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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 24 September 2018

A mixed methods case study exploring the impact of membership of a multi-activity, multicentre community group on social wellbeing of older adults

• Gabrielle Lindsay-Smith   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3864-1412 1 ,
• Grant O’Sullivan 1 ,
• Rochelle Eime 1 , 2 ,
• Jack Harvey 1 , 2 &
• Jannique G. Z. van Uffelen 1 , 3  

BMC Geriatrics volume  18 , Article number:  226 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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Social wellbeing factors such as loneliness and social support have a major impact on the health of older adults and can contribute to physical and mental wellbeing. However, with increasing age, social contacts and social support typically decrease and levels of loneliness increase. Group social engagement appears to have additional benefits for the health of older adults compared to socialising individually with friends and family, but further research is required to confirm whether group activities can be beneficial for the social wellbeing of older adults.

This one-year longitudinal mixed methods study investigated the effect of joining a community group, offering a range of social and physical activities, on social wellbeing of adults with a mean age of 70. The study combined a quantitative survey assessing loneliness and social support ( n  = 28; three time-points, analysed using linear mixed models) and a qualitative focus group study ( n  = 11, analysed using thematic analysis) of members from Life Activities Clubs Victoria, Australia.

There was a significant reduction in loneliness ( p  = 0.023) and a trend toward an increase in social support ( p  = 0.056) in the first year after joining. The focus group confirmed these observations and suggested that social support may take longer than 1 year to develop. Focus groups also identified that group membership provided important opportunities for developing new and diverse social connections through shared interest and experience. These connections were key in improving the social wellbeing of members, especially in their sense of feeling supported or connected and less lonely. Participants agreed that increasing connections was especially beneficial following significant life events such as retirement, moving to a new house or partners becoming unwell.

Conclusions

Becoming a member of a community group offering social and physical activities may improve social wellbeing in older adults, especially following significant life events such as retirement or moving-house, where social network changes. These results indicate that ageing policy and strategies would benefit from encouraging long-term participation in social groups to assist in adapting to changes that occur in later life and optimise healthy ageing.

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Ageing population and the need to age well

Between 2015 and 2050 it is predicted that globally the number of adults over the age of 60 will more than double [ 1 ]. Increasing age is associated with a greater risk of chronic illnesses such as cardio vascular disease and cancer [ 2 ] and reduced functional capacity [ 3 , 4 ]. Consequently, an ageing population will continue to place considerable pressure on the health care systems.

However, it is also important to consider the individuals themselves and self-perceived good health is very important for the individual wellbeing and life-satisfaction of older adults [ 5 ]. The terms “successful ageing” [ 6 ] and “healthy ageing” [ 5 ] have been used to define a broader concept of ageing well, which not only includes factors relating to medically defined health but also wellbeing. Unfortunately, there is no agreed definition for what exactly constitutes healthy or successful ageing, with studies using a range of definitions. A review of 28 quantitative studies found that successful ageing was defined differently in each, with the majority only considering measures of disability or physical functioning. Social and wellbeing factors were included in only a few of the studies [ 7 ].

In contrast, qualitative studies of older adults’ opinions on successful ageing have found that while good physical and mental health and maintaining physical activity levels are agreed to assist successful ageing, being independent or doing something of value, acceptance of ageing, life satisfaction, social connectedness or keeping socially active were of greater importance [ 8 , 9 , 10 ].

In light of these findings, the definition that is most inclusive is “healthy ageing” defined by the World Health Organisation as “the process of developing and maintaining the functional ability (defined as a combination of intrinsic capacity and physical and social environmental characteristics), that enables well-being in older age” (p28) [ 5 ].This definition, and those provided in the research of older adults’ perceptions of successful ageing, highlight social engagement and social support as important factors contributing to successful ageing, in addition to being important social determinants of health [ 11 , 12 ].

Social determinants of health, including loneliness and social support, are important predictors of physical, cognitive and mental health and wellbeing in adults [ 12 ] and older adults [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Loneliness is defined as a perception of an inadequacy in the quality or quantity of one’s social relationships [ 16 ]. Social support, has various definitions but generally it relates to social relationships that are reciprocal, accessible and reliable and provide any or a combination of supportive resources (e.g. emotional, information, practical) and can be measured as perceived or received support [ 17 ]. These types of social determinants differ from those related to inequality (health gap social determinants) and are sometimes referred to as ‘social cure’ social determinants [ 11 ]. They will be referred to as ‘social wellbeing’ outcome measures in this study.

Unfortunately, with advancing age, there is often diminishing social support, leading to social isolation and loneliness [ 18 , 19 ]. Large nationally representative studies of adults and older adults reported that social activity predicted maintenance or improvement of life satisfaction as well as physical activity levels [ 20 ], however older adults spent less time in social activity than middle age adults.

Social wellbeing and health

A number of longitudinal studies have found that social isolation for older adults is a significant predictor of mortality and institutionalisation [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. A meta-analysis by Holt-Lunstadt [ 12 ] reported that social determinants of health, including social integration and social support (including loneliness and lack of perceived social support) to be equal to, or a greater risk to mortality as common behavioural risk factors such as smoking, physical inactivity and obesity. Loneliness is independently associated with poor physical and mental health in the general population, and especially in older adults [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Adequate perceived social support has also been consistently associated with improved mental and physical health in both general and older adults [ 20 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. The mechanism suggested for this association is that social support buffers the negative impacts of stressful situations and life events [ 30 ]. The above research demonstrates the benefit of social engagement for older adults; in turn this highlights the importance of strategies that reduce loneliness and improve social support and social connectedness for older adults.

Socialising in groups seems to be especially important for the health and wellbeing of older adults who may be adjusting to significant life events [ 26 , 31 , 32 , 33 ]. This is sometimes referred to as social engagement or social companionship [ 26 , 30 , 31 ]. It seems that the mechanism enabling such health benefits with group participation is through strengthening of social identification, which in turn increases social support [ 31 , 34 , 35 ]. Furthermore, involvement in community groups can be a sustainable strategy to reduce loneliness and increase social support in older adults, as they are generally low cost and run by volunteers [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 ].

Despite the demonstrated importance of social factors for successful ageing and the established risk associated with reduced social engagement as people age, few in-depth studies have longitudinally investigated the impact of community groups on social wellbeing. For example, a non-significant increase in social support and reduction in depression was found in a year-long randomised controlled trial conducted in senior centres in Norway with lonely older adults in poor physical and mental health [ 37 ]. Some qualitative studies have reported that community groups and senior centres can contribute to fun and socialisation for older adults, however social wellbeing was not the primary focus of the studies [ 38 , 40 , 41 ]. Given that social wellbeing is a broad and important area for the health and quality of life in older adults, an in-depth study is warranted to understand how it can be maximised in older adults. This mixed methods case study of an existing community aims to: i) examine whether loneliness and social support of new members of Life Activities Clubs (LACs) changes in the year after joining and ii) conduct an in-depth exploration of how social wellbeing changes in new and longer-term members of LACs.

A mixed methods study was chosen as the design for this research to enable an in-depth exploration of how loneliness and social support may change as a result of joining a community group. A case study was conducted using a concurrent mixed-methods design, with a qualitative component giving context to the quantitative results. Where the survey focused on the impact of group membership on social support and loneliness, the focus groups were an open discussion of the benefits in the lived context of LAC membership. The synthesis of the two sections of the study was undertaken at the time of interpretation of the results [ 42 ].

The two parts of our study were as follows:

a longitudinal survey (three time points over 1 year: baseline, 6 and 12 months). This part of the study formed the quantitative results;

a focus group study of members of the same organisation (qualitative).

Ethics approval to conduct this study was obtained from the Victoria University Human Research Ethics Committee (HRE14–071 [survey] and HRE15–291 [focus groups]) All participants provided informed consent to partake in the study prior to undertaking the first survey or focus group.

Setting and participants

Life activities clubs victoria.

Life Activities Clubs Victoria (LACVI) is a large not-for-profit group with 23 independently run Life Activities Clubs (LACs) based in both rural and metropolitan Victoria. It has approximately 4000 members. The organisation was established to assist in providing physical, social and recreational activities as well as education and motivational support to older adults managing significant change in their lives, especially retirement.

Eighteen out of 23 LAC clubs agreed to take part in the survey study. During the sampling period from May 2014 to December 2016, new members from the participating clubs were given information about the study and invited to take part. Invitations took place in the form of flyers distributed with new membership material.

Inclusion/ exclusion criteria

Community-dwelling older adults who self-reported that they could walk at least 100 m and who were new members to LACVI and able to complete a survey in English were eligible to participate. New members were defined as people who had never been members of LACVI or who had not been members in the last 2 years.

To ensure that the cohort of participants were of a similar functional level, people with significant health problems limiting them from being able to walk 100 m were excluded from participating in the study.

Once informed consent was received, the participants were invited to complete a self-report survey in either paper or online format (depending on preference). This first survey comprised the baseline data and the same survey was completed 6 months and 12 months after this initial time point. Participants were sent reminders if they had not completed each survey more than 2 weeks after each was delivered and then again 1 week later.

Focus groups

Two focus groups (FGs) were conducted with new and longer-term members of LACs. The first FG ( n  = 6) consisted of members who undertook physical activity in their LAC (e.g. walking groups, tennis, cycling). The second FG ( n  = 5) consisted of members who took part in activities with a non-physical activity (PA) focus (e.g. book groups, social groups, craft or cultural groups). LACs offer both social and physical activities and it was important to the study to capture both types of groups, but they were kept separate to assist participants in feeling a sense of commonality with other members and improving group dynamic and participation in the discussions [ 43 ]. Of the people who participated in the longitudinal survey study, seven also participated in the FGs.

The FG interviews were facilitated by one researcher (GLS) and notes around non-verbal communication, moments of divergence and convergence amongst group members, and other notable items were taken by a second researcher (GOS). Both researchers wrote additional notes after the focus groups and these were used in the analysis of themes. Focus groups were recorded and later transcribed verbatim by a professional transcriptionist, including identification of each participant speaking. One researcher (GLS) reviewed each transcription to check for any errors and made any required modifications before importing the transcriptions into NVivo for analysis. The transcriber identified each focus group participant so themes for individuals or other age or gender specific trends could be identified.

Dependent variables

• Social support

Social support was assessed using the Duke–UNC Functional Social support questionnaire [ 44 ]. This scale specifically measures participant perceived functional social support in two areas; i) confidant support (5 questions; e.g. chances to talk to others) and ii) affective support (3 questions; e.g. people who care about them). Participants rated each component of support on a 5-item likert scale between ‘much less than I would like’ (1 point) to ‘as much as I would like’ (5 points). The total score used for analysis was the mean of the eight scores (low social support = 1, maximum social support = 5). Construct validity, concurrent validity and discriminant validity are acceptable for confidant and affective support items in the survey in the general population [ 44 ].

Loneliness was measured using the de Jong Gierveld and UCLA-3 item loneliness scales developed for use in many populations including older adults [ 45 ]. The 11-item de Jong Gierveld loneliness scale (DJG loneliness) [ 46 ] is a multi-dimensional measure of loneliness and contains five positively worded and six negatively worded items. The items fall into four subscales; feelings of severe loneliness, feelings connected with specific problem situations, missing companionship, feelings of belongingness. The total score is the sum of the items scores (i.e. 11–55): 11 is low loneliness and 55 is severe loneliness. Self-administered versions of this scale have good internal consistency (> = 0.8) and inter-item homogeneity and person scalability that is as good or better than when conducted as face-to face interviews. The validity and reliability for the scale is adequate [ 47 ]. The UCLA 3-item loneliness scale consists of three questions about how often participants feel they lack companionship, feel left out and feel isolated. The responses are given on a three-point scale ranging from hardly ever (1) to often (3). The final score is the sum of these three items with the range being from lowest loneliness (3) to highest loneliness (9). Reliability of the scale is good, (alpha = 0.72) as are discriminant validity and internal consistency [ 48 ]. The scale is commonly used to measure loneliness with older adults ([ 49 ] – review), [ 50 , 51 ].

Sociodemographic variables

The following sociodemographic characteristics were collected in both the survey and the focus groups: age, sex, highest level of education, main life occupation [ 52 ], current employment, ability to manage on income available, present marital status, country of birth, area of residence [ 53 ]. They are categorised as indicated in Table  2 .

Health variables

The following health variables were collected: Self-rated general health (from SF-12) [ 54 ] and Functional health (ability to walk 100 m- formed part of the inclusion criteria) [ 55 ]. See Table 2 for details about the categories of these variables.

The effects of becoming a member on quantitative outcome variables (i.e. Social support, DJG loneliness and UCLA loneliness) were analysed using linear mixed models (LMM). LMM enabled testing for the presence of intra-subject random effects, or equivalently, correlation of subjects’ measures over time (baseline, 6-months and 12 months). Three correlation structures were examined: independence (no correlation), compound symmetry (constant correlation of each subjects’ measures over the three time points) and autoregressive (correlation diminishing with increase in spacing in time). The best fitting correlation structure was compound symmetry; this is equivalent to a random intercept component for each subject. The LMM incorporated longitudinal trends over time, with adjustment for age as a potential confounder. Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS for windows (v24).

