities, but it also acknowledges that many theses in the English language are now written by candidates whose first language is not English, so it carefully explains the scholarly styles, conventions and standards expected of a successful doctoral thesis in the English language.

Individual chapters of this book address reflective and critical writing early in the thesis process; working successfully with thesis supervisors and benefiting from commentary and criticism; drafting and revising effective thesis chapters and developing an academic or scientific argument; writing and formatting a thesis in clear and correct scholarly English; citing, quoting and documenting sources thoroughly and accurately; and preparing for and excelling in thesis meetings and examinations. 

Completing a doctoral thesis successfully requires long and penetrating thought, intellectual rigour and creativity, original research and sound methods (whether established or innovative), precision in recording detail and a wide-ranging thoroughness, as much perseverance and mental toughness as insight and brilliance, and, no matter how many helpful writing guides are consulted, a great deal of hard work over a significant period of time. Writing a thesis can be an enjoyable as well as a challenging experience, however, and even if it is not always so, the personal and professional rewards of achieving such an enormous goal are considerable, as all doctoral candidates no doubt realise, and will last a great deal longer than any problems that may be encountered during the process.

Interested in Proofreading your PhD Thesis? Get in Touch with us

If you are interested in proofreading your PhD thesis or dissertation, please explore our expert dissertation proofreading services.

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Medical editing services, psychology proofreading, word use, syntax & sentence structure in phd theses - grammar advice, about the author, rene tetzner.

Rene Tetzner's blog posts dedicated to academic writing. Although the focus is on How To Write a Doctoral Thesis, many other important aspects of research-based writing, editing and publishing are addressed in helpful detail.

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Phd success – how to write a doctoral thesis.

October 1, 2021

Table of Contents – PhD Success

October 2, 2021

The Essential – Preliminary Matter

October 3, 2021

The Main Body of the Thesis

October 4, 2021

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Ph.D. punctuation at the end of a sentence

If I write "Ph.D." at the end of a sentence, do I add another period to end the sentence? LIke "blah blah blah Ph.D.." or do I write "blah blah blah Ph.D."

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What is the correct phrase to describe an ongoing study for a PhD?

She is doing a PhD in the X program at Y University,

She is working towards a PhD in the X program at Y University,

She is studying for a PhD in the X program at Y University.

• word-choice
• phrase-usage

• I've heard all three. How formal is the context? –  Jeff Zeitlin Commented Nov 7, 2017 at 21:34
• PhD is a combination of work and study so I’d go with doing or getting. –  AffableAmbler Commented Nov 7, 2017 at 21:44
• It will be used in a formal context, on a university website or in anewsletter. –  meltem Commented Nov 7, 2017 at 21:45

I'm not sure that this is actually a grammar question, as all of the choices follow the same grammatical structure. However, based on word choice, I would select your second option of:

She is working towards a Ph.D. in the ~~ program at ~~ University.

An alternative way to refer to a Ph.D. is a Doctorate degree, and as such the colloquialism changes to:

She is doing her Doctorate (degree) in (the) ~~ (program) at ~~ University.

Using the verb doing instead of saying working toward for this colloquialism is acceptable. Meaning, a sentence like this makes perfect sense:

She is doing her Doctorate in Computer Science at Caltech.

or as you describe above:

She is working towards a Ph.D. in Computer Science at Caltech.

• 1 You wouldn't capitalize "Doctorate" in this case as it isn't the actual name of the degree. –  Azor Ahai -him- Commented Nov 8, 2017 at 1:14

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What are some of the starting phrases that I can use while responding to Ph.D examination committee questions during my defence?

I am appearing my Ph.D defence in a few weeks. I am in need of some starting phrases or words which I can use while responding to the questions from the examiners. There could be difficult questions which are beyond the objective of my thesis, the examiner could point out a better methodology or I might have missed some of the most important papers in the field and so on.

I need a list of some starting phrases for responding the examiner's question.

I am clear about my objectives and the contents of my thesis. Just need some speaking tips.

