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Subtopic in a Research Paper: How to Write Subtopics Well

Topic and Subtopics In Research Paper

A subtopic is a section of your topic that you are discussing in the same research paper. It is a phrase that identifies a section of your research project.  Also, it is part of the subject that you will be exploiting in the essay.

A subtopic is necessary for your essay to make your presentation of your ideas on the topic systematic. Thus, a good subtopic should support the main topic of the research paper and bolster its credibility.

Any essay with a subtopic will follow a standard format typically. Furthermore, the subtopic adds depth to your essay and break the topic into manageable chunks

Essay Subtopics Example

Before you develop your subtopic, you must understand what the entire essay topic is all about.

For you to make your topic more appealing, you have to break it into sections and promote effective delivery.

For example, if your topic is about ‘’ How to Maintain Food Security”, you should research and come up with findings that will support your arguments.

Under the topic, you have to create an outline that will specify the subtopics that will support the key topic.

For instance, they could be as follows:

Main topic: How to maintain food security

Introduction

• 1st Subtopic :  Identify fertile regions
• 2nd Subtopic :  Develop irrigation schemes
• 3rd Subtopic :  Create modern storage systems

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How to Write Subtopics in Research Paper

Subtopics are key pillars of your research paper. You should create a proper outline of these subtopics to make your paper easier to write.

In our guide to writing research papers , we gave steps on how to write paragraphs. These paragraphs carry the subtopics. What’s more, if your paper has good subtopics, it becomes understandable to the audience.

Base your subtopics on the thesis statement which is the critical issue you are trying to create. For that reason, make the appropriate heading as per the research subject. Use the following steps to come up with the subtopics of your research paper:

• Identify the thesis statements of your essay which can be more than a single sentence. More importantly, this statement should summarize that point that you are putting across in your research. Since the thesis is the basis of the paper, allow the subtopics to come from this section.
• Write an outline of your research paper that includes the introduction, body, and conclusion. Follow this simple rule; the introduction should carry the first heading while the conclusion should bear the final heading.
• Divide the body into manageable sections which we will refer to as subtopics. You will base these subtopics on the area of your topic that you want to capture. Besides, use a few words to write your subtopics.
• Lastly, check your outline and include the subtopics that you need to write about. For example, if you select a topic on “Population”, provide the relevant subtopics that will make your delivery easier. Let them support the main idea within your area of discussion.

Importance of Subtopics

1. better understanding.

When you include subtopics in your research paper, you will break the information into chewable levels and promote understanding.

Before one reads through the entire paper, scanning of the subtopics gives the hint of what you are discussing in the whole matter.

2. Improves Engagements

When one is reading your content that has subheadings, it becomes easier to concentrate on the content since the information will be flowing systematically.

A high performing content calls for better engagement where no one should struggle to figure out the direction of your topic.

3. Provides Clarity

Adding subtopics to your work provides clarity to the content. Besides, a subtopic is a great avenue that helps the audience to retain the given information more conveniently.

It is easier to remember certain concepts when broken into sections under meaningful subtitles well. It is a perfect method of connecting with your audience and winning their attention well.

4. Improves Comprehension

Subtopics improve literacy and comprehensions levels. Specifically, the titles assist one in reading speed, vocabulary acquisition, word recognition, and word knowledge.

The subtopics enhance the readability of the essay because the audience will be knowing what might be cooking in the next section in advance. If you did proper research, chances are high that one will end the essay to the end.

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Difference between Research Topic and Subtopic

A topic is a key idea of what the author will be building the main arguments about. The topic is the central idea in your writing. On the other hand, the subtopic is a section of the main topic that supports your argument to complete your discussion.

These two are part of writing but they are the difference between a research paper and an essay , especially when developing the paragraphs. We can illustrate that in the following example:

Supporting evidence

Features of a Good Topic

• Covers a specific subject: The right research topic must be specific. It should not appear too general. Also, you should settle for a topic that is too broad to tempt you to focus on different aspects.

The topic should be clear for the audience to understand the nature of your research.

Thus, it should have a single interpretation to prevent the audience from getting distracted. It should be directional and not ambiguous.