UCLA loneliness and social support residuals were not normally distributed and these scales were Log10 transformed for statistical analysis.

Analyses were all adjusted for age, group attendance (calculated as average attendance at 6 and 12 months) and employment status at baseline (Full-time, Part-time, not working).

Focus group transcripts were analysed using thematic analysis [ 56 , 57 ], a flexible qualitative methodology that can be used with a variety of epistemologies, approaches and analysis methods [ 56 ]. The transcribed data were analysed using a combination of theoretical and inductive thematic analysis [ 56 ]. It was theorised that membership in a LAC would assist with social factors relating to healthy ageing [ 5 ], possibly through a social identity pathway [ 58 ], although we wanted to explore this. Semantic themes were drawn from these codes in order to conduct a pragmatic evaluation of the LACVI programs [ 56 ]. Analytic rigour in the qualitative analysis was ensured through source and analyst triangulation. Transcriptions were compared to notes taken during the focus groups by the researchers (GOS and GLS). In addition, Initial coding and themes (by GLS) were checked by a second researcher (GOS) and any disagreements regarding coding and themes were discussed prior to finalisation of codes and themes [ 57 ].

Sociodemographic and health characteristics of the 28 participants who completed the survey study are reported in Table  1 . The mean age of the participants was 66.9 and 75% were female. These demographics are representative of the entire LACVI membership. Education levels varied, with 21% being university educated, and the remainder completing high school or technical certificates. Two thirds of participants were not married. Some sociodemographic characteristics changed slightly at 6 and 12 months, mainly employment (18% in paid employment at baseline and 11% at 12-months) and ability to manage on income (36% reporting trouble managing on their income at baseline and 46% at 12 months). Almost 90% of the participants described themselves as being in good-excellent health.

Types of activities

There were a variety of types of activities that participants took part in: physical activities such as walking groups ( n  = 7), table tennis ( n  = 5), dancing class ( n  = 2), exercise class ( n  = 1), bowls ( n  = 2), golf ( n  = 3), cycling groups ( n  = 1) and non-physical leisure activities such as art and literature groups ( n  = 5), craft groups ( n  = 5), entertainment groups ( n  = 12), food/dine out groups ( n  = 18) and other sedentary leisure activities (e.g. mah jong, cards),( n  = 4). A number of people took part in more than one activity.

Frequency of attendance at LACVI and changes in social wellbeing

At six and 12 months, participants indicated how many times in the last month they attended different types of activities at their LAC. Most participants maintained the same frequency of participation over both time points. Only four people participated more frequently at 12 than at 6 months and nine reduced participation levels. The latter group included predominantly those who reduced from more than two times per week at 6 months to 2×/week at 6 months to one to two times per week ( n  = 5) or less than one time per week ( n  = 2) at 12 months. Average weekly club attendance at six and 12 months was included as a covariate in the statistical model.

Outcome measures

Overall, participants reported moderate social support and loneliness levels at baseline (See Table 2 ). Loneliness, as measured by both scales, reduced significantly over time. There was a significant effect of time on the DJG loneliness scores (F (2, 52) = 3.83, p  = 0.028), with Post-Hoc analysis indicating a reduction in DJG loneliness between baseline and 12 months ( p  = 0.008). UCLA loneliness scores (transformed variable) also changed significantly over time (F (2, 52) = 4.08, p  = 0.023). Post hoc tests indicated a reduction in UCLA loneliness between baseline and 6 months ( p  = 0.007). There was a small non-significant increase in social support (F (2, 53) =2.88, p  = 0.065) during the first year of membership (see Table 2 and Figs. 1 and 2 ).

DJG loneliness for all participants over first year of membership at LAC club ( n  = 28).

*Represents significant difference compared to baseline ( p  < 0.01)

UCLA loneliness score for all participants over first year of membership at LAC club ( n  = 28).

*Indicates log values of the variable at 6-months were significantly different from baseline ( p  < 0.01)

In total, 11 participants attended the two focus groups, six people who participated in PA clubs (four women) and five who participated in social clubs (all women). All focus group participants were either retired ( n  = 9) or semi-retired ( n  = 2). The mean age of participants was 67 years (see Table 2 for further details). Most of the participants (82%) had been members of a LAC for less than 2 years and two females in the social group had been members of LAC clubs for 5 and 10 years respectively.

Analysis of the focus group transcripts identified two themes relating to social benefits of group participation; i) Social resources and ii) Social wellbeing (see Fig. 3 ). Group discussion suggested that membership of a LAC provides access to more social resources through greater and diverse social contact and opportunity. It is through this improvement in social resources that social wellbeing may improve.

Themes arising from focus group discussion around the benefits of LAC membership

Social resources

The social resources theme referred to an increase in the availability and variety of social connections that resulted from becoming a member of a LAC. The social nature of the groups enabled an expansion and diversification of members’ social network and improved their sense of social connectedness. There was widespread agreement in both the focus groups that significant life events, especially retirement, illness or death of spouse and moving house changes one’s social resources. Membership of the LAC had benefits especially at these times and these events were often motivators to join such a club. Most participants found that their social resources declined after retirement and even felt that they were grieving for the loss of their work.

“ I just saw work as a collection of, um, colleagues as opposed to friends. I had a few good friends there. Most were simply colleagues or acquaintances …. [interviewer- Mmm.] ..Okay, you’d talk to them every day. You’d chatter in the kitchen, oh, pass banter back and forth when things are busy or quiet, but... Um, in terms of a friendship with those people, like going to their home, getting to know them, doing other things with them, very few. But what I did miss was the interaction with other people. It had simply gone….. But, yeah, look, that, the, yeah, that intervening period was, oh, a couple of months. That was a bit tough…. But in that time the people in LAC and the people in U3A…. And the other dance group just drew me into more things. Got to know more people. So once again, yeah, reasonable group of acquaintances.” (Male, PAFG)

Group members indicated general agreement with these two responses, however one female found she had a greater social life following retirement due to the busy nature of her job.

Within the social resources theme, three subthemes were identified, i) Opportunity for social connectedness, ii) Opportunity for friendships, and iii) Opportunity for social responsibility/leadership . Interestingly, these subthemes were additional to the information gathered in the survey. This emphasises the power of the inductive nature of the qualitative exploration employed in the focus groups to broaden the knowledge in this area.

The most discussed and expanded subtheme in both focus groups was Opportunity for social connectedness , which arose through developing new connections, diversifying social connections, sharing interests and experiences with others and peer learning. Participants in both focus groups stated that being a member of LAC facilitated their socialising and connecting with others to share ideas, skills and to do activities with, which was especially important through times of significant life events. Furthermore, participants in each of the focus groups valued developing diverse connections:

“ Yeah, I think, as I said, I finished up work and I, and I had more time for wa-, walking. So I think a, in meeting, in going to this group which, I saw this group of women but then someone introduced me to them. They were just meeting, just meeting a new different set of people, you know? As I said, my work people and these were just a whole different group of women, mainly women. There’s not many men. [Interviewer: Yes.]….. Although our leader is a man, which is ironic and is about, this man out in front and there’s about 20 women behind him, but, um, so yeah, and people from different walks of life and different nationalities there which I never knew in my work life, so yeah. That’s been great. So from that goes on other things, you know, you might, uh, other activities and, yeah, people for coffee and go to the pictures or something, yeah. That’s great.” (Female, PAFG)

Simply making new connections was the most widely discussed aspect related to the opportunity for social connectedness subtheme, with all participants agreeing that this was an important benefit of participation in LAC groups.

“Well, my experience is very similar to everybody else’s…….: I, I went from having no social life to a social life once I joined a group.” (Female, PAFG)

There was agreement in both focus groups that these initial new connections made at a LAC are strengthened through development of deeper personal connections with others who have similar demographics and who are interested in the same activities. This concurs with the Social Identity Theory [ 58 ] discussed previously.

“and I was walking around the lake in Ballarat, like wandering on my own. I thought, This is ridiculous. I mean, you’ve met all those groups of women coming the opposite way, so I found out what it was all about, so I joined, yeah. So that’s how I got into that.[ Interviewer: Yeah.] Basically sick of walking round the lake on my own. [Interviewer: Yeah, yeah.] So that’s great. It’s very social and they have coffee afterwards which is good.” (female, PAFG)

The subtheme Opportunity for development of friendships describes how, for some people, a number of LAC members have progressed from being just initial social connections to an established friendship. This signifies the strength of the connections that may potentially develop through LAC membership. Some participants from each group mentioned friendships developing, with slightly more discussion of this seen in the social group.

“we all have a good old chat, you know, and, and it’s all about friendship as well.” (female, SocialFG)

The subtheme Opportunity for social responsibility or leadership was mentioned by two people in the active group, however it was not brought up in the social group. This opportunity for leadership is linked with the development of a group identity and desiring to contribute meaningfully to a valued group.

“with our riding group, um, you, a leader for probably two rides a year so you’ve gotta prepare for it, so some of them do reccie rides themselves, so, um, and also every, uh, so that’s something that’s, uh, a responsibility.” (male, PAFG)

Social wellbeing

The social resources described above seem to contribute to a number of social, wellbeing outcomes for participants. The sub themes identified for Social wellbeing were , i) Increased social support, ii) Reduced loneliness, iii) Improved home relationships and iv) Improved social skills.

Increased social support

Social support was measured quantitatively in the survey (no significant change over time for new members) and identified as a benefit of LAC membership during the focus group discussions. However, only one of the members of the active group mentioned social support directly.

‘it’s nice to be able to pick up the phone and share your problem with somebody else, and that’s come about through LAC. ……‘Cos before that it was through, with my family (female, PAFG)

There was some agreement amongst participants of the PA group that they felt this kind of support may develop in time but most of them had been members for less than 2 years.

“[Interviewer: Yeah. Does anyone else have that experience? (relating to above quote)]” There is one lady but she’s actually the one that I joined with anyway. [Interviewer: Okay.] But I, I feel there are others that are definitely getting towards that stage. It’s still going quite early days. (female1, PAFG) [Interviewer: I guess it’s quite early for some of you, yeah.] “yeah” (female 2, PAFG)

Social support through sharing of skills was mentioned by one participant in the social group also, with agreement indicated by most of the others in the social focus group.

Discussion in the focus groups also touched on the subthemes Reduced loneliness and Improved home relationships, which were each mentioned by one person. And focus groups also felt that group membership Improved social skills through opening up and becoming more approachable (male, PAFG) or enabling them to become more accepting of others’ who are different (general agreement in Social FG).

This case study integrated results from a one-year longitudinal survey study and focus group discussions to gather rich information regarding the potential changes in social wellbeing that older adults may experience when joining community organisations offering group activities. The findings from this study indicate that becoming a member of such a community organisation can be associated with a range of social benefits for older adults, particularly related to reducing loneliness and maintaining social connections.

Joining a LAC was associated with a reduction in loneliness over 1 year. This finding is in line with past group-intervention studies where social activity groups were found to assist in reducing loneliness and social isolation [ 49 ]. This systematic review highlighted that the majority of the literature explored the effectiveness of group activity interventions for reducing severe loneliness or loneliness in clinical populations [ 49 ]. The present study extends this research to the general older adult population who are not specifically lonely and reported to be of good general health, rather than a clinical focus. Our findings are in contrast to results from an evaluation of a community capacity-building program aimed at reducing social isolation in older adults in rural Australia [ 59 ]. That program did not successfully reduce loneliness or improve social support. The lack of change from pre- to post-program in that study was reasoned to be due to sampling error, unstandardised data collection, and changes in sample characteristics across the programs [ 59 ]. Qualitative assessment of the same program [ 59 ] did however suggest that participants felt it was successful in reducing social isolation, which does support our findings.

Changes in loneliness were not a main discussion point of the qualitative component of the current study, however some participants did express that they felt less lonely since joining LACVI and all felt they had become more connected with others. This is not so much of a contrast in results as a potential situational issue. The lack of discussion of loneliness may have been linked to the common social stigma around experiencing loneliness outside certain accepted circumstances (e.g. widowhood), which may lead to underreporting in front of others [ 45 ].

Overall, both components of the study suggest that becoming a member of an activity group may be associated with reductions in loneliness, or at least a greater sense of social connectedness. In addition to the social nature of the groups and increased opportunity for social connections, another possible link between group activity and reduced loneliness is an increased opportunity for time out of home. Previous research has found that more time away from home in an average day is associated with lower loneliness in older adults [ 60 ]. Given the significant health and social problems that are related to loneliness and social isolation [ 13 , 14 , 15 ], the importance of group involvement for newly retired adults to prevent loneliness should be advocated.