• thesis-committee

• 6 I'd say the truth :) Be honest, be polite, be direct.... –  Fábio Dias Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 1:04
• 47 There are times for witty phrases that you spent the last two weeks memorizing; your dissertation defense is not one of them. –  Mad Jack Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 1:04
• 14 I went to a defence where every answer started with "that is a very good question". Towards the end, it got quite funny; and when we told him later, he said he hadn't realised. –  Davidmh Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 8:44
• 7 Well, you could always say AAAAAAAAAAAAA! - the best defense being a good offense, after all. –  BrianH Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 17:01
• 4 PhD defences are not about canned beginnings to sentences. You're being examined on your ability to answer questions, not to say some magic phrase before answering questions. Just answer the questions. –  David Richerby Commented Jan 26, 2016 at 0:44

3 Answers 3

In addition to Pete Clark's excellent answer, I would like to offer a second piece of advice. When you are feeling nervous or "put on the spot" by questions, an excellent first step is to begin by ensuring that you have understood the question. You can say something like:

"If I understand correctly, you are asking [paraphrased question]

and then go on with your response. This both makes sure you are clear about your communication as well as giving you a moment to steady your nerves and to think about your response.

• 11 +1 for a great tip that applies much more generally whenever you are communicating with people about research. Too many people have a tendency to answer a completely different question than the one they were asked, without even bothering to check whether their (flawed) understanding of the question is correct. –  Dan Romik Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 5:31
• 3 Of course, over (or mis) using this makes you sound like an idiot. –  Kimball Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 5:44
• 5 @Kimball I'd interpret an overusing of this as a sign of nervousness more than anything else. –  Davidmh Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 8:50
• 1 Also "that's a very interesting question... I don't have an answer for that right now." –  John Kemeny Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 9:03
• 9 This is especially important if you are not sure if the whole audience was able to hear the question. Sometimes people from front rows ask in a rather quiet voice and if there is no microphone, it is generally good to repeat or paraphrase it for everyone present. –  dtldarek Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 10:09

Trying to prepare for any academic examination via stock phrases which are not related to the content of the subject is a very poor idea. You are never expected to know everything about your subject or be able to answer every question related to your work. When you do not know something, an ideal answer is "I don't know, but..." What follows should show that you know something related to the question and/or have some ideas about what you would do in order to learn the answer that you do not now possess.

I don't mean to be harsh, but in my opinion "while preparing for your PhD defense" is a bit late to be learning the above lesson and in particular that "polite and impressive phrases" will please no one. If I were on an exam committee and saw someone answering in this way, it would make a much more negative impression on me than a crisp, honest "I have no idea" (with no "but..."). If someone said that, then 90% of the time I would drop the line of inquiry and move on to something that they do know. If someone tried to blow smoke in my face, I might well try to wring an honest admission of lack of knowledge out of them. Please consider yourself warned.

Added : The clarified version of the question changes things a bit. I would still advise against memorizing specific phrases, as I think that could come off as trying to obfuscate (which, as above, would be very bad). It sounds like the OP may just be a bit nervous about an important presentation given in a non-native language. I certainly hope it is the case that the OP has given academic presentations before and has answered questions from faculty before. I would recommend that the OP talk to his advisor, to get some feedback about the format of the defense and to get some practice answering questions. In my opinion the precise words used to frame an answer to a question are not very important, and the less framing material and the more direct the answer, the better. But the OP can try out answering questions with his advisor, and if there is really some formal deficiency, his advisor can help him remedy it. This is part of the advisor's job. Getting stock phrases from the internet from those who don't know the OP or the subject of his thesis seems quite likely to backfire.