• Well Defined: The topic bears a direct definition without giving a double-barreled impression. Meaning, it should be well-phrased for one to understand with a single meaning.
• Relevant: The topic should be relevant and allow it to focus on timely issues. For example, if you select a topic on abortion, it could appear outdated. Instead, you should settle for other topics on women’s reproductive systems such as menstrual suppression. Develop a topic that has current importance.
• Follows the Assignment: The right topic should follow the guidelines of your assignment. Before you develop your essay topic, read and understand the assignment guidelines.
• Language: The topic language should be simple for everyone to understand. Use technical terms as appropriate. Besides, maintain the ethics of your writing to avoid using unethical sentences or terms. Avoid using a bias either willingly or unwillingly in your topic.
• Titling: The research problem should follow titling rules. For example, you can use a title case or a sentence case. You should understand the titling rules before writing the topic down.

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FAQs on Subtopics

How to write subtopics in a research paper.

Begin by understanding the thesis testament. Create an outline that includes an introduction, body, and conclusion. Divide the topic into smaller sections which we refer to as the subtopics. Use a few words to serve as titles for the subtopics. Finally, use the titles of the subtopics in your outline.

What is a subtopic in an essay?

A subtopic is a section of a topic that complements the central idea of a topic. We use subtopics to expand the arguments in your topic for the readers to follow and understand what you are saying.

A subtopic is necessary as a convenient break to allow the writer to bring the point home. The right subtopic enhances the engagements of your essay to make it more exciting.

Topics and subtopics examples

When you are writing your essay or a research paper, you should create a topic and utilize subtopics to enhance delivery. Topics can vary based on the type of instruction that you will receive. However, be sure to make your topics relevant so that you do not deviate from what your professor wants.

Several topics exist for you to choose from depending on your field. The most common ones are:

Main topic: Effects of River Pollution

• 1st subtopic: Sources of River Pollution
• 2nd subtopic: Loss of aquatic life
• 3rd subtopic: Contamination of freshwater
• 4th subtopic: Communal diseases
• 5th subtopic: solution to river pollution.

When not handling complex essays and academic writing tasks, Josh is busy advising students on how to pass assignments. In spare time, he loves playing football or walking with his dog around the park.

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Many topics that are suggested for research are quite broad and complex.  It is important to explore the topic by considering possible subtopics and connections between ideas.  This step will help you to select a specific focus and help you to develop questions for research.

For example, take a look at the following topic web and notice the many subtopics related to the broad topic of Global Warming:

If you would like to use a graphic organizer like the mindmap above to explore your topic, try one of the following online mind-mapping tools!

You can also click on the following organizer templates to create a ready-made mindmap:

Use the Topic Web to:

• identify layers of topics and sub-topics
• make connections between ideas
• narrow your topic and research focus

Revisit the Topic Web as you delve more deeply into resources and discover more layers to your topic.

• Topic Web Example

See a Topic Web Example .

Topic & Sub-Topic Planner

Use the Topic & Sub-Topic Planner to:

• show how your sub-topics support the ideas you have developed about your topic
• make sure that you have at least three pieces of supporting evidence for each of your sub-topics
• help prepare an outline for your final project
• Topic Sub-Topic Planner

• Sub-Topic Organizer

Use the Sub-Topic Organizer to:

• summarize your key points about each of your sub-topics
• help you to assess whether you have enough evidence to make compelling arguments about each of your sub-topics, or whether you need to look for more

Revisit this organizer at different stages of your research, to help you assess your own progress.

This information expires once printed. Please always refer to the online version for the most current information.

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Dig Deeper with Subtopics

When exploring a complex topic, breaking it down into smaller, more manageable sections is often essential. This process of dividing a subject into distinct components is known as subtopic analysis. In this article, we will delve into the meaning and significance of subtopics, how they aid in organizing information, and their role in enhancing understanding.

A subtopic can be defined as a specific subject or theme that forms part of a larger topic. It serves as a way to categorize and organize information, allowing for a more detailed examination of different aspects of a subject. Subtopics provide a structured framework that helps readers and researchers navigate through complex ideas and gain a comprehensive understanding of a topic.

The Purpose of Subtopics: 1. Enhancing Clarity and Organization: Subtopics aid in organizing information in a logical and coherent manner. They allow writers to present their ideas in a systematic way, ensuring that readers can follow the flow of information effortlessly. By dividing a topic into subtopics, writers can provide a clear structure that guides readers through the content.

2. Fostering In-depth Analysis: Subtopics enable a deeper exploration of various facets of a subject. By breaking down a topic into smaller sections, researchers can delve into specific areas of interest or investigate different perspectives. This approach facilitates a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the subject matter.