In line with a significant reduction in loneliness, there was also a trend ( p  = 0.056) toward an increase in social support from baseline to 12 months in the survey study. Whilst suggestive of a change, it is far less conclusive than the findings for loneliness. There are a number of possible explanations for the lack of statistically significant change in this variable over the course of the study. The first is the small sample size, which would reduce the statistical power of the study. It may be that larger studies are required to observe changes in social support, which are possibly only subtle over the course of 1 year. This idea is supported by a year-long randomised controlled trial with 90 mildly-depressed older adults who attended senior citizen’s club in Norway [ 37 ]. The study failed to see any change in general social support in the intervention group compared to the control over 1 year. Additional analysis in that study suggested that people who attended the intervention groups more often, tended to have greater increases in SS ( p  = 0.08). The researchers stated that the study suffered from significant drop-out rates and low power as a result. In this way, it was similar to our findings and suggests that social support studies require larger numbers than we were able to gain in this early exploratory study. Another possible reason for small changes in SS in the current study may be the type of SS measured. The scale used gathered information around functional support or support given to individuals in times of need. Maybe it is not this type of support that changes in such groups but more specific support such as task-specific support. It has been observed in other studies and reviews that task-specific support changes as a result of behavioural interventions (e.g. PA interventions) but general support does not seem to change in the time frames often studied [ 61 , 62 , 63 ].

There were many social wellbeing benefits such as increased social connectivity identified in focus group discussion, but the specific theme of social support was rarely mentioned. It may be that general social support through such community groups may take longer than 1 year to develop. There is evidence that strong group ties are sequentially positively associated between social identification and social support [ 34 ], suggesting that the connections formed through the groups may lead increased to social support from group members in the future. This is supported by results from the focus group discussions, where one new member felt she could call on colleagues she met in her new group. Other new members thought it was too soon for this support to be available, but they could see the bonds developing.

Other social wellbeing changes

In addition to social support and loneliness that were the focus of the quantitative study, the focus group discussions uncovered a number of other benefits of group membership that were related to social wellbeing (see Fig. 3 ). The social resources theme was of particular interest because it reflected some of the mechanisms that appeared enable social wellbeing changes as a result of being a member of a LAC but were not measured in the survey. The main social resources relating to group membership that were mentioned in the focus groups were social connectedness, development of friendships and opportunity for social responsibility or leadership. As mentioned above, there was wide-spread discussion within the focus groups of the development of social connections through the clubs. Social connectedness is defined as “the sense of belonging and subjective psychological bond that people feel in relation to individuals and groups of others.” ([ 25 ], pp1). As well as being an important predecessor of social support, greater social connectedness has been found to be highly important for the health of older adults, especially cognitive and mental health [ 26 , 32 , 34 , 35 , 64 ]. One suggested theory for this health benefit is that connections developed through groups that we strongly identify with are likely to be important for the development of social identity [ 34 ], defined by Taifel as: “knowledge that [we] belong to certain social groups together with some emotional and value significance to [us] of this group membership” (Tajfel, 1972, p. 31 in [ 58 ] p 2). These types of groups to which we identify may be a source of “personal security, social companionship, emotional bonding, intellectual stimulation, and collaborative learning and……allow us to achieve goals.” ([ 58 ] p2) and an overall sense of self-worth and wellbeing. There was a great deal of discussion relating to the opportunity for social connectedness derived through group membership being particularly pertinent following a significant life event such as moving to a new house or partners becoming unwell or dying and especially retirement. This change in their social circumstance is likely to have triggered the need to renew their social identity by joining a community group. Research with university students has shown that new group identification can assist in transition for university students who have lost their old groups of friends because of starting university [ 65 ]. In an example relevant to older adults, maintenance or increase in number of group memberships at the time of retirement reduced mortality risk 8 years later compared to people who reduce their number of group activities in a longitudinal cohort study [ 66 ]. This would fit with the original Activity Theory of ageing; whereby better ageing experience is achieved when levels of social participation are maintained, and role replacement occurs when old roles (such as working roles) must be relinquished [ 67 ]. These connections therefore appear to assist in maintaining resilience in older adults defined as “the ability to maintain or improve a level of functional ability (a combination of intrinsic physical and mental capacity and environment) in the face of adversity” (p29, [ 5 ]). Factors that were mentioned in the focus groups as assisting participants in forming connections with others were shared interest, learning from others, and a fun and accepting environment. It was not possible to assess all life events in the survey study. However, since the discussion from the focus groups suggested this to be an important motivator for joining clubs and potentially a beneficial time for joining them, it would be worth exploring in future studies.

Focus group discussion suggested that an especially valuable time for joining such clubs was around retirement, to assist with maintaining social connectivity. The social groups seem to provide social activity and new roles for these older adults at times of change. It is not necessarily important for all older adults but maybe these ones identify themselves as social beings and therefore this maintenance of social connection helps to continue their social role. Given the suggested importance of social connectivity gained through this organisation, especially at times of significant life events, it would valuable to investigate this further in future and consider encouragement of such through government policy and funding. The majority of these types of clubs exist for older adults in general, but this study emphasises the need for groups such as these to target newly retired individuals specifically and to ensure that they are not seen as ‘only for old people’.

Strengths and limitations

The use of mixed –methodologies, combining longitudinal survey study analysed quantitatively, with a qualitative exploration through focus group discussions and thematic analysis, was a strength of the current study. It allowed the researchers to not only examine the association between becoming a member of a community group on social support and loneliness over an extended period, but also obtain a deeper understanding of the underlying reasons behind any associations. Given the variability of social support definitions in research [ 17 ] and the broad area of social wellbeing, it allowed for open exploration of the topic, to understand associations that may exist but would have otherwise been missed. Embedding the research in an existing community organisation was a strength, although with this also came some difficulties with recruitment. Voluntary coordination of the community groups meant that informing new members about the study was not always feasible or a priority for the volunteers. In addition, calling for new members was innately challenging because they were not yet committed to the club fully. This meant that so some people did not want to commit to a year-long study if they were not sure how long they would be a member of the club. This resulted in slow recruitment and a resulting relatively low sample size and decreased power to show significant statistical differences, which is a limitation of the present study. However, the use of Linear Mixed Models for analysis of the survey data was a strength because it was able to include all data in the analyses and not remove participants if one time point of data was missing, as repeated measures ANOVAs would do. The length of the study (1 year) is another strength, especially compared to previous randomised controlled studies that are typically only 6–16 weeks in length. Drop-out rate in the current study is very low and probably attributable to the benefits of working with long-standing organisations.

The purpose of this study was to explore in detail whether there are any relationships between joining existing community groups for older adults and social wellbeing. The lack of existing evidence in the field meant that a small feasibility-type case study was a good sounding-board for future larger scale research on the topic, despite not being able to answer questions of causality. Owing to the particularistic nature of case studies, it can also be difficult to generalise to other types of organisations or groups unless there is a great deal of similarity between them [ 68 ]. There are however, other types of community organisations in existence that have a similar structure to LACVI (Seniors centres [ 36 , 40 ], Men’s Sheds [ 38 ], University of the Third Age [ 34 , 69 ], Japanese salons [ 70 , 71 ]) and it may be that the results from this study are transferable to these also. This study adds to the literature around the benefits of joining community organisations that offer social and physical activities for older adults and suggests that this engagement may assist with reducing loneliness and maintaining social connection, especially around the time of retirement.

Directions for future research

Given that social support trended toward a significant increase, it would be useful to repeat the study on a larger scale in future to confirm this. Either a case study on a similar but larger community group or combining a number of community organisations would enable recruitment of more participants. Such an approach would also assist in assessing the generalisability of our findings to other community groups. Given that discussions around social benefits of group membership in the focus groups was often raised in conjunction with the occurrence of significant life events, it would be beneficial to include a significant life event scale in any future studies in this area. The qualitative results also suggest that it would be useful to investigate whether people who join community groups in early years post retirement gain the same social benefits as those in later stages of retirement. Studies investigating additional health benefits of these community groups such as physical activity, depression and general wellbeing would also be warranted.

With an ageing population, it is important to investigate ways to enable older adults to age successfully to ensure optimal quality of life and minimisation of health care costs. Social determinants of health such as social support, loneliness and social contact are important contributors to successful ageing through improvements in cognitive health, quality of life, reduction in depression and reduction in mortality. Unfortunately, older adults are at risk of these social factors declining in older age and there is little research investigating how best to tackle this. Community groups offering a range of activities may assist by improving social connectedness and social support and reducing loneliness for older adults. Some factors that may assist with this are activities that encourage sharing interests, learning from others, and are conducted in a fun and accepting environment. Such groups may be particularly important in developing social contacts for newly retired individuals or around other significant life events such as moving or illness of loved ones. In conclusion, ageing policy and strategies should emphasise participation in community groups especially for those recently retired, as they may assist in reducing loneliness and increasing social connections for older adults.

Abbreviations

Focus group

Life Activities Club

Life Activities Clubs Victoria

Linear mixed model

Physical activity

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The primary author contributing to this study (GLS) receives PhD scholarship funding from Victoria University. The other authors were funded through salaries at Victoria University.

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Lindsay-Smith, G., O’Sullivan, G., Eime, R. et al. A mixed methods case study exploring the impact of membership of a multi-activity, multicentre community group on social wellbeing of older adults. BMC Geriatr 18 , 226 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-018-0913-1

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Understanding the Case Study Method in Sociology

Table of Contents

Definition and purpose of case studies, types of case studies, methodological approaches in case studies.

• Advantages of Case Study Methods
• Limitations of Case Study Methods
• Applications of Case Study Methods in Sociology

The case study method is a research strategy often employed in the social sciences, including sociology, to investigate a phenomenon within its real-life context. This approach allows for a deep, multifaceted exploration of complex issues, making it an invaluable tool for sociologists. By focusing on a single case or a small number of cases, researchers can gather detailed and nuanced data, which can then be used to develop or test theories. This essay will provide an overview of the case study method, its applications, advantages, and limitations, and illustrate how it can be used effectively in sociological research.

Understanding Case Studies

A case study is an in-depth examination of a single instance or event—a ‘case’—which could be an individual, group, organization, community, or even a nation. The case study method is not confined to a particular type of data collection or analysis but rather encompasses a variety of techniques to gather comprehensive information about the case in question. This method is particularly useful for studying phenomena in their natural settings, allowing researchers to capture the complexities and intricacies of social life.

Purpose and Importance

The primary purpose of a case study is to gain a deep understanding of the subject under investigation. Case studies are particularly effective in exploring new or under-researched areas where the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. They enable researchers to explore the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions, providing insights that might not be achievable through other research methods. By focusing on specific instances, case studies can reveal the underlying mechanisms and processes that drive social phenomena, offering rich, qualitative insights that can inform broader sociological theories and practices.

Exploratory Case Studies

Exploratory case studies are conducted to identify research questions and hypotheses for further study. They are often the preliminary step in a research project, providing a basis for developing more detailed research plans. These case studies are useful for gathering initial data and insights, which can help shape the direction of future research.

Descriptive Case Studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a detailed, accurate account of the case under investigation. These studies focus on describing the characteristics and context of the case, often with the goal of illustrating the application of theories in real-life scenarios. Descriptive case studies are valuable for presenting a comprehensive picture of the phenomenon, enabling a better understanding of its complexity.

Explanatory Case Studies

Explanatory case studies are used to explore causation and uncover the underlying mechanisms of a phenomenon. These studies seek to explain the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions, providing insights into the causal relationships and processes at play. Explanatory case studies are particularly useful in testing hypotheses and theories, offering a detailed examination of the factors that contribute to a specific outcome.

Intrinsic Case Studies

Intrinsic case studies are conducted when the researcher has a genuine interest in the case itself, rather than in generalizing findings to other cases. These studies focus on understanding the unique aspects and significance of the specific case, often highlighting its distinctiveness and individuality. Intrinsic case studies are valuable for exploring cases that are particularly unusual or noteworthy, providing insights that might not be applicable to other contexts.

Instrumental Case Studies

Instrumental case studies are conducted to gain a broader understanding of a particular issue or phenomenon. The case is used as a tool to provide insights into a larger question or theory. In these studies, the case itself is of secondary interest, serving as a means to an end. Instrumental case studies are useful for illustrating broader theoretical concepts and for drawing generalizable conclusions from specific instances.

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This chapter reviews the strengths and limitations of case study as a research method in social sciences. It provides an account of an evidence base to justify why a case study is best suitable for some research questions and why not for some other research questions. Case study designing around the research context, defining the structure and modality, conducting the study, collecting the data through triangulation mode, analysing the data, and interpreting the data and theory building at the end give a holistic view of it. In addition, the chapter also focuses on the types of case study and when and where to use case study as a research method in social science research.

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Channaveer, R.M., Baikady, R. (2022). Case Study. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_21

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Conducting Case Study Research in Sociology

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A case study is a research method that relies on a single case rather than a population or sample. When researchers focus on a single case, they can make detailed observations over a long period of time, something that cannot be done with large samples without costing a lot of money. Case studies are also useful in the early stages of research when the goal is to explore ideas, test, and perfect measurement instruments, and to prepare for a larger study. The case study research method is popular not just within ​the field of sociology, but also within the fields of anthropology, psychology, education, political science, clinical science, social work, and administrative science.

Overview of the Case Study Research Method

A case study is unique within the social sciences for its focus of study on a single entity, which can be a person, group or organization, event, action, or situation. It is also unique in that, as a focus of research, a case is chosen for specific reasons, rather than randomly , as is usually done when conducting empirical research. Often, when researchers use the case study method, they focus on a case that is exceptional in some way because it is possible to learn a lot about social relationships and social forces when studying those things that deviate from norms. In doing so, a researcher is often able, through their study, to test the validity of the social theory, or to create new theories using the grounded theory method .