• 1 @ Pete L. Clark Makes perfect sense to me. What I meant by polite and impressive phrases is to respond in a confident way by using appropriate words to justify my research in the context of the question asked. For instance, just saying "I have no idea" might not suffice but expanding the answer to "I hadn't thought that way, but it looks like it is worth considering in future research" could be better. I am in need of such phrases just to expand my eloquent speaking. It by no means was to memorize the stock phrases and keep on responding with the phrases which are irrelevant to the question. –  visresearch Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 1:33
• 6 @visresearch: Once again, I would prefer "I have no idea" to "I hadn't thought that way, but it looks like it is worth considering in future research" once it became clear that by the latter you meant the former. You do not need to speak "eloquently"; you just need to speak clearly and with sufficient (not perfect) mastery of the subject matter. Why are you seeking to put on airs? –  Pete L. Clark Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 1:48
• 4 @PeteL.Clark - I think you might be being unsympathetic here. My guess is that the OP has a very poor command of spoken English and has trouble coming up with sentences on the fly. I imagine that if I had to defend my thesis in French, I'd want to be prepared with some stock phrases (even though I basically have no trouble reading papers in French or, for that matter, basic survival in a French-speaking country). –  Alexander Woo Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 2:02
• @Alexander: If that were the situation, I would be more sympathetic, yes. The OP hasn't said anything like that though. Perhaps this difficulty communicating is symptomatic of his problem? Anyway, someone with a shaky command of English is especially advised to speak simply and clearly, rather than trying to memorize "eloquent" or "impressive" phrases. So I think the content of my answer still applies. (Also, the English of the question and the comments looks flawless to me.) –  Pete L. Clark Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 2:09
• @AlexanderWoo My question is in line with your comments.However, I wouldn't say that I have a very poor command of speaking English. There are times when I feel a bit shaky especially while choosing the right words otherwise I am confident. Maybe the title of this post was misunderstood or I was not explicit enough in my queries. Anyway, it is good to get inputs. –  visresearch Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 2:35

No you don't, what you need is good arguments to back your research claims - their validity, their novelty, their applicability/importance and so on.

Having said that, some universities have certain rules of protocol, e.g. examiners begin their questioning by reciting "By the permission of the esteemed [position-holder-here] and by my right, I will address several questions to the candidate" or something along these lines. It might be the case that there's some ceremonial opening for your reply. That kind of ceremony - like the robes, and hats, and the "procession" etc. are of symbolic but not material importance. Find some official involved with organizing the examination and have them tell you about the ceremonial procedure.

But again - it's the substance, not the form, which matters.

• 2 You're in the Netherlands, aren't you? I was on a Ph.D. examination committee in Delft a few years back, and enjoyed the ceremony greatly, particularly being called "Herr Opponenten" –  jakebeal Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 15:54
• @jakebeal: Yes I am. I wish people would take their defense more seriously... if only opponents would actually ask hard (but failr) questions rather than just assuming the guy/girl needs to get his degree. –  einpoklum Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 16:42
• 2 In my case, nobody thought to tell me to take it easy, and as the person from farthest away I was the first opponent, so I gave a fairly hard US-defense-style interrogation. :-) –  jakebeal Commented Jan 25, 2016 at 17:03

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Seven tips for clear and concise writing in your PhD

Jun 7, 2019

Without discrediting the merit of academic investigation and the findings you’ve produced, at the heart of a PhD is a goal to make the examiner happy.  Clear, concise writing is an important component of achieving that goal.

Concise writing is easier to read and easier to follow but is something that many PhD students struggle with. We academics aren’t known for our clear writing. Perhaps that’s why there’s a misconception in academia that the more complicated the sentence the better, as if our intellect is judged on the basis of the length of our words, or whether we are using colourful language.

Why though? If so many other academics get away with bad writing, why do you have to put the effort in to improve the clarity of your own work? Simple: the person reading your thesis doesn’t know what’s about to come. You do, so for you, it’s obvious. 

Recently, someone   asked on Quora   for examples of well written academic texts. Read this response from a university professor and thesis examiner and you’ll see why all of this is important: 

“Far and away the best piece of academic writing I’ve had the pleasure of reading is Andrew Tridgell’s PhD thesis/dissertation ‘Efficient algorithms for sorting and synchronization’.