3. Efficient Information Retrieval: Subtopics assist readers in locating specific information within a larger body of content. By organizing information into distinct subcategories, it becomes easier to locate relevant details without having to sift through an entire text. This feature is particularly useful in research papers, where readers may want to refer back to specific sections or gather information on a particular aspect of a topic.

To illustrate the concept of subtopics, let’s consider a broader subject such as climate change. Within this topic, subtopics may include:

1. Causes of Climate Change: – Greenhouse gas emissions – Deforestation – Industrialization

2. Impacts of Climate Change: – Rising sea levels – Extreme weather events – Biodiversity loss

3. Mitigation Strategies: – Renewable energy sources – Carbon capture and storage – Sustainable agriculture

Subtopics play a vital role in organizing and presenting information in a structured and coherent manner. By breaking down complex topics into smaller sections, subtopics enhance clarity, facilitate in-depth analysis, and aid in efficient information retrieval. Whether it’s in academic research, article writing, or any form of content creation, understanding and effectively utilizing subtopics can greatly enhance the overall comprehension and readability of the subject matter.

What Is A Subtopic Example?

A subtopic is a specific aspect or issue within a broader topic that can be further explored or discussed. It allows for a more focused examination of a particular area or theme related to the main topic. For example, if the main topic is “The devastating effects of El Niño will not be lessened by the ability to predict its occurrence,” some subtopics could include:

1. Loss of Environment: – Deforestation and habitat destruction caused by El Niño. – Negative impacts on marine ecosystems and coral reefs. – Loss of biodiversity and species extinction due to El Niño’s effects.

2. Weather Extremes: – Intensification of storms, hurricanes, and cyclones during El Niño. – Increased rainfall and flooding in certain regions. – Droughts, heatwaves, and wildfires triggered by El Niño conditions.

By breaking down the main topic into subtopics, it becomes easier to organize and present information in a more detailed and structured manner.

How Do You Write A Sub Topic?

I. Introduction A. Definition of a subtopic B. Importance of using subtopics in writing

II. Body A. Understanding the main topic 1. Identifying the main theme or subject 2. Narrowing down the focus

B. Brainstorming subtopics 1. Listing related ideas or concepts 2. Organizing subtopics based on relevance

C. Creating subtopic titles 1. Using concise and descriptive words 2. Highlighting the main idea of each subtopic

D. Structuring the subtopics 1. Arranging subtopics in a logical order 2. Ensuring smooth transitions between subtopics

E. Writing subtopic paragraphs 1. Introducing the subtopic in a topic sentence 2. Supporting the subtopic with relevant details and examples

F. Using bullet lists for subtopics 1. Presenting information in a concise and organized manner 2. Enhancing readability and clarity

III. Conclusion A. Recap of the importance and process of writing subtopics B. Encouragement to incorporate subtopics in writing for better organization and clarity.

What Is Subtopic In A Sentence?

A subtopic is a specific subject that is part of a larger topic. It functions as a subset or division within the broader subject. For instance, in a book with ten main topics, each of these topics can be further divided into four subtopics. These subtopics provide more specific information or focus on a particular aspect of the main topic. To illustrate, let’s say we are discussing the key topics in a research paper. These topics are then analyzed and broken down into sub-topics, allowing for a more detailed exploration of the subject matter. The use of subtopics helps to organize and categorize information, making it easier for readers to navigate and comprehend complex subjects.

What Is A Sub Topic Of A Sub Topic?

A subtopic of a subtopic is a further division or breakdown of a subject within a smaller, more specific context. It refers to a subject that forms part of a topic, which is then further divided into subtopics, and those subtopics are further divided into even more specific sub-sub-topics.

To illustrate this with an example, let’s assume the main topic is “Animals.” Under this topic, a subtopic could be “Mammals.” Now, within the subtopic of “Mammals,” there can be various subtopics such as “Carnivores,” “Herbivores,” and “Omnivores.” Continuing the breakdown, under the subtopic of “Carnivores,” you might find sub-sub-topics like “Big Cats,” “Canines,” and “Marine Predators.”

In an organized outline or structure, the subtopics and sub-sub-topics provide a hierarchical framework to explore a subject in a more detailed and specific manner. It allows for a systematic approach to categorizing and analyzing information, making it easier to navigate and understand complex subjects.