The first case studies in the social sciences were likely conducted by Pierre Guillaume Frédéric Le Play, a 19th-century French sociologist and economist who studied family budgets. The method has been used in sociology, psychology, and anthropology since the early 20th century.

Within sociology, case studies are typically conducted with qualitative research methods . They are considered micro rather than macro in nature , and one cannot necessarily generalize the findings of a case study to other situations. However, this is not a limitation of the method, but a strength. Through a case study based on ethnographic observation and interviews, among other methods, sociologists can illuminate otherwise hard to see and understand social relations, structures, and processes. In doing so, the findings of case studies often stimulate further research.

Types and Forms of Case Studies

There are three primary types of case studies: key cases, outlier cases, and local knowledge cases.

• Key cases are those which are chosen because the researcher has ​a particular interest in it or the circumstances surrounding it.
• Outlier cases are those that are chosen because the case stands out from other events, organizations, or situations, for some reason, and social scientists recognize that we can learn a lot from those things that differ from the norm .
• Finally, a researcher may decide to conduct a local knowledge case study when they already have amassed a usable amount of information about a given topic, person, organization, or event, and so is well-poised to conduct a study of it.

Within these types, a case study may take four different forms: illustrative, exploratory, cumulative, and critical.

• Illustrative case studies are descriptive in nature and designed to shed light on a particular situation, set of circumstances, and the social relations and processes that are embedded in them. They are useful in bringing to light something about which most people are not aware of.
• Exploratory case studies are also often known as pilot studies . This type of case study is typically used when a researcher wants to identify research questions and methods of study for a large, complex study. They are useful for clarifying the research process, which can help a researcher make the best use of time and resources in the larger study that will follow it.
• Cumulative case studies are those in which a researcher pulls together already completed case studies on a particular topic. They are useful in helping researchers to make generalizations from studies that have something in common.
• Critical instance case studies are conducted when a researcher wants to understand what happened with a unique event and/or to challenge commonly held assumptions about it that may be faulty due to a lack of critical understanding.

Whatever type and form of case study you decide to conduct, it's important to first identify the purpose, goals, and approach for conducting methodologically sound research.

• Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic
• Convenience Samples for Research
• What Is a Snowball Sample in Sociology?
• What Is Ethnography?
• Understanding Cohorts and How to Use Them in Research
• How to Understand Interpretive Sociology
• Understanding Purposive Sampling
• What Is a Quota Sample in Sociology?
• Pilot Study in Research
• Understanding Secondary Data and How to Use It in Research
• All About Marxist Sociology
• Definition of a Hypothesis
• Defining Unobtrusive Measures in Sociology Experiments
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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

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• Group Presentations
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• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
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• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
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• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

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• Volume 21, Issue 1
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• Roberta Heale 1 ,
• Alison Twycross 2
• 1 School of Nursing , Laurentian University , Sudbury , Ontario , Canada
• 2 School of Health and Social Care , London South Bank University , London , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Roberta Heale, School of Nursing, Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON P3E2C6, Canada; rheale{at}laurentian.ca

https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2017-102845

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What is it?

Case study is a research methodology, typically seen in social and life sciences. There is no one definition of case study research. 1 However, very simply… ‘a case study can be defined as an intensive study about a person, a group of people or a unit, which is aimed to generalize over several units’. 1 A case study has also been described as an intensive, systematic investigation of a single individual, group, community or some other unit in which the researcher examines in-depth data relating to several variables. 2

Often there are several similar cases to consider such as educational or social service programmes that are delivered from a number of locations. Although similar, they are complex and have unique features. In these circumstances, the evaluation of several, similar cases will provide a better answer to a research question than if only one case is examined, hence the multiple-case study. Stake asserts that the cases are grouped and viewed as one entity, called the quintain . 6  ‘We study what is similar and different about the cases to understand the quintain better’. 6

The steps when using case study methodology are the same as for other types of research. 6 The first step is defining the single case or identifying a group of similar cases that can then be incorporated into a multiple-case study. A search to determine what is known about the case(s) is typically conducted. This may include a review of the literature, grey literature, media, reports and more, which serves to establish a basic understanding of the cases and informs the development of research questions. Data in case studies are often, but not exclusively, qualitative in nature. In multiple-case studies, analysis within cases and across cases is conducted. Themes arise from the analyses and assertions about the cases as a whole, or the quintain, emerge. 6

Benefits and limitations of case studies

If a researcher wants to study a specific phenomenon arising from a particular entity, then a single-case study is warranted and will allow for a in-depth understanding of the single phenomenon and, as discussed above, would involve collecting several different types of data. This is illustrated in example 1 below.

Using a multiple-case research study allows for a more in-depth understanding of the cases as a unit, through comparison of similarities and differences of the individual cases embedded within the quintain. Evidence arising from multiple-case studies is often stronger and more reliable than from single-case research. Multiple-case studies allow for more comprehensive exploration of research questions and theory development. 6

Despite the advantages of case studies, there are limitations. The sheer volume of data is difficult to organise and data analysis and integration strategies need to be carefully thought through. There is also sometimes a temptation to veer away from the research focus. 2 Reporting of findings from multiple-case research studies is also challenging at times, 1 particularly in relation to the word limits for some journal papers.

Examples of case studies

Example 1: nurses’ paediatric pain management practices.

One of the authors of this paper (AT) has used a case study approach to explore nurses’ paediatric pain management practices. This involved collecting several datasets:

Observational data to gain a picture about actual pain management practices.

Questionnaire data about nurses’ knowledge about paediatric pain management practices and how well they felt they managed pain in children.

Questionnaire data about how critical nurses perceived pain management tasks to be.

These datasets were analysed separately and then compared 7–9 and demonstrated that nurses’ level of theoretical did not impact on the quality of their pain management practices. 7 Nor did individual nurse’s perceptions of how critical a task was effect the likelihood of them carrying out this task in practice. 8 There was also a difference in self-reported and observed practices 9 ; actual (observed) practices did not confirm to best practice guidelines, whereas self-reported practices tended to.

Example 2: quality of care for complex patients at Nurse Practitioner-Led Clinics (NPLCs)

The other author of this paper (RH) has conducted a multiple-case study to determine the quality of care for patients with complex clinical presentations in NPLCs in Ontario, Canada. 10 Five NPLCs served as individual cases that, together, represented the quatrain. Three types of data were collected including:

Review of documentation related to the NPLC model (media, annual reports, research articles, grey literature and regulatory legislation).

Interviews with nurse practitioners (NPs) practising at the five NPLCs to determine their perceptions of the impact of the NPLC model on the quality of care provided to patients with multimorbidity.

Chart audits conducted at the five NPLCs to determine the extent to which evidence-based guidelines were followed for patients with diabetes and at least one other chronic condition.

The three sources of data collected from the five NPLCs were analysed and themes arose related to the quality of care for complex patients at NPLCs. The multiple-case study confirmed that nurse practitioners are the primary care providers at the NPLCs, and this positively impacts the quality of care for patients with multimorbidity. Healthcare policy, such as lack of an increase in salary for NPs for 10 years, has resulted in issues in recruitment and retention of NPs at NPLCs. This, along with insufficient resources in the communities where NPLCs are located and high patient vulnerability at NPLCs, have a negative impact on the quality of care. 10

These examples illustrate how collecting data about a single case or multiple cases helps us to better understand the phenomenon in question. Case study methodology serves to provide a framework for evaluation and analysis of complex issues. It shines a light on the holistic nature of nursing practice and offers a perspective that informs improved patient care.

• Gustafsson J
• Calanzaro M
• Sandelowski M

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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A Systems View Across Time and Space

• Open access
• Published: 12 September 2024

Transforming rural women’s lives in India: the impact of microfinance and entrepreneurship on empowerment in Self-Help Groups

• Ashwini Pandhare   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1894-1207 1 ,
• Praveen Naik Bellampalli   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7888-2101 2 &
• Neelam Yadava   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5027-4104 1  

Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship volume  13 , Article number:  62 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

The study investigates how microfinance interventions and the entrepreneurial engagement of Self-Help Group (SHGs) members impact women’s social and economic empowerment in rural communities. The study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data analysis and qualitative insights gathered through surveys, interviews, and case studies. The study’s findings demonstrated a notably positive and moderately significant impact of microfinance and entrepreneurial engagement on the social, economic, and psychological dimensions of women’s empowerment. Furthermore, the inclusion of case studies provided evidence that microfinance activities and entrepreneurship involvement have substantially empowered women across various domains, such as increasing financial independence, enhancing participation in decision-making processes, fostering social networks and support, and boosting their overall self-confidence and well-being. These insights emphasise the transformative potential of microfinance initiatives in advancing gender equality and women’s empowerment in diverse socio-economic contexts.

Introduction

Microfinance activities in India are experiencing significant growth and have absorbed the interest of both corporate and financial institutions due to their remarkable effectiveness in addressing poverty (Sinha et al., 2012 ). Significantly, the approach towards Self-Help Groups (SHGs) has evolved as an essential means to provide microcredit to impoverished rural women, enabling them to engage in entrepreneurial activities effectively (Ghosh, 2012 ; Laha & Kuri, 2014 ). These programs have gained international recognition as a subsector of the economic system, primarily for their ability to combat poverty and alleviate rural unemployment. In emerging economies, there is a concerted effort to enhance credit access and promote the mobilisation of microfinancing, thereby encouraging greater participation in Self-Help Groups (SHGs) (Joshi, 2019 ; Ray, 2008 ). The growth of women entrepreneurs acts as a substance for women’s empowerment (Deka, 2018 ). Empowerment of women as their socio-economic development is crucial for ensuring sustainable economic growth. The Constitution of India, in Article 14, guarantees the right to equality for all citizens, which is vital for achieving sustainable development. Although there has been a noticeable increase in women’s participation in the labour force, according to the Periodic Labour Survey of India, in 2017, women’s labour force participation was 23.3%, and in 2022–23, it increased to 37%. It shows the positive trend of Women’s labour force participation in the last 6 years. Also, economically empowered women still encounter numerous personal, societal, and organizational barriers that hinder their career advancement (Ghosh et al., 2023 ).

Women across the globe are disproportionately affected by poverty and frequently lack access to essential services, including healthcare, clean water, sanitation, and education. Moreover, women’s labour is often undervalued and goes unpaid, perpetuating economic inequalities. Tragically, women also endure various forms of violence, further exacerbating their vulnerable position in society. These pressing issues highlight the urgent need to address gender disparities and ensure that women have equal access to resources, opportunities, and protection from violence (United Nations, 2015 ). Microfinance initiatives have primarily focused on empowering women for several reasons. Women often face significant barriers in accessing credit to establish micro or small enterprises, especially in male-dominated societies where their roles are traditionally confined to household responsibilities (Chant, 2014 ; Khan et al., 2020 ). Microfinance is widely recognised and significantly contributes to rural transformation in India through various channels. It has successfully mobilised small savings at a lower cost from rural poor individuals with limited education, who were previously excluded from the formal banking system (Srikanth et al., 2022 ). Moreover, it has provided microcredit to low-income families without requiring security, enabling them to explore new livelihood opportunities and overcome short-term financial crises. Consequently, the accessibility of credit has enhanced the sustainability of livelihoods for the rural poor. Most importantly, microfinance has assisted the ultra-poor in fulfilling their most essential needs and safeguarding them against livelihood risks (Banerjee & Duflo, 2011 ).

The current state of development studies reflects both fortunes and misfortunes. The definition of sustainable development, popularised by the Brundtland Commission Report, remains vague and elusive despite its foundational principles. This ambiguity leads to varied interpretations, undermining a proper understanding of the term. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) attempt to refine the concept but still grapple with imprecision, particularly regarding economic sustainability and gross domestic product GDP growth. As part of sustainable development, microfinance aims to empower low-income communities by providing financial services, fostering economic stability, and enabling environmental sustainability through local enterprises. The integration of microfinance in sustainable development discourse highlights the potential for a balanced approach to societal growth (Manioudis & Meramveliotakis, 2022 ). Additionally, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are critical for sustainable development, representing about 90% of businesses globally and employing over 50% of the workforce. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has severely impacted SMEs, with significant revenue losses and threats to their survival. For example, 41% of United Kingdom (UK) SMEs ceased operations in May 2020, and Spain saw a 43% decline in SMEs. About 25–36% of small businesses could permanently close within the first four months of the pandemic (Meramveliotakis & Manioudis, 2021 ).

Microfinance and women empowerment

Microfinance and Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have gained significant support from various developing countries as a powerful tool to combat poverty and enhance gender equality (Garikipati, 2012 ). These initiatives have been widely contained as effective strategies to empower individuals, particularly women, by providing them with access to financial services, resources, and skills training. Through microfinance and SHGs, marginalised individuals are able to out of from the cycle of poverty, create sustainable livelihoods, and actively participate in economic and social development, thereby fostering greater gender equality and inclusive growth (Ghosh, 2012 ; Deininger & Liu, 2013 ; Unni et al., 2021 ) Microfinance empowers women by bringing about transformative changes in household decision-making and enhancing their bargaining power (Swain & Wallentin, 2012 ). Despite India’s ongoing economic growth, gender inequality continues to persist. Women comprise nearly 48% of India’s total population and are significantly underrepresented in the employment market, comprising only 20.5% of the workforce. Out of this, 60% of women are engaged in agricultural and related sectors (Ghosh et al., 2023 ; Madgavkar et al., 2019 ).