Things that make it so good are that is uses clear, concise language, making it easily accessible to those not familiar with the topic; it uses a strong, first-person voice throughout, eschewing academic pomposity; and overall it succeeds in making what could be a dry, technical topic into something interesting.

Basically, it’s the opposite of a large proportion of academic writing, which tend to obfuscate the research rather than illuminate”

In this guide I talk about seven easy ways to make your writing clearer and more concise. 

Interested in group workshops, cohort-courses and a free PhD learning & support community? 

The team behind The PhD Proofreaders have launched The PhD People, a free learning and community platform for PhD students. Connect, share and learn with other students, and boost your skills with cohort-based workshops and courses.

1. edit ruthlessly.

Authors generally follow the following mantra: write first, edit later. They get the words on the page and then go through line by line and remove as many of them as possible. 

You should do the same. When you’ve finished writing, edit ruthlessly. However, make sure that you don’t lose the meaning. Instead, you’re aiming to remove the words that add nothing to the text or, put differently, do not take anything away from the meaning when you remove them. 

Let me show you what I mean:

Image credit

You see how, even though sixteen words have been removed, the meaning hasn’t changed? What has changed is the way the passage reads. It flows more beautifully. 

This kind of copyediting can dramatically improve the readability of your writing. Plus, it frees up valuable words. It’s an important, albeit difficult, skill to learn.

Your PhD thesis. All on one page. 

Use our free PhD structure template to quickly visualise every element of your thesis. 

There is a tendency to think that, once you have written your first draft, all that’s required is a simple edit. Sometimes, though, you’ll need to undertake a more serious, hardcore edit. You might need to turn one chapter into two, or completely rewrite an entire section.

How do you know when this kind of heavy-duty edit is required? You have to ask yourself whether the draft serves its intended purpose. In each of the lessons in section one, we developed a series of checklists and questions that the reader must be able to answer when they finished reading each chapter. When you read through your own work, keep these in mind, as they’ll inform your understanding of how drastic your edits need to be.

If the draft diverges from the intended purposes, you may need to edit drastically. Don’t be scared of cutting words; your primary concern is with making the right point as clearly as possible.

2. Vary your sentence length

Having sentences of varying lengths is a great way to improve readability and clarity.

 Let’s see why:

The benefit of varying sentence length is self-evident: mix up your sentence length if you want to keep your reader engaged. It makes your words sing.

3. Don’t make promises you can’t keep

Phrased differently, do what you say you’re going to do. If you spend your introduction saying, ‘I will do a, b and c’, you’d better make sure the text that follows actually does a, b and c. If it doesn’t, you are misleading the examiner. This won’t just confuse them, it’ll shatter your credibility. They’ll think you’re scatty.

We can extend this – don’t make claims that you haven’t backed up. This is something I see all the time with PhD students I work with – a bold claim with no supporting evidence or references. Your examiner won’t appreciate this and, worse still, it’ll confuse them.

What’s more, you’ll need to make sure you stay on point. Clearly lay out your argument (we’ll focus on this in the next lesson) and then make sure that everything that follows is related to it. Again, refer back to the previous lessons and ask yourself whether each chapter does what it is supposed to and whether or not it does anything it isn’t. Anything irrelevant, superfluous or contradictory can be deleted or moved elsewhere.

Going further still: don’t over-promise on your contribution. The chances are that your contribution is small and specific. That’s fine. Don’t feel the need to overstate it by claiming you are doing something you aren’t. It’s dishonest; the examiner will see straight through it.

4. Spend time in the reader’s head

One thing that good writers spend a lot of time doing is imagining things from the reader’s perspective.

You should do the same. Try to understand what your reader/examiner is likely to know already before reading your thesis and, just as importantly, what they aren’t likely to know. This will have an impact on how much detail you go into in particular sections. 

Is a particular theoretical idea common knowledge in your field? Does your examiner come from your field? No need to spend too long talking about its every detail. Be concise, move on.