A subtopic of a subtopic is a further division of a subject within a smaller, more specific context, providing a hierarchical structure to explore and analyze information in a systematic manner.

A subtopic is a specific subject or theme that is part of a larger topic. It is a way to further break down and explore different aspects or components of a main subject. Subtopics allow for a more focused and organized approach to discussing and analyzing a topic, as they provide a way to categorize and delve deeper into specific areas of interest.

By dividing a topic into subtopics, one can effectively address different aspects, issues, or perspectives related to the main subject. This division helps to provide a clear structure and flow to the overall discussion or research. Subtopics also help to ensure that all relevant aspects of a subject are addressed and that no important information or viewpoints are overlooked.

Additionally, subtopics allow for easier navigation and comprehension of complex subjects. They provide a framework for organizing information and presenting it in a logical and coherent manner. Readers or listeners can easily follow and understand the different subtopics presented, as they can focus on specific areas of interest or relevance to them.

Furthermore, subtopics can enhance the depth and comprehensiveness of research or analysis. By exploring various subtopics, researchers can delve into specific areas of interest, gaining a more nuanced understanding of the subject matter. This allows for a more thorough examination and examination of different perspectives, arguments, or evidence related to the topic.

Subtopics play a crucial role in structuring and organizing information, facilitating a more focused and comprehensive exploration of a main subject. They enable a systematic approach to addressing different aspects or components of a topic, promoting clarity, organization, and depth in research, discussion, or analysis.

William Armstrong

How to create a helpful research paper outline

Last updated

21 December 2023

Reviewed by

You need to structure your research paper in an orderly way that makes it easy for readers to follow your reasoning and supporting data. That's where a research paper outline can help.

Writing a research paper outline will help you arrange your ideas logically and allow your final paper to flow. It will make the entire process more manageable and help you work out which details to include and which are better left out.

• What is a research paper outline?

Write your research paper outline before starting your first draft. The outline provides a map of how you will structure your ideas throughout the paper. A research paper outline will help you to be more efficient when ordering the sections of your thesis, rather than trying to make structural changes after finishing an entire first draft.

An outline consists of the main topics and subtopics of your paper, listed in a logical order. The main topics will become the sections of your research paper, and the subtopics reveal the content you want to include or discuss under the main topics.

Under each subtopic, you can also jot down items you don't want to forget to include in your research paper, such as:

Topic ideas

Paragraph ideas

Direct quotes

Once you start listing these under your main topics, you can focus your thoughts as you plan and write the research paper using the evidence and data you collected and any additional information.

• Why use an outline?

If your research paper does not have a clear, logical order, readers may not understand the ideas you're trying to share, or they may lose interest and not bother to read the whole paper. An outline helps you structure your research paper so readers can easily connect the content, ideas, and theories you're trying to prove or maintain.

• Are there different kinds of research paper outlines?

Different kinds of research paper outlines might seem similar but have different purposes. You can select an outline type that provides a clear road map and thoroughly explores each point. 

Other types will help structure content logically or with a segmented flow and progression of ideas that align closely with the theme of your research.

• The 3 types of outlines

The three outline formats available to research paper writers are:

Alphanumeric or topic outlines

Sentence or full-sentence outlines

Decimal outlines

Let’s look at the differences between each type and see how one may be more beneficial than another, depending on the nature of your research.

This type of research paper outline allows you to segment main headings and subheadings with an alphanumeric arrangement.

The alphanumeric characters of Roman numerals, capital letters, numbers, and lowercase letters define the hierarchy of main topic headings, subtopic headings, and third- and fourth-tier subtopic headings. (e.g., I, A, 1, a)

This method uses minimal words to describe the main and subtopic headings. You'll mostly use this type of research paper outline to focus on the organization of the content while allowing you to review it for unrelated or irrelevant information.

Full-sentence outlines

You will format this type of research paper outline as an alphanumeric outline, using the same alphanumeric characters. However, it contains complete sentences rather than a few words for each main and subtopic heading.

This formatting method allows the writer to focus on looking for inaccuracies and inconsistencies in each point before starting the first draft.

Instead of using alphanumeric characters to define main headings, subheadings, and third- and fourth-tier subheadings, the decimal outline uses a decimal numbering system.