Self-Help Groups (SHGs) significantly impact the entrepreneurship and empowerment of rural women in India. These groups provide a platform for women to come together, identify their resources, and engage in various economic activities. SHGs have been recognised as an effective means of promoting women’s empowerment and reducing poverty in rural areas (Rajagopal, 2020 ). Another study pointed out that women’s participation in microfinance activities contributes to both social change and empowerment, as it liberates them from the confines of their homes and enhances their economic roles. These programs operate on a group-based model, under the idea that women’s collective engagement promotes greater empowerment compared to individuals. By providing access to essential financial support like savings and loans, women are empowered to establish new economic ventures or expand existing ones, resulting in increased income opportunities (Osmani, 1998 ; Sahu, 2014 ). Microfinance through SHGs, women can experience significant improvements in their standard of living, social status, and decision-making within households, overcoming limitations in households (Kumar et al., 2021 ). Moreover, microfinance activities have predominantly focused on women as the primary target group due to their strong repayment performance and positive impact on family welfare (Sinha et al., 2012 ). The participation of women in these programs has led to remarkable improvements in household consumption, increased income, and savings, which has consequently led to a significant reduction in poverty within these households (Khan et al., 2022 ).

The Sustainable Development Goal ensures inclusive and sustainable progress, leaving no one behind; the fifth goal is “Gender Equality”, which addresses various women’s issues and problems. Women face discrimination, inequality, sexual abuse and exploitation, unfair labour and wage distribution, and unpaid domestic work, all of which are examples of human rights violations. Several indicators have been proposed to measure gender equality in relation to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These indicators include eliminating all forms of violence against women, ending discrimination against women and girls in all its manifestations, eradicating harmful practices and domestic work, promoting women’s participation and ensuring equal opportunities for leadership and decision-making in political, economic and access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property (UNDP, 2019 ). However, the community-based sustainable business model led to the economic, social, and cultural empowerment of rural women engaged in entrepreneurial activities (Haugh & Talwar, 2014 ; Ghosh et al., 2023 ). Through involvement in entrepreneurship, women experienced significant improvements in intra-household power relations, resulting in reduced male dependency (Hazarika & Goswami, 2016 ; Kumari & Eguruze, 2021 ).

Rationale and objectives of the study

The study exclusively focuses on the socio-cultural context of rural areas in developing countries, which has been less explored in the existing literature. Additionally, the study incorporates a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data with qualitative interviews, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of microfinance on women’s social inclusion. This methodological approach adds a new dimension to the scholarship by capturing both the measurable outcomes and the personal experiences of the women involved. The state of Maharashtra heavily relies on the agriculture and allied sectors, employing more than 70% of its population. However, the Osmanabad district faces challenges in terms of limited employment opportunities and a lack of entrepreneurial mindset development, leading to low participation rates (Swayam Shikhan Prayog (SSP), 2021 ). Women, who form a substantial part of the labour force in these sectors, encounter difficulties in starting and sustaining entrepreneurial activities due to inadequate marketing skills and financial management knowledge. To address this issue, the study explores the role of Self-Help Groups and microfinance activities in empowering women to engage in small enterprise activities within the district. This research also seeks to understand the impact of women’s entrepreneurial activities and assess their potential to enhance economic growth and opportunities for women in the region.

Research method

The study aims to explore and analyse the influence of microfinance interventions and the engagement of entrepreneurship exhibited by Self-Help Groups (SHGs) members on women’s social and economic empowerment in the Osmanabad district of Maharashtra, India. The methodology employed a mixed-method approach, utilising quantitative and qualitative research techniques to understand the subject matter comprehensively. A structured interview schedule was used to gather primary data, and interviews were conducted with 150 women who are active members of SHGs registered under the Maharashtra Rural Livelihood Mission. These SHGs were purposively selected from three blocks in Osmanabad district: Osmanabad, Tuljapur, and Kalamb. The selection was based on their higher concentration of bank-linked SHGs and access to significant bank loans, which would allow for a better assessment of the impact of microfinance interventions.

In the first stage, 15 SHGs groups were identified, each comprising 10 women, resulting in a total of 150 participants. Simple random sampling techniques were used to ensure a fair population representation and minimise bias in the selection process. In the second stage, the selected women were actively involved in entrepreneurial activities, indicating a strong entrepreneurial trait among the participants. This step examined the correlation between entrepreneurship and women’s empowerment in rural communities. In the third stage, five SHGs groups were selected from each of the three blocks based on the high levels of observed entrepreneurship activities. This selection process allowed the researchers to focus on groups significantly impacting women’s empowerment through entrepreneurial initiatives. A descriptive design was employed to assess the impact of the microfinance activities and entrepreneurship activities facilitated by SHGs on women’s empowerment. Through this design, the researchers could gain a detailed understanding of the current situation, trends, and relationships among the variables under investigation. In addition to the quantitative approach, the study integrated a qualitative approach to gain deeper insights into the impact of entrepreneurship and microfinance interventions on women’s empowerment. Various qualitative research tools such as in-depth interviews, observations, and case studies were used to collect comprehensive data and enhance the understanding of the situation of entrepreneurial women.

By combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies, the study aims to provide a holistic analysis of the interplay between microfinance interventions, entrepreneurial engagement, and women’s resulting social and economic empowerment in the Osmanabad district. Secondary data were also gathered from multiple sources, including books, journals, websites, block offices, and regional offices of the Maharashtra Rural Livelihood Mission. These additional sources of information add depth and context to the study’s findings and allow for an implication of the research problem. Using a mixed-method approach and carefully selecting SHGs and participants contribute to the study’s robustness and reliability. The focus on the Osmanabad district of Maharashtra provides valuable insights into the specific context of rural women’s empowerment in the region (Fig. 1 ).

(Source: Developed by a researcher by using GIS software, 2022)

Location map

As of the 2011 census, the Osmanabad district’s population in Maharashtra is 16.60 lakhs (1.66 million). Out of this total population, there are 8.64 lakhs (0.86 million) males and 7.96 lakhs (0.79 million) females. The district has a significant rural population of 13.79 lakhs (1.38 million), while the urban population is 2.81 lakhs (0.28 million). The district’s literacy rate is reported to be 76.33%. The district is known for its warm and dry climate, with temperatures dropping to around 11 °C in winters and reaching up to 43 °C during summers. The region experiences rainfall primarily during the southwest monsoon from June to October, with an average rainfall of 600–700 mm (Census of India, 2011 ).

Table 1 provides a brief profile and socio-economic status of women belonging to Self-Help Groups (SHGs) who actively engage in entrepreneurial activities. In terms of category, the table shows the distribution of women across different categories. Scheduled Caste women account for 45.3% of the respondents, followed by Other Backward Classes (42.0%), Scheduled Tribe (8.7%), and General (4.0%). The p-values indicate the statistical significance of the differences observed among the categories. The education qualification of the SHG women is also provided. Notably, 8.0% of the women are illiterate, while the majority have completed primary (42.7%) or secondary education (38.0%). A smaller proportion has attained higher secondary education (11.3%). The p -values indicate significant differences in educational attainment among the groups.

The table further presents the age distribution of the women. The largest group consists of women aged 21–30 (50.7%), followed by those aged 31–40 (31.3%), and 20 and below (15.3%). A small percentage of women falls in the 41–50 age range (2.7%). The p-values suggest significant variations in age distribution among the age groups. Land ownership is another aspect considered in the table. Most women (54.0%) own land in the 1.01–2 acres range, while 43.3% own 0–1 acre. A small proportion (2.7%) possesses land in the 2.01–3 acres range. The type of family is also indicated, with 92.0% of the women belonging to nuclear families and only 8.0% in joint families. This distribution shows a significant difference, as denoted by the p-value. The ration card status of the SHGs women is majority (68.7%) falls under the Below Poverty Line (BPL) category, followed by Above Poverty Line (APL) (8.7%) and Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) (22.7%). The p -values indicate significant differences in ration card status. The women’s income source is categorised into agricultural land, agriculture labour work, and livestock/other activities. The highest proportion (56.7%) derives income from agricultural labour work, while 30.0% depend on agricultural land. A smaller percentage (13.3%) engages in livestock and other activities.

The table also displays the distribution of yearly family income. The largest group (53.3%) has an income in the range of 60,001–90,000 rupees, followed by 29.3% with 60,000 rupees and below. Smaller proportions fall in higher income brackets, with the lowest group (3.3%) having an income of 150,001 rupees and above. The p -values indicate significant differences in income distribution among the groups. The data indicate a comprehensive overview of the profile and socio-economic status of SHG women. The percentages, proportions, and p -values allow for a comparative analysis of the different components, highlighting significant variations in the data.

Tables 2 , 3 presents data on women’s involvement in entrepreneurship activities across different blocks, including tailoring, dairy farming, food processing, goat farming, poultry, and grocery/fruit shop. In the block of Osmanabad, most women are involved in dairy farming (15 women, 25.4%), and the lowest is in the grocery/fruit shop (7 women, 11.9%). In Kalamb, the most significant participation is in the grocery/fruit shop (12 women, 27.3%), while the least is in Tuljapur for tailoring (3 women, 6.4%). Looking at the overall representation for all the blocks combined, dairy farming has the highest number of women participants (36 women, 24.0%), while tailoring has the lowest (17 women, 11.3%). It is evident from the data that women are actively participating in various entrepreneurial activities in the region. Dairy farming is the most popular choice, while grocery/fruit shops also attract many women entrepreneurs. Tailoring, on the other hand, appears to be less preferred overall. The data highlight the diverse economic pursuits of women in these blocks, contributing to local economic development and empowerment.

Successful case studies on entrepreneurial activities

This research presents two successful case studies demonstrating the connection between entrepreneurial activities and women’s empowerment. The case stories shed light on the transformative impact of women’s entrepreneurship on their social and economic empowerment.

The case study highlights the transformative journey and involvement in the SHG and how this helped to break free from poverty and dependency. The narrative emphasises entrepreneurial growth, increased decision-making power, improved communication skills, and enhanced self-esteem.

My name is Jalaja (name changed), a 42-year-old residing in the Osmanabad block. I had been struggling to make ends meet and manage income through wage work before I joined the SHG program, with no hope of a better livelihood. However, my life took a positive turn when I heard about the formation of the SHG and decided to become a member. Upon joining the SHG and other women from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, we saved 50 rupees each week. After a few weeks, all members had saved around 20,000 rupees. Within a year, the SHG became eligible for bank loans, and I obtained a 50,000 rupees loan. With financial support from bank loans, I officially established a tailoring business, employing two other women from my own community. I specialise in cutting clothes and stitching work. This small business allowed me to balance my household responsibilities while pursuing my entrepreneurial goals. The income generated from my business enabled me to contribute to household expenses and provide for my children’s education, including school fees.

Participating in the SHG program empowered me to have a voice in household decision-making, a pleasure I had been denied previously. I also experienced a significant improvement in my communication skills, both within my family and while interacting with customers, including officials in the SHG program. Before joining the SHG, I felt unable to express myself confidently, but the SHG group prepared me with the knowledge of signing documents and enhanced my overall literacy skills. My involvement in the SHG program granted me the freedom to move freely, visit my maternal home, and engage in public meetings. The program helped me recognise the importance of mobility in contributing to the overall betterment of my household and community.

-Break free from poverty and dependency

My name is Savitri (name changed), and I am a resident of Kalamb block. I joined the Self-Help Group (SHG) program 2 years ago. With the program’s support and guidance, our group successfully transitioned to formal financial services and gained eligibility for bank loans. I obtained bank loans amounting to 75,000 rupees. Utilising space in my house, I built a cattle-rearing shed and effectively managed eight cattle. I sell cattle milk in the local dairy while efficiently managing my household chores. As a result, I now earn a stable income, meet personal expenses such as clothing and food, and even invest in gold.

Moreover, I contribute to overall household expenses. I acknowledge the significant impact of my participation in the SHG group, empowering me to overcome anxiety and tension. Reflecting on my situation before joining the SHG, I realize that my husband worked as a labourer, and our earnings were insufficient. I hesitated to request personal expenditures as his income barely covered our household expenses. However, now I cannot only support myself but also provide for my children and cover the entire household expenditure.

Before joining the SHG, my financial activities were limited, and I was unfamiliar with markets, banks, and interacting with outsiders. However, since joining the SHG group, my circumstances have transformed. I now move freely, explore local markets, visit banks, hospitals, and various places. I gained confidence in interacting with people without fear. My status within and outside the home has improved, and now I consider myself an essential and valued household member. I also expressed that I was never consulted on any matter at home and felt like an unworthy family member. But now, I attend public and panchayat meetings without any restrictions despite being initially unfamiliar with such gatherings. I can freely go wherever I feel. Most importantly, I have overcome feelings of loneliness by engaging and interacting with fellow group members. I hope to continue my association with the SHG group and aim to expand my cattle-rearing shed further, motivated for even greater success in my entrepreneurial activities.