Alternatively, is your examiner from a different discipline? Are there certain things you take for granted but someone outside the discipline may struggle with? Go into a little more detail. It’ll help them follow along.

One of your main jobs when writing is to make the reader’s job as easy as possible. To do that, you need to know what they already know and what they need to know. 

5. Write as if you’re already a Doctor

The job of a thesis isn’t just to showcase your study to the reader. It’s to show your reader that you’re worthy of calling yourself Doctor . This doesn’t discount the importance of the study, you can’t have one without the other, but it does have an important implication:

You need to write as if you’re already a Doctor.

Put as much effort into writing your thesis as you did in designing and carrying out the research. Speak with an authoritative voice and convince the reader that you know what you’re doing. Speak with conviction and stand by your decisions. Don’t get lost in the authors.

In other words, find your voice.

One effective way of doing so is to write as often as possible. What’s more, the act of writing itself is an excellent way to clarify your own thoughts and give order to what which, when in your head, is disordered and lacks coherence.

Of course, to find your voice you need to have something worth writing about. This is an obvious piece of advice, but one worth stressing. The more clearly you understand what it is you are trying to say, the more easily you will be able to get that across clearly and concisely.

There are two dimensions to this though. Most importantly, clearly, is your skill as an academic and researcher. It’s your knowledge and the intellectual artefacts that you carry. But there’s also an understanding of what goes where in the thesis, of knowing the purpose of each section and knowing how to structure it accordingly. The lessons in section one of this course will help you in this regard.

6. Spend time reading

It makes sense that to become more adept at writing in English you should read good examples of its use. Yet we often overlook it, primarily, I think, because we spend all day reading for our PhDs. We don’t often stop to explicitly seek out well-written prose, poetry or academic text and read it mindful of what makes it so well-written in the first place.

So, with that in mind, spend time each week reading well-written journal articles or book chapters. Carefully consider how they have been written.

When you read these texts, ask yourself

• How have they structured their introduction? Can you understand the article/chapter just from reading the introduction?
• How have they structured the article as a whole? Have they discussed things that aren’t directly related to their argument?
• Do they use long sentences with lots of commas or do they keep their sentences short?
• How do they conclude?

Thinking carefully about these things will help you understand your own writing. How do you introduce your argument? How do you structure your introduction? How does that compare? Is there anything you can learn?

7. Avoid pompous academic writing

We all know what this is. That awful, pointless way that we academics write when we’re allowed to. It’s the pretentious ‘look how many long words I can use’ approach to writing.

When we talk about pompous academic writing, Judith Butler comes to mind. She’s a big deal in her field (and beyond, in fact) and teaches at Berkeley.  However, she is also famous for her impenetrable writing. So much so that she won a prize for having the   worst academic writing of 1999 , awarded by the journal Philosophy and Literature.

Here’s an example:

“The move from a structuralist account in which capital is understood to structure social relations in relatively homologous ways to a view of hegemony in which power relations are subject to repetition, convergence, and rearticulation brought the question of temporality into the thinking of structure, and marked a shift from a form of Althusserian theory that takes structural totalities as theoretical objects to one in which the insights into the contingent possibility of structure inaugurate a renewed conception of hegemony as bound up with the contingent sites and strategies of the rearticulation of power.” (Judith Butler (1997) ‘Further Reflections on Conversations of Our Time’ Diacritics 27(1) pp. 13-15) 

Yes, that’s one sentence. No, I have no idea what it means either.

Whilst this is an extreme example, I’m sure you can recognise this kind of academic pomposity all around you.

To avoid falling into this trap, you can do three things.

1. Use the simplest words you can get away with.

When you are editing your work and you come across a pompous or unusual word, ask yourself whether the meaning would be retained but the readability improved if you used a more typical word instead.

2. Use the word ‘I’.

If your institution and supervisors/advisers allow, use the first person pronoun ‘I’.

3. Imagine if you were reading aloud to a group of non-academic friends.

Would they understand the words you use? Would they laugh at you for being pompous?