This system shows a logical progression of the content by using 1.0 for the main section heading (and 2.0, 3.0, etc., for subsequent sections), 1.1 for the subheading, 1.1.1 for a third-tier subheading, and 1.1.1.1 for the fourth-tier subheading.

The headings and subheadings will be just a few words, as in the alphanumerical research paper outline. Decimal outlines allow the writer to focus on the content's overall coherence, increasing your writing efficiency and reducing the time it takes to write your research paper.

• How to write a research paper outline

Before you begin your research paper outline, you need to determine your topic and gather your information. Let’s look at these steps first, then dive into how to write your outline.

1. Determine your topic

You'll need to establish a topic or the main point you intend to write about.

For example, you may want to research and write about whether influencers are the most beneficial way to promote products in your industry. This topic is the main point around which your essay will revolve.

2. Gather information

You'll need evidence, data, statistics, and facts to prove or disprove that influencers are the best method of promoting products in your industry.

You'll insert any of these things you collect to substantiate your findings into the outline to support your topic.

3. Determine the type of essay you'll be writing

There are many types of essays or research papers you can write. The kinds of essays include:

Argumentative: Builds logic and support for an argument

Cause and effect: Explains relationships between specific conditions and their results

Analytical: Presents a claim on what is being analyzed

Interpretive: Informative and persuasive explanations on how something is perceived

Experimental: Reports on experimental results and the reasoning behind the results

Review: Offers an understanding and analysis of primary sources on a given topic

Definition: Defines what a term or concept means

Persuasive: Uses logic and reason to show that one idea is more justified than another

Narrative: Tells a story of personal experience from the author’s point of view

Expository: Shows an objective view of a subject by exploring various angles

Descriptive: Describes objects, people, places, experiences, emotions, situations, etc.

Once you understand the essay format you are writing, you'll know how to structure your outline. 

4. Include basic sections

You'll begin to structure your outline using basic sections. Your main topic headings for these sections may include an introduction, multiple body paragraph sections, and a conclusion.

Once you establish the sections, you can insert the subtopics under each main topic heading.

5. Organize your outline

For example, if you're writing an argumentative essay taking the position that brand influencers (e.g., social media stars on Instagram or TikTok) are the best way to promote products in your industry, you will argue for that particular position.

You'll organize your argumentative essay outline with a main topic section supporting the position. The subtopics will include the reasoning behind your arguments, and the third-tier subtopics will contain the supporting evidence and data you gathered during your research.

You'll add another main topic section to counter and respond to any opposing arguments. Once you've organized and included all the information in this way, this will provide the structure to start your argumentative essay draft.

6. Consider compare-and-contrast essays

A compare-and-contrast essay is a form of essay that analyzes the differences between two opposing theories or subjects. If you have multiple subjects that are the same or different in just one aspect, you can write a point-by-point outline exploring each subject in terms of this characteristic.

The main topic headings will list that one characteristic, and the subtopic headings will list the subjects or items that are the same or different in relation to this characteristic.

Conversely, if you have multiple items to compare, but they have many characteristics that are similar or different, you can write a block method outline. The main topic headings will contain the items to be compared, while the subtopic headings will contain the aspects in which they are similar or different.

7. Consider advanced organizers for longer essays

An advanced organizer is a sentence that introduces new topics by connecting already-known information to new information. It can also prepare the reader for what they may expect to learn from the entire essay, or each section or paragraph.

Incorporating advanced organizers makes it easier for the reader to process and understand the information you are trying to convey. If you choose to use advanced organizers, depending on how often you want to use them throughout your paper, you can add them to your outline at the end of the introduction, the beginning of a section, or the beginning of each paragraph. 

• Do outlines need periods (full stops)?

If you're constructing alphanumerical or decimal topic outlines, they do not need periods because the entries are usually not complete sentences. However, outlines containing full sentences will need to be punctuated as any sentence is, including using periods.

• An example research paper outline

Here is an example of an alphanumerical outline that argues brand influencers are the best method of promoting products in a particular industry:

I.  Introduction

    A.  Background information about the issue and the position being argued.

    B.  Thesis statement: Influencers are the best way to promote products in this industry.

II.  Reasons that support the thesis statement

    A.  Reason or argument #1

           1.  Supporting evidence

           2.  Supporting evidence

    B.  Reason or argument #2

    C.  Reason or argument #3

          1.  Supporting evidence

          2.  Supporting evidence

III. Counterarguments and responses

       A.  Arguments from the other point of view

       B.  Rebuttals against those arguments

IV.  Conclusion

• How long is a thesis outline?