-Overcome anxiety and tension

The presented case studies are persuasive evidence of the positive impact of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) on women’s empowerment and entrepreneurial success in the district. Through the transformative journeys of Jalaja and Savitri, it becomes evident that the SHGs program has been instrumental in breaking the chains of poverty and dependency, providing a platform for women to become financially independent and assertive decision-makers in their households. These case studies underscore the pivotal role of SHGs in providing women with access to financial resources, training, and a supportive community, enabling them to pursue entrepreneurial activities and overcome social barriers. The SHGs program has proven effective for women’s economic and socio-cultural empowerment, fostering an environment where they can thrive as entrepreneurs and leaders in their communities.

Table 4 provides information on the viewpoints of women who have joined Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and engaging in entrepreneurial activities, specifically regarding their income and savings status before and after joining the SHGs and entrepreneurial activities. Before joining the SHG and engaging in entrepreneurial activities, the minimum monthly income reported by the women was rupees 500, while the maximum was rupees 3000. On average, the women reported a mean monthly income of rupees 1860.33, with a standard deviation of rupees 556.63. This indicates that the income levels varied among the respondents, with some earning as high as rupees 500.00 and others earning as low as rupees 3000. After joining the SHGs and entrepreneurial activities, the minimum monthly income increased to rupees 1000.00, and the maximum increased to rupees 3200.00. The average monthly income reported by the women after joining the SHGs was rupees 2484.00, with a standard deviation of rupees 449.47. This suggests that, on average, the women experienced an increase in their monthly income after joining the SHGs and engaging in entrepreneurial activities.

Similarly, before joining the SHGs and engaging in entrepreneurial activities, the women reported a minimum monthly saving of rupees 500 and a maximum of rupees 2500. The mean monthly saving was rupees 1140.33, with a standard deviation of rupees 388.40. This indicates that the savings varied among the respondents, with some saving as much as rupees 500.00 and others saving as lesser as rupees 2500. After joining the SHGs and engaging in entrepreneurial activities, the minimum monthly saving increased to rupees 1000, while the maximum increased to rupees 2800. The average monthly saving reported by the women after joining the SHGs and engaging in entrepreneurial activities was rupees 642.00, with a standard deviation of rupees 376.18. This suggests that, on average, the women experienced an increase in their monthly savings after joining the SHGs and engaging in entrepreneurial activities. So, the data reveal that the women who joined the SHGs and engaging entrepreneurial activities experienced an improvement in both their income and savings status. Their average monthly income and savings increased after joining the SHGs and engaging in entrepreneurial activities, indicating the potential positive impact of SHGs on the financial well-being of women. However, it resulted in microfinance extending economic opportunities to women, offering avenues for micro-entrepreneurship or self-employment, ultimately elevating their standard of living (Khandelwal, 2007 ). Most notably, self-employment in micro-enterprises substantially enhances women’s economic empowerment, contrasting other employment alternatives (Senapati & Ojha, 2019 ).

Women empowerment dimensions

The studies argued that microfinance activities and engaging in entrepreneurial activities play a significant role in enlarging a woman’s decision-making power within her household, increasing her control over household resources, and expanding her physical mobility beyond the confines of her home (Amin & Pebley, 1994 ). Furthermore, it is suggested that access to loans diminishes the likelihood of women experiencing abandonment. By granting women the opportunity to secure loans, they gain a greater sense of financial stability and independence, which can serve as a protective factor against abandonment (Rajasekhar, 2000 ). The various empowerment dimensions are given in Table  5 .

In terms of the social factor, the focus is on promoting women's social liberation, which entails encouraging freedom and equality in social interactions. This can be achieved through increased public interaction, eliminating gender discrimination, enhancing decision-making power, fostering social support networks, and facilitating skill development. Similarly, the economic dimension emphasises empowering women through financial independence. This involves granting women control over household income, encouraging independent savings, enabling women’s participation in household purchasing decisions, enhancing their ability to access loans, and promoting property and land ownership. Furthermore, the ability to generate income and save through microfinance access enlarges women's bargaining power within households, strengthening their position in the households (Ghosh & Neogi, 2018 ; Swain & Wallentin, 2012 ). Engaging in entrepreneurial activities adds to the family income and enhances women’s capabilities, decision-making abilities, and overall status within the family and society (Nziku & Henry, 2020 ). The psychological factor centres on empowering women’s mental and emotional freedom. This can be achieved by fostering a positive sense of independence and freedom to choose, enhancing self-confidence, developing a sense of leadership, and helping women overcome gender stereotypes and biases. Similarly, the study identified in the in-depth interview's there has been a notable rise in self-confidence among female entrepreneurs, evident in their assertive expression of opinions during interactions with various individuals, whether male strangers or female acquaintances (Panta & Thapa, 2017 ). So, the indicators contribute to a holistic approach to women’s empowerment, encompassing social, economic, and psychological aspects. By addressing these dimensions, societies can work towards creating an environment that enables women to lead fulfilling and empowered lives.

Table 6 provides a correlation matrix that examines the relationships between entrepreneurial intervention and various factors related to empowerment.

The first section explores the correlations between Entrepreneurial intervention and social factors. The values in the table represent the strength and direction of these correlations. Notably, all correlations between Entrepreneurial Intervention and social factors are positive. This suggests that as Entrepreneurial Intervention increases, so do these social factors. The highest positive correlation is found with “Decision-Making Power (DMP)”, which has a correlation coefficient of 0.353. This indicates that individuals with higher levels of Entrepreneurial Intervention tend to have greater decision-making power. This section’s Cronbach’s Alpha values indicate good internal consistency reliability for the variables, ranging from 0.830 to 0.913.

In the second section, the table examines the correlations between Entrepreneurial Intervention and economic factors. Similar to the social factors, the correlations are generally positive. The strongest positive correlation is observed with “Household Purchasing Power (HPP)”, with a coefficient of 0.152. This suggests that higher levels of Entrepreneurial Intervention are associated with greater household purchasing power. The Cronbach’s Alpha values for the economic factors range from 0.664 to 0.879, indicating moderate to good internal consistency reliability.

Finally, the table explores the correlations between Entrepreneurial Intervention and psychological factors. The correlations here are mixed, with some positive and some weak correlations. “Feeling Motivated (FM)” has the highest positive correlation with Entrepreneurial Intervention (0.195), indicating that those with higher Entrepreneurial Intervention tend to feel more motivated. The Cronbach’s Alpha values for the psychological factors range from 0.523 to 0.607, indicating acceptable internal consistency reliability. However, the data provide insights into the relationships between Entrepreneurial Intervention and various empowerment-related factors. It suggests that Entrepreneurial Intervention is positively correlated with several social, economic, and psychological factors, indicating that it may positively influence these dimensions of empowerment. However, the strength of these correlations varies across the factors, with some showing stronger relationships than others.

The significant contribution of this study is examining the effectiveness of microfinance activities and entrepreneurship in empowering women in rural Maharashtra, providing valuable insights into the region’s economic and social dynamics. The data illustrate active participation by women in various entrepreneurial undertakings, particularly in dairy farming and grocery or fruit shops, tailoring, food processing, goat farming, and poultry. Their involvement reflects their determination and capacity to drive economic growth and achieve self-reliance. The study highlights the essential role played by microfinance activities in supporting women entrepreneurs. The availability of financial resources and support through microfinance initiatives have enabled women to overcome traditional barriers and establish independent businesses, leading to increased household income and overall economic upliftment.

Moreover, the study emphasises the importance of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and microfinance activities to meet rural women’s specific needs and preferences in different blocks. Understanding these preferences and providing support to Self-Help Groups can amplify the impact of microfinance activities, fostering greater inclusivity and sustainable entrepreneurship. However, sectors like tailoring still face challenges with relatively lower women’s involvement. So, identifying and addressing the barriers deterring women’s participation in such industries should be prioritised to ensure comprehensive empowerment across all sectors. However, the findings underscore the positive impact of microfinance activities on women’s empowerment through entrepreneurship in rural Maharashtra. Policymakers and stakeholders can further enhance women’s economic and social well-being by strengthening and expanding these initiatives, leading to inclusive growth and sustainable development in the region. However, all stakeholders’ continuous research and collaborative efforts remain essential to create an enabling environment that empowers women, promotes gender equality, and fully unleashes their entrepreneurial potential.

Availability of data and materials

The data used in this study can be obtained upon request.

Abbreviations

• Self-Help Group

United Nations Development Programme

Sustainable Development Goals

Gross domestic product

Small and medium-sized enterprises

Swayam Shikhan Prayog

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Senapati, A. K., & Ojha, K. (2019). Socio-economic empowerment of women through micro-entrepreneurship: Evidence from Odisha, India. International Journal of Rural Management, 15 (2), 159–184. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973005219866588

Sinha, A., Parida, P. C., & Baurah, P. (2012). The impact of NABARD’s Self Help Group-Bank linkage programme on poverty and empowerment in India. Contemporary South Asia, 20 (4), 487–510. https://doi.org/10.1080/09584935.2012.737306

Srikanth, M., Lagesh, M. A., & Mohammed, C. K. (2022). Determinants of NPLs of Self-Help Group-Bank linkage program in India: Empirical evidence and policy implications. Asia-Pacific Journal of Rural Development, 32 (1), 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/10185291221114682

Swain, R. B., & Wallentin, F. Y. (2012). Factors empowering women in Indian self-help group programs. International Review of Applied Economics, 26 (4), 425–444. https://doi.org/10.1080/02692171.2011.595398

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Unni, J., Yadav, V., Naik, R., & Dutta, S. (2021). Women entrepreneurship in the indian middle-class interdisciplinary perspectives . Himayatnagar: Orient Blackswan Private Limited.

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Pandhare, A., Bellampalli, P.N. & Yadava, N. Transforming rural women’s lives in India: the impact of microfinance and entrepreneurship on empowerment in Self-Help Groups. J Innov Entrep 13 , 62 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-024-00419-y

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Case Study

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Bibliography

The term case study refers to both a method of analysis and a specific research design for examining a problem, both of which are used in most circumstances to generalize across populations. This tab focuses on the latter--how to design and organize a research paper in the social sciences that analyzes a specific case.

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or among more than two subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in this writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a single case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• Does the case represent an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• Does the case provide important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• Does the case challenge and offer a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in practice. A case may offer you an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to the study a case in order to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• Does the case provide an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings in order to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• Does the case offer a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for exploratory research that points to a need for further examination of the research problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of Uganda. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a particular village can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community throughout rural regions of east Africa. The case could also point to the need for scholars to apply feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation.

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work. In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What was I studying? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why was this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the research problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would include summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to study the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in the context of explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular subject of analysis to study and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that frames your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; c) what were the consequences of the event.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experience he or she has had that provides an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of his/her experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using him or her as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, cultural, economic, political, etc.], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, why study Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research reveals Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks from overseas reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should be linked to the findings from the literature review. Be sure to cite any prior studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for investigating the research problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is more common to combine a description of the findings with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps to support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings It is important to remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations for the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and needs for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1)  restate the main argument supported by the findings from the analysis of your case; 2) clearly state the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in and your professor's preferences, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented applied to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were on social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood differently than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical (context-dependent) knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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• Published: 12 September 2024

An intervention study of poly-victimization among rural left-behind children based on the theoretical framework of planned behavior

• Yandong Luo 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Jiajun Zhou 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Pan Wen 1 , 2 ,
• Ping Chang 1 , 2 ,
• Zicheng Cao 1 &
• Liping Li 1 , 2  

Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health volume  18 , Article number:  116 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Poly-victimization (PV) not only threatens physical and mental health but also causes a range of social problems. Left-behind children in rural areas are more likely to experience PV problems. However, there have been fewer studies on PV among rural children, and even fewer intervention studies.

The difference-in-differences method was employed to analyze the impact of intervention measures, based on the theory of planned behavior, on PV among left-behind children in rural areas.

The study subjects were left-behind children from six middle schools in two cities in southern China, who completed the baseline survey from 2020 to 2021. They were divided into a control group and an intervention group, each consisting of 228 cases, based on their schools. Before and after the intervention, the Self-made victimization-related knowledge, attitude, and practice questionnaire, Poly-victimization scale, and Middle school students’ coping style scale were used to evaluate the victimization-related KAP(knowledge, attitude, and practice), victimization occurrence, and coping styles of left-behind children, respectively. Stata 15.0 was used to establish a difference-in-differences regression model to analyze the impact of the intervention measures on poly-victimization and coping styles.