Make sure you don’t take this too far though. You don’t want to write too informally. You certainly don’t want to be writing in slang or colloquialisms. What’s more, taking complex ideas, terminology and language and ‘dumbing it down’ is not only really laborious, but it is also extremely reductive, meaning that you risk stripping away important meaning. Instead, the emphasis is on avoiding jargon and being pompous for the sake of it. Remember, you want to make the reader’s job  as easy as possible. The reader wants you to convey complexity, but they don’t need you to be pompous while you do it.

Summary: How to write concisely

In this guide we have focused on quick ideas you can incorporate into your day-to-day PhD writing. We learnt the importance of writing concisely and looked at seven tips you can use right now:

1. Edit ruthlessly.

2. Vary your sentence length.

3. Don’t make promises you can’t keep.

4. Spend time in the reader’s head.

5. Write as if you’re already a Doctor.

6. Read well-written articles.

7. Avoid the pompous academic trap.

There’s certainly more to writing concisely than these tips. Indeed, you could spend a lifetime mastering the art. However, the aim here has been to provide you with skills that you can incorporate easily and quickly in a way that respects the limited time and resources you have available.

Hello, Doctor…

Sounds good, doesn’t it?  Be able to call yourself Doctor sooner with our five-star rated How to Write A PhD email-course. Learn everything your supervisor should have taught you about planning and completing a PhD.

Now half price. Join hundreds of other students and become a better thesis writer, or your money back. 

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Is it advicable to read everything and then start writing or write whatever comes along your reading?

Write as much as you can, as often as you can! Even if it doesn’t end up in the thesis, regular writing practice is a great way to progress in your studies.

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How to Write a Research Proposal: (with Examples & Templates)

Table of Contents

Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers’ plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed research that you intend to undertake. It provides readers with a snapshot of your project by describing what you will investigate, why it is needed, and how you will conduct the research.  

Your research proposal should aim to explain to the readers why your research is relevant and original, that you understand the context and current scenario in the field, have the appropriate resources to conduct the research, and that the research is feasible given the usual constraints.  

This article will describe in detail the purpose and typical structure of a research proposal , along with examples and templates to help you ace this step in your research journey.  

What is a Research Proposal ?  

A research proposal¹ ,²  can be defined as a formal report that describes your proposed research, its objectives, methodology, implications, and other important details. Research proposals are the framework of your research and are used to obtain approvals or grants to conduct the study from various committees or organizations. Consequently, research proposals should convince readers of your study’s credibility, accuracy, achievability, practicality, and reproducibility.   

With research proposals , researchers usually aim to persuade the readers, funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors to approve the proposal. To achieve this, the report should be well structured with the objectives written in clear, understandable language devoid of jargon. A well-organized research proposal conveys to the readers or evaluators that the writer has thought out the research plan meticulously and has the resources to ensure timely completion.  

Purpose of Research Proposals  

A research proposal is a sales pitch and therefore should be detailed enough to convince your readers, who could be supervisors, ethics committees, universities, etc., that what you’re proposing has merit and is feasible . Research proposals can help students discuss their dissertation with their faculty or fulfill course requirements and also help researchers obtain funding. A well-structured proposal instills confidence among readers about your ability to conduct and complete the study as proposed.  

Research proposals can be written for several reasons:³  

• To describe the importance of research in the specific topic  
• Address any potential challenges you may encounter  
• Showcase knowledge in the field and your ability to conduct a study  
• Apply for a role at a research institute  
• Convince a research supervisor or university that your research can satisfy the requirements of a degree program  
• Highlight the importance of your research to organizations that may sponsor your project  
• Identify implications of your project and how it can benefit the audience  

What Goes in a Research Proposal?    

Research proposals should aim to answer the three basic questions—what, why, and how.  

The What question should be answered by describing the specific subject being researched. It should typically include the objectives, the cohort details, and the location or setting.  