There is no set length for a research paper outline or thesis outline. Your outline can be as long as it needs to be to organize your thoughts constructively.

You can start with a short outline containing an introduction , background, methodology, data and analysis, and conclusion. Or you can break these sections into more specific segments according to the content you want to share.

Why make writing a research paper more complicated than it needs to be? Knowing the elements of an outline and how to insert them into a cohesive structure will make your final paper understandable and interesting to the reader.

Understanding how to outline a research paper will make the writing process more efficient and less time-consuming.

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An outline is a formal system used to develop a framework for thinking about what should be the organization and eventual contents of your paper. An outline helps you predict the overall structure and flow of a paper.

Why and How to Create a Useful Outline. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of...

Writing papers in college requires you to come up with sophisticated, complex, and sometimes very creative ways of structuring your ideas . Taking the time to draft an outline can help you determine if your ideas connect to each other, what order of ideas works best, where gaps in your thinking may exist, or whether you have sufficient evidence to support each of your points. It is also an effective way to think about the time you will need to complete each part of your paper before you begin writing.

A good outline is important because :

• You will be much less likely to get writer's block . An outline will show where you're going and how to get there. Use the outline to set goals for completing each section of your paper.
• It will help you stay organized and focused throughout the writing process and help ensure proper coherence [flow of ideas] in your final paper. However, the outline should be viewed as a guide, not a straitjacket. As you review the literature or gather data, the organization of your paper may change; adjust your outline accordingly.
• A clear, detailed outline ensures that you always have something to help re-calibrate your writing should you feel yourself drifting into subject areas unrelated to the research problem. Use your outline to set boundaries around what you will investigate.
• The outline can be key to staying motivated . You can put together an outline when you're excited about the project and everything is clicking; making an outline is never as overwhelming as sitting down and beginning to write a twenty page paper without any sense of where it is going.
• An outline helps you organize multiple ideas about a topic . Most research problems can be analyzed from a variety of perspectives; an outline can help you sort out which modes of analysis are most appropriate to ensure the most robust findings are discovered.
• An outline not only helps you organize your thoughts, but it can also serve as a schedule for when certain aspects of your writing should be accomplished . Review the assignment and highlight the due dates of specific tasks and integrate these into your outline. If your professor has not created specific deadlines, create your own deadlines by thinking about your own writing style and the need to manage your time around other course assignments.

How to Structure and Organize Your Paper. Odegaard Writing & Research Center. University of Washington; Why and How to Create a Useful Outline. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lietzau, Kathleen. Creating Outlines. Writing Center, University of Richmond.

Structure and Writing Style

I.   General Approaches

There are two general approaches you can take when writing an outline for your paper:

The topic outline consists of short phrases. This approach is useful when you are dealing with a number of different issues that could be arranged in a variety of different ways in your paper. Due to short phrases having more content than using simple sentences, they create better content from which to build your paper.

The sentence outline is done in full sentences. This approach is useful when your paper focuses on complex issues in detail. The sentence outline is also useful because sentences themselves have many of the details in them needed to build a paper and it allows you to include those details in the sentences instead of having to create an outline of short phrases that goes on page after page.

II.   Steps to Making the Outline

A strong outline details each topic and subtopic in your paper, organizing these points so that they build your argument toward an evidence-based conclusion. Writing an outline will also help you focus on the task at hand and avoid unnecessary tangents, logical fallacies, and underdeveloped paragraphs.

• Identify the research problem . The research problem is the focal point from which the rest of the outline flows. Try to sum up the point of your paper in one sentence or phrase. It also can be key to deciding what the title of your paper should be.
• Identify the main categories . What main points will you analyze? The introduction describes all of your main points; the rest of  your paper can be spent developing those points.
• Create the first category . What is the first point you want to cover? If the paper centers around a complicated term, a definition can be a good place to start. For a paper that concerns the application and testing of a particular theory, giving the general background on the theory can be a good place to begin.
• Create subcategories . After you have followed these steps, create points under it that provide support for the main point. The number of categories that you use depends on the amount of information that you are trying to cover. There is no right or wrong number to use.

Once you have developed the basic outline of the paper, organize the contents to match the standard format of a research paper as described in this guide.

III.   Things to Consider When Writing an Outline

• There is no rule dictating