Mixed Anova revealed that after the intervention, the KAP scores of the intervention group were significantly higher than those of the control group ( p  < 0.05). After the intervention, the incidence of child victimization in the intervention group dropped to 9.60% ( n  = 22), lower than in the baseline survey, with a statistically significant difference ( p  < 0.01). The incidence of PV among children in the intervention group was lower than that in the control group, with the difference being statistically significant ( p  < 0.01). The net reduction in the incidence of PV among children was 21.20%. After the intervention, the protection rate for preventing PV among children was 73.33%, and the effect index was 3.75. The intervention improved children’s coping styles, problem-solving, and help-seeking, while reducing negative coping styles such as avoidance and venting, with the differences being statistically significant ( p  < 0.05).

Intervention measures based on the theory of planned behavior reduce the occurrence of PV among left-behind children, and the intervention effects on different types of victimization are also different.

Introduction

Left-behind children in rural areas are a unique group among children in China. Rural left-behind children are defined as children under the age of 18 who reside in rural areas and have one or both parents working as migrant laborers in urban areas [ 1 ]. These children are typically left in the care of relatives, such as grandparents, or other guardians. The phenomenon of left-behind children is prevalent in China due to the large-scale internal migration driven by economic opportunities in urban areas. This prolonged separation from their primary caregivers often leads to emotional and social challenges [ 2 ]. As of the latest data, more than 33% of children (6.97 million) residing in rural China are left-behind children [ 3 ]. This phenomenon is not exclusive to China, similar patterns are observed globally wherever significant rural-to-urban or international labor migration occurs. For instance, substantial numbers of left-behind children are also reported in countries such as India [ 4 ], Philippines (27%,8 million) [ 5 ], and Thailand (6.6%, 3 million) [ 6 ], facing comparable social and emotional challenges.

These children are more vulnerable to victimization due to the lack of parental supervision and support, making them a critical group for study in the context of poly-victimization (PV). Research has shown that this group has a higher probability of experiencing PV problems [ 7 ]. PV refers to children experiencing multiple types of harm within the past year, including physical victimization, property victimization, child abuse, peer victimization, sexual victimization, witnessing/indirect victimization, and other forms of victimization [ 8 ]. PV not only threatens physical and mental health but also causes a range of social problems such as suicide attempts, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depressive symptoms, and violent behavior [ 9 , 10 ]. It can also lead to practical problems in children, such as poor school performance, alcohol abuse, involvement in crime, and revictimization [ 11 , 12 ]. According to a survey conducted in Sichuan Province, China [ 13 ], the PV incidence rate among the general child population was found to be 28.3%. In comparison, left-behind children whose parents have migrated for work exhibited a PV incidence of 28.5%. Notably, left-behind children experiencing parental separation or divorce had a significantly higher PV incidence rate of 39.1%. These statistics highlight the elevated risk of victimization among left-behind children, underscoring the importance of targeted interventions to address their unique challenges. Currently, many studies in China have focused on individual types of victimization among rural children [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], but there have been fewer studies on PV in this population, and even fewer intervention studies.

Children use different coping styles when they experience PV as a stressful event. Coping style refers to the cognitive and practical strategies that individuals adopt in the face of frustration and stress, also known as coping mechanisms [ 17 ]. Coping styles can significantly influence how children deal with PV, affecting both their immediate reactions and long-term resilience [ 18 ]. An individual’s coping style influences the nature and intensity of the stress response and moderates the relationship between stress and its outcomes. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) [ 19 ] is a practical decision-making model proposed by Icek Ajzen. It is mainly used to predict and understand human behavior, with a core intervention strategy focused on changing practical intention, which is jointly determined by attitude, subjective norm, and perceived practical control. The theory has been widely applied to many aspects of human life, such as fitness and exercise behavior, healthcare behavior, social learning behavior, and more [ 20 , 21 ]. Meanwhile, the Theory of Planned Behavior has been successfully applied in various interventions aimed at children and adolescents, demonstrating its relevance and effectiveness in this demographic [ 22 , 23 ]. Several studies have shown that TPB has been used to investigate or predict children’s diets and undesirable behaviors or encounters, among other things. For example, one study used two theories, including the TPB, to predict smoking among Chinese adolescents and found that the TPB was superior [ 24 ]. And another Indian study explored the role of Theory of Planned Behavior in predicting areca nut use among adolescents [ 25 ]. Therefore, the coping styles of left-behind children exposed to PV can be regulated and improved by applying this theory, focusing on intervention in attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived practical control.

A baseline survey conducted as part of this study in 2020 established the initial prevalence of PV among left-behind children at 23%(626/2722). This data underscores the critical need for targeted interventions to address the high vulnerability of this group. In response, our study designed and implemented an intervention strategy based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), aimed specifically at mitigating these risks. The baseline study and its results are an integral part of the sample size calculations for subsequent randomized controlled trials and the analysis of intervention effects in this paper.

The difference-in-differences (DID) model [ 26 ] was used to assess the impact of the intervention on the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of left-behind children and the incidence of PV, thereby comprehensively evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention. The Difference-in-Differences (DID) model is a quasi-experimental research design that helps estimate the causal effect of a treatment or intervention. It does so by comparing the changes in outcomes over time between a treatment group (which receives the intervention) and a control group (which does not). This method helps to account for time-invariant differences between the groups and for trends that would affect both groups similarly, thus isolating the effect of the intervention. DID allows us to make robust causal inferences about the impact of our intervention by comparing the pre- and post-intervention outcomes between the intervention group and the control group. Moreover, the DID model is well-suited for this repeated measures data of victimization-related outcomes before and after the intervention. This allows us to control for baseline differences and observe changes over time, providing a clearer picture of the intervention’s effectiveness. DID has been widely used in research on adolescents. In a survey of repeated measures of adolescent risk behavior across 41 continents in the United States, the study used the DID to compare changes in past-year physical TDV (Teen dating violence) in states that enacted TDV laws compared to states with no required laws [ 27 ]. In another study of pedestrian injuries in U.S. schoolchildren estimated difference-in-differences in injury risk between census tracts with and without intervention following the changepoint [ 28 ].

The purpose of this study was to design and implement a TPB-based PV intervention strategy for left-behind children and to explore its effectiveness in addressing the PV challenges faced by these children, and specifically whether: [ 1 ] the TPB-based intervention reduce the incidence of PV among left-behind children [ 2 ]. Whether children’s coping styles improved after the intervention, particularly their ability to manage their emotions and communicate their thoughts and feelings to others [ 3 ]. Evaluate the effects of the intervention on enhancing children’s Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice (KAP) related to personal safety, peer interactions and so on. Through a community intervention trial, tis study evaluated the effectiveness of these interventions to provide a scientific basis for developing victimization intervention programs for left-behind children in other regions.

Participants

A survey was conducted in six middle schools in two cities in southern China (Shantou and Jieyang) between 2020 and 2021 to establish a baseline. Left-behind children from these schools were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups. Eligible participants were students in the first and second grades of junior high school who were in good health, had typical physical mobility, and were willing to undergo the intervention. The intervention phase was carried out between 2021 and 2022. Inclusion Criteria: [ 1 ] the first or second grades of junior high school [ 2 ]. Identified as left-behind (having one or both parents working away from home). Exclusion Criteria: [ 1 ] Those with significant cognitive or physical disabilities that could interfere with participation in the intervention or assessment procedures, as reported by school administrators or guardians. We sampled 460 students, and based on the above inclusion and exclusion criteria we ended up with 456 students who were randomly assigned to the intervention and control groups ( n  = 228). As shown in Table  1 , the mean and standard deviation of children’s ages in the intervention and control groups were 13.28 ± 0.232 and 13.66 ± 0.342, respectively.

Sample size

Based on the findings of the baseline survey, the initial prevalence of PV among left-behind children was recorded at 23.00%, denoted as P_max = 0.23. Following the implementation of the proposed intervention, the prevalence of PV decreased by 10.00–13.00%, denoted as P_min = 0.13. Utilizing significance levels of α = 0.05 and β = 0.20, with a factor k = 2 representing the number of groups, a critical value of λ = 7.85 was obtained from the relevant table of values. Consequently, a minimum sample size of n  = 228 was determined, necessitating at least 228 participants in both the intervention and control groups. The formula for this calculation is provided below:

This study selected six middle schools in two cities in southern China as research sites to conduct an intervention study and measure the changes in the knowledge, belief, and behavior levels, as well as the incidence of PV among left-behind children, before and after the intervention.

Research in behavioral psychology suggests that longer interventions are more effective in instilling sustainable changes in behavior and attitudes [ 29 , 30 ]. Twelve months allow for the gradual assimilation and reinforcement of new behaviors and concepts, essential in changing established habits and norms. And this schedule also aligns with academic calendars, facilitating a structured approach to implementation within school settings, ensuring that interventions do not overwhelm participants while providing regular touchpoints for reinforcement and assessment of progress. Meanwhile, the number of interventions was 12 a year rather than more, taking into account the possibility of students changing schools and the lost visits, as well as the fact that the poly-victimization questionnaire was a survey of victimization sustained in the past year [ 8 ].

The study began in September 2021 and continued through August 2022, with thematically relevant content interventions each month for the intervention group and general health and safety education for the control group, for a total of 12 interventions for each group. And a comprehensive assessment was conducted before and after the intervention to assess changes in the incidence of poly-victimization in children as well as changes in participants’ knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors.

Intervention group

The intervention themes, grounded in the Theory of Planned Behavior [ 31 ], aim to modify attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control regarding poly-victimization. Themes like Types of PV, School Bullying, and Sexual Safety educate on risks and prevention, aiming to change attitudes and enhance behavioral control [ 32 ]. Topics such as Interpersonal Communication and Non-violent Communication foster supportive social norms and improve skills in managing stress and emotional reactions, crucial for preventing poly-victimization [ 33 ].

Practical attitudes are raised by explaining to students the types of PV, its characteristics, forms of occurrence, and associated hazards, to raise awareness among left-behind children about PV. Subjective norms primarily involve fostering positive external environments, engaging in interventions with teachers to enhance their understanding of PV, and equipping them with the skills to identify individuals at risk and prevent such incidents.

Improvement in perceived practical control was achieved by having students record instances of victimization and their responses. Finally, case studies and discussions were conducted to promote changes in the practical intentions of left-behind children towards beneficial actions.

Changes in Knowledge (K): Knowledge enhancement was achieved through educational sessions that provided information about PV, its signs, consequences, and prevention strategies [ 9 ]. These sessions were interactive, using multimedia presentations, discussions, and Q&A sessions to ensure participants comprehended and retained the information. Pre- and post-tests were used to measure changes in knowledge levels.

Changes in Attitude (A): Attitude modification was addressed by creating a supportive environment where children could openly discuss their feelings and beliefs about PV [ 12 ]. Activities included role-playing, group discussions, and sharing personal experiences. These activities were designed to challenge negative attitudes and reinforce positive ones. Attitude changes were assessed using questionnaires that gauged shifts in participants’ beliefs and perceptions.

Changes in Practice (P): Behavioral changes were encouraged through practical skill-building exercises. Children were taught and practiced effective coping strategies, assertiveness training, and problem-solving skills [ 34 ]. These practices were reinforced through regular follow-up sessions. Behavioral changes were monitored through self-reports and observations by facilitators.

The intervention group received a 12-month intervention with a one-month gap between each session. The intervention consisted of educational presentations and videos delivered on-site, with each session lasting 30 to 40 min. The content of the intervention was shown in Table  1 .

Control groups

The control group received general health education, which included information on preventing traffic accidents and drowning. To ensure the results were not confounded by extraneous variables, the length of the intervention and the interval between sessions were kept consistent with those of the intervention group.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. This research was approved by the ethics committee of Shantou University Medical College. All the participants and their guardians agreed and provided signed, informed assent or consent on a voluntarily basis.

Measurements

Victimization-related kap scores.

“Victimization-Related KAP Scores” is based on the theories developed by G. Cust [ 35 ], a British health educator, as well as the themes of this study on poly-victimization interventions. The questionnaire about victimization contained a total of 10 items for knowledge (K), 20 items for attitude (A), and 10 items for practice (P). The total KAP score was obtained by adding the attitude score, knowledge score, and practice score. For each item, the correct option was determined through prior discussion among experts, and the knowledge rate for each item was calculated for all children. The children’s KAP items on victimization were scored as follows: 1 point was given for each correctly answered item, and 0 points for each incorrectly answered item. The maximum score was 40 points. The overall reliability coefficient was 0.85, indicating high internal consistency. Each subscale also demonstrated acceptable reliability with coefficients above 0.75. Construct validity was assessed using factor analysis, which confirmed that the items loaded appropriately onto their respective factors (knowledge, attitude, and practice) with factor loadings above 0.70.

Occurrence of poly-victimization

Indicators for evaluating the effectiveness of interventions.

Index of effectiveness is calculated as the ratio of the PV incidence rate in the control group to the PV incidence rate in the intervention group. A higher index value indicates a more effective intervention, as it shows a greater relative reduction in PV incidence among the intervention group compared to the control. The effectiveness index is compared against a criterion of 1.0. An index value: Greater than 1.0 indicates that the intervention was effective in reducing PV rates compared to the control group. Equal to 1.0 suggests no difference in PV rates between the two groups. Less than 1.0 would imply that the intervention group had higher PV rates than the control group, suggesting ineffectiveness.