The Why question should be answered by describing the existing scenario of the subject, listing unanswered questions, identifying gaps in the existing research, and describing how your study can address these gaps, along with the implications and significance.  

The How question should be answered by describing the proposed research methodology, data analysis tools expected to be used, and other details to describe your proposed methodology.   

Research Proposal Example  

Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject.  

Structure of a Research Proposal  

If you want to know how to make a research proposal impactful, include the following components:¹  

1. Introduction  

This section provides a background of the study, including the research topic, what is already known about it and the gaps, and the significance of the proposed research.  

2. Literature review  

This section contains descriptions of all the previous relevant studies pertaining to the research topic. Every study cited should be described in a few sentences, starting with the general studies to the more specific ones. This section builds on the understanding gained by readers in the Introduction section and supports it by citing relevant prior literature, indicating to readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject.  

3. Objectives  

Once the background and gaps in the research topic have been established, authors must now state the aims of the research clearly. Hypotheses should be mentioned here. This section further helps readers understand what your study’s specific goals are.  

4. Research design and methodology  

Here, authors should clearly describe the methods they intend to use to achieve their proposed objectives. Important components of this section include the population and sample size, data collection and analysis methods and duration, statistical analysis software, measures to avoid bias (randomization, blinding), etc.  

5. Ethical considerations  

This refers to the protection of participants’ rights, such as the right to privacy, right to confidentiality, etc. Researchers need to obtain informed consent and institutional review approval by the required authorities and mention this clearly for transparency.  

6. Budget/funding  

Researchers should prepare their budget and include all expected expenditures. An additional allowance for contingencies such as delays should also be factored in.  

7. Appendices  

This section typically includes information that supports the research proposal and may include informed consent forms, questionnaires, participant information, measurement tools, etc.  

8. Citations  

Important Tips for Writing a Research Proposal  

Writing a research proposal begins much before the actual task of writing. Planning the research proposal structure and content is an important stage, which if done efficiently, can help you seamlessly transition into the writing stage. 3,5  

The Planning Stage  

• Manage your time efficiently. Plan to have the draft version ready at least two weeks before your deadline and the final version at least two to three days before the deadline.
• What is the primary objective of your research?  
• Will your research address any existing gap?  
• What is the impact of your proposed research?  
• Do people outside your field find your research applicable in other areas?  
• If your research is unsuccessful, would there still be other useful research outcomes?  

  The Writing Stage  

• Create an outline with main section headings that are typically used.  
• Focus only on writing and getting your points across without worrying about the format of the research proposal , grammar, punctuation, etc. These can be fixed during the subsequent passes. Add details to each section heading you created in the beginning.   
• Ensure your sentences are concise and use plain language. A research proposal usually contains about 2,000 to 4,000 words or four to seven pages.  
• Don’t use too many technical terms and abbreviations assuming that the readers would know them. Define the abbreviations and technical terms.  
• Ensure that the entire content is readable. Avoid using long paragraphs because they affect the continuity in reading. Break them into shorter paragraphs and introduce some white space for readability.  
• Focus on only the major research issues and cite sources accordingly. Don’t include generic information or their sources in the literature review.  
• Proofread your final document to ensure there are no grammatical errors so readers can enjoy a seamless, uninterrupted read.  
• Use academic, scholarly language because it brings formality into a document.  
• Ensure that your title is created using the keywords in the document and is neither too long and specific nor too short and general.  
• Cite all sources appropriately to avoid plagiarism.  
• Make sure that you follow guidelines, if provided. This includes rules as simple as using a specific font or a hyphen or en dash between numerical ranges.  
• Ensure that you’ve answered all questions requested by the evaluating authority.  

Key Takeaways   

Here’s a summary of the main points about research proposals discussed in the previous sections:  

• A research proposal is a document that outlines the details of a proposed study and is created by researchers to submit to evaluators who could be research institutions, universities, faculty, etc.  
• Research proposals are usually about 2,000-4,000 words long, but this depends on the evaluating authority’s guidelines.  
• A good research proposal ensures that you’ve done your background research and assessed the feasibility of the research.  
• Research proposals have the following main sections—introduction, literature review, objectives, methodology, ethical considerations, and budget.  