Coping styles questionnaire

Coping styles were evaluated with the Coping Style Questionnaire (CSQ) [ 36 ], which is a 62-item self-report test. Items are rated as 1 (agree) or 0 (disagree). The questionnaire comprises six subscales including both immature and mature coping styles. Immature coping styles include “avoidance”, “fantasy” and “venting”; mature coping styles include “problem solving” “help seeking” and “bear”. In the original development of the CSQ, the construct validity was established with each factor consisting of entries with factor loadings greater than or equal to 0.35, and the overall reliability was recorded at 0.72. These metrics confirm the tool’s ability to reliably and validly measure coping behaviors. In the present study, the Cronbach alpha coefficient for the CSQ was 0.873, and the validity was 0.869, ensuring that the questionnaire remains a reliable and valid instrument for assessing coping styles in this study.

Poly-victimization

Poly-victimization among children was examined by combining the JVQ-R2 (Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire-2nd Revision) developed by Finkelhor et al. [ 37 ] and the Chinese version of the JVQ [ 38 ]. The JVQ comprises six modules: Conventional crimes(9 items), Caregiver victimization(4 items), peer and sibling victimization(6 items), sexual victimization(6 items), Witnessing and indirect victimization(7 items), and Electronic victimization(2 items), encompassing 34 items in total. Each item relates to a specific type of harmful event, and subjects are asked to indicate whether such events have occurred. Scoring is binary; “yes” responses are valued at 1 point and “no” responses at 0 points. In the present sample, reliability and validity of the scale were tested; the standardized Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the total score of recent victimization items is 0.875, with a KMO value of 0.793. According to prior studies, this study operationally defines Poly-victimization as a JVQ scale score of 4 points or more in the last year [ 39 , 40 ].

Data analysis

The study assesses the effectiveness of the intervention by comparing the KAP score and coping styles score differences before and after the intervention between the intervention group and the control group using Mixed Anova in SPSS 25.0. The count data were examined using a chi-square test to identify any variations in rates and composition ratios. The researchers utilized the Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) [ 41 ] metric to evaluate the equilibrium among the groups, with SMD < 0.1 signifying a satisfactory balance. This threshold indicates a minimal disparity between the groups under study. The expression was:

In the above formula, P T and P C represent the positive rate of a covariate in the intervention group and the control group, respectively.

The efficacy of the intervention was assessed through the application of a double difference model, specifically the Difference-in-Differences (DID) method. This approach was utilized to analyze variations in Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices (KAP), incidence of victimization, and coping mechanisms both pre- and post-intervention, as well as to determine the impact of the intervention within the intervention and control groups.

The DID model is constructed on the basis of the Ordinary least squares (OLS) method, and its generalized linear model expression for the double difference model is

The variable T serves as a categorical placeholder; when an individual ( i) is impacted by the intervention, they are categorized into the intervention group denoted by T  = 1. Conversely, if the individual ( i )is not influenced by the intervention, they are categorized into the control group with T  = 0. D is a dummy variable for the implementation of the intervention, where D  = 0 before the intervention and D  = 1 after the intervention. Tit * Dit is the interaction term between the grouping dummy variable and the intervention implementation dummy variable with coefficient α 3 .

Baseline characterization

The baseline characteristics of the control and intervention groups are presented in Table  2 . Each group contained 228 subjects. The differences in the distribution proportions of gender, only-child status, health status, unscrupulous behavior of close friends, parental marital status, and parental health status did not exhibit statistical significance between the two groups ( p >0.05). However, the distribution proportions of parental occupation demonstrated statistical significance ( p <0.05). Gender, only-child status, health status, parental marital status, and parental health status had SMD < 0.1, while unscrupulous behavior of close friends and parental occupation had SMD > 0.1.

Variations in KAP related to victimization before and after intervention

A 2 × 2 mixed ANOVA was conducted with group (intervention and control) as the between subjects factor and time (before and after intervention) as the within subjects factor. The results showed a significant main effect for intervention, F(1, 454) = 25.905, p  < 0.05. For group, control group reported significantly less KAP score than intervention group. There was also a significant group × time interaction, F(1, 454) = 42.142, p  < 0.05. The results of the simple effects tests indicated that control group reported significantly less KAP score than intervention group before intervention, ( p  < 0.05). The mean and standard deviation of the KAP and its subcategory scores are reported in the following table (Tables  3 , 4 ).

Variations in PV occurrence before and after the intervention

During the initial survey, the prevalence of PV among children in the intervention group was 20.2% ( n  = 46), while in the control group it was 25.4% ( n  = 58), indicating no statistically significant difference ( p  = 0.18). The incidence of PV in the control group was 25.4% during the initial survey and increased to 36.0% ( n  = 82) following the intervention, demonstrating a statistically significant difference ( p  = 0.10). Following the intervention, the prevalence of PV among children in the intervention group declined to 9.6% ( n  = 22), demonstrating a statistically significant decrease compared to the baseline survey findings ( p  < 0.01). The prevalence of PV among children in the intervention group was found to be significantly lower compared to the control group, with statistical significance ( p  < 0.01). The net reduction in the incidence of PV among children was 21.2%. The post-intervention protection against the occurrence of PV among children was 73.33% with an effectiveness index of 3.75 (Table  5 ).

The changes in the distribution of victimization types before and after the intervention are presented in Table  6 . The incidence of various types of victimization changed differently following the intervention. The predominant types of victimization observed in children before and after the intervention primarily consisted of conventional crimes and witnessing and indirect victimization. The most effective interventions were observed in cases of peer victimization and electronic victimization, where protection rates exceeded 60% and the effectiveness indices were recorded at 2.80 and 2.81, respectively.

Subgroup dummy variables (control group d = 0; intervention group d = 1), time dummy variables (after intervention t = 1; before intervention t = 0), and interaction terms between subgroups and time (td) were set according to the requirements of the DID model. The data presented in Table  7 demonstrate that the intervention resulted in a statistically significant decrease in the occurrence of victimization among children.

Variations in coping styles before and after the intervention

A 2 × 2 mixed ANOVA was conducted with group (intervention and control) as the between subjects factor and time (before and after intervention) as the within subjects factor. The results showed a significant main effect for intervention, F(1, 454) = 9.554, p  < 0.05. For group, control group reported significantly less total coping styles score than intervention group. There was also a significant group × time interaction, F(1, 454) = 20.004, p  < 0.05. The results of the simple effects tests indicated that control group reported significantly less coping styles score than intervention group before intervention, ( p  < 0.05). The mean and standard deviation of the coping styles scores and its subcategory scores are reported in the following table (Table  8 ).

Dummy variables were created to represent subgroups (control group d = 0 and intervention group d = 1), time points (before intervention t = 0 and after intervention t = 1), and the interactions between subgroups and time (td), as specified by the DID model. The intervention led to an increase in children’s competence in positive coping styles when facing victimization, including problem-solving and help-seeking, while concurrently reducing competence in negative coping styles, such as avoidance and venting. The observed difference was statistically significant ( p  < 0.05) (Table 9 ).

The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention program based on the Theory of Planned Behavior in reducing poly-victimization among left-behind children in rural China. Additionally, we aimed to assess the impact of the intervention on the Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practice (KAP) related to victimization and the coping styles of the participants. The results of the study showed that after the intervention, the incidence of PV in left-behind children decreased by 21.20%. Therefore, the intervention implemented in this study may have been effective in reducing the incidence of PV in left-behind children. After the intervention, the KAP scores related to victimization among left-behind children were significantly improved compared to the baseline survey. Therefore, such interventions can lead to enhanced levels of KAP related to PV among children. The results of this study showed that the intervention increased children’s competence in positive coping styles when facing victimization, such as problem-solving and help-seeking, while decreasing competence in negative coping styles, such as avoidance and venting, with statistically significant differences ( p <0.05). This suggests that interventions based on the TPB framework can improve the coping styles of left-behind children and thus reduce the occurrence of PV.

Our findings align with existing literature that underscores the effectiveness of interventions based on cognitive-behavioral frameworks like TPB in changing behavior and improving psychological outcomes [ 31 ]. Research has shown that structured interventions can significantly impact knowledge and attitudes towards complex issues like victimization [ 42 ]. Furthermore, the improvement in coping strategies observed in our study reflects findings from prior studies, which indicate that positive coping styles can mitigate the impacts of adverse experiences [ 43 ]. The reduction in PV rates and improvement in KAP scores in our study are consistent with the theoretical predictions of TPB, which suggest that changes in attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control can lead to behavior change. The enhancement of coping strategies supports literature emphasizing the role of adaptive coping in reducing the occurrence and impact of negative life events [ 44 ].

Prior studies have indicated that experiences of PV can impact the coping styles of children and adolescents when faced with challenges. Coping refers to the cognitive and practical strategies employed by an individual in response to stressful situations to reduce or alleviate the negative impacts of stress [ 45 ]. Academics widely recognize coping as a dynamic combination of cognition and behavior. Coping styles may also impact the occurrence of PV, with positive coping styles mitigating the negative effects of adverse events [ 46 , 47 ]. Some studies have also suggested that the more frequently negative coping styles are used, the higher the frequency of adverse life events. Appropriate coping styles may not only reduce negative affect but also reduce the frequency of individual injurious events and the number of types of victimization, thereby preventing the occurrence of PV [ 48 , 49 , 50 ].

The study employed a rigorous difference-in-differences (DID) analysis to evaluate the intervention’s effectiveness, providing robust causal inference. The intervention was based on the well-established Theory of Planned Behavior, which has been shown to be effective in various health-related behavior change interventions. This robust statistical approach allows us to confidently attribute observed changes in poly-victimization and coping strategies directly to the intervention. This analytical rigor is complemented by the theoretical foundation of the intervention, which is based on the well-established Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The study included a sizable sample of left-behind children from multiple schools, focusing on this particular group. Additionally, the focus on left-behind children, a particularly vulnerable population, not only enhances the generalizability of our findings within this demographic but also addresses a significant gap in the literature. By integrating a sizable sample from multiple schools, the study aims to mitigate challenges faced by these children. However, this study is not without several limitations. First, Some of the study data relied on self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias and recall bias. Second, the follow-up period lasted for a relatively short period of about one year, limiting the assessment of the long-term sustainability of the intervention effects. Third, the study did not compare the intervention group with a group receiving a different type of intervention, such as social-emotional learning, which could have provided a more comprehensive understanding of the relative effectiveness of different intervention strategies. Fourth, some participants in the intervention group transitioned from PV to non-PV, while others moved from non-PV to PV status. However, our study did not focus on those who transitioned from non-PV status (having experienced 0, 1, 2, or 3 victimization incidents) to PV status (experiencing 4 or more incidents), nor on the differences in protection rates among groups subjected to varying numbers of victimization. Future studies could conduct long-term follow-up studies to assess the sustainability of the intervention effects, or explore the potential mediating and moderating factors that influence the effectiveness of interventions in reducing PV among left-behind children, to promote the healthy growth of the special group of left-behind children.

Interventions based on the Theory of Planned Behavior reduced the incidence of poly-victimization in left-behind children, with effects varying across different types of victimization. The implementation of an intervention program based on the TPB should consider the prevalence characteristics of poly-victimization among left-behind children in the region and the influencing factors obtained from the baseline survey, and then formulate evidence-based, rational, and comprehensive interventions. Therefore, by adopting measures that consider the types of victimization in the intervention program, the occurrence of the main types of victimization can be effectively reduced.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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This work was supported by Science Planning General Project of Guangdong Philosophy Association [grant numbers GD19CSH08].

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Yandong Luo and Jiajun Zhou contributed equally to this work.

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School of Public Health, Shantou University, Shantou, 515041, P.R. China

Yandong Luo, Jiajun Zhou, Pan Wen, Ping Chang, Zicheng Cao & Liping Li

Injury Prevention Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, China

Yandong Luo, Jiajun Zhou, Pan Wen, Ping Chang & Liping Li

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L.L. and J.Z. designed the study. Y.L. and P.C. collected the data. J.Z., Z.C and P.W. were involved in the analysis of data. J.Z. drafted the paper, and J.Z., P.W. and L.L. iterated and commented on drafts. P.W. and L.L. reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the submitted manuscript.

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Luo, Y., Zhou, J., Wen, P. et al. An intervention study of poly-victimization among rural left-behind children based on the theoretical framework of planned behavior. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health 18 , 116 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-024-00812-1

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Received : 05 June 2024

Accepted : 09 September 2024

Published : 12 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-024-00812-1

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Organic Chemistry Frontiers

18f-labelling of nitrogen-containing aryl boronates − anti-cancer drug melflufen as a case study.

18F-Labelling of nitrogen-containing arenes via copper mediated radiofluorination (CMRF) was investigated. The studies targeted analogues of anti-cancer drug melflufen with an alkylating bis(2-chloroethyl)amino pharmacophore. Studies of melflufene anologues and various model compounds indicated that the copper mediated boron fluorine-18 exchange reaction is affected differently by the three nitrogen-containing groups in the target compound. The largest inhibitory effects for the fluorine labelling process was excerted by the tertiary amine based bis(2-chloroethyl)amino pharmacophore. The best results were achieved by applying bipyridyl ligands for the copper mediator.

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