Frequently Asked Questions  

Q1. How is a research proposal evaluated?  

A1. In general, most evaluators, including universities, broadly use the following criteria to evaluate research proposals . 6  

• Significance —Does the research address any important subject or issue, which may or may not be specific to the evaluator or university?  
• Content and design —Is the proposed methodology appropriate to answer the research question? Are the objectives clear and well aligned with the proposed methodology?  
• Sample size and selection —Is the target population or cohort size clearly mentioned? Is the sampling process used to select participants randomized, appropriate, and free of bias?  
• Timing —Are the proposed data collection dates mentioned clearly? Is the project feasible given the specified resources and timeline?  
• Data management and dissemination —Who will have access to the data? What is the plan for data analysis?  

Q2. What is the difference between the Introduction and Literature Review sections in a research proposal ?  

A2. The Introduction or Background section in a research proposal sets the context of the study by describing the current scenario of the subject and identifying the gaps and need for the research. A Literature Review, on the other hand, provides references to all prior relevant literature to help corroborate the gaps identified and the research need.  

Q3. How long should a research proposal be?  

A3. Research proposal lengths vary with the evaluating authority like universities or committees and also the subject. Here’s a table that lists the typical research proposal lengths for a few universities.  

Q4. What are the common mistakes to avoid in a research proposal ?  

A4. Here are a few common mistakes that you must avoid while writing a research proposal . 7  

• No clear objectives: Objectives should be clear, specific, and measurable for the easy understanding among readers.  
• Incomplete or unconvincing background research: Background research usually includes a review of the current scenario of the particular industry and also a review of the previous literature on the subject. This helps readers understand your reasons for undertaking this research because you identified gaps in the existing research.  
• Overlooking project feasibility: The project scope and estimates should be realistic considering the resources and time available.   
• Neglecting the impact and significance of the study: In a research proposal , readers and evaluators look for the implications or significance of your research and how it contributes to the existing research. This information should always be included.  
• Unstructured format of a research proposal : A well-structured document gives confidence to evaluators that you have read the guidelines carefully and are well organized in your approach, consequently affirming that you will be able to undertake the research as mentioned in your proposal.  
• Ineffective writing style: The language used should be formal and grammatically correct. If required, editors could be consulted, including AI-based tools such as Paperpal , to refine the research proposal structure and language.  

Thus, a research proposal is an essential document that can help you promote your research and secure funds and grants for conducting your research. Consequently, it should be well written in clear language and include all essential details to convince the evaluators of your ability to conduct the research as proposed.  

This article has described all the important components of a research proposal and has also provided tips to improve your writing style. We hope all these tips will help you write a well-structured research proposal to ensure receipt of grants or any other purpose.  

References  

• Sudheesh K, Duggappa DR, Nethra SS. How to write a research proposal? Indian J Anaesth. 2016;60(9):631-634. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037942/  
• Writing research proposals. Harvard College Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships. Harvard University. Accessed July 14, 2024. https://uraf.harvard.edu/apply-opportunities/app-components/essays/research-proposals  
• What is a research proposal? Plus how to write one. Indeed website. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-proposal  
• Research proposal template. University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/MediaLibraries/URMCMedia/pediatrics/research/documents/Research-proposal-Template.pdf  
• Tips for successful proposal writing. Johns Hopkins University. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://research.jhu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Tips-for-Successful-Proposal-Writing.pdf  
• Formal review of research proposals. Cornell University. Accessed July 18, 2024. https://irp.dpb.cornell.edu/surveys/survey-assessment-review-group/research-proposals  
• 7 Mistakes you must avoid in your research proposal. Aveksana (via LinkedIn). Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/7-mistakes-you-must-avoid-your-research-proposal-aveksana-cmtwf/  

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• What is the Importance of a Concept Paper and How to Write It 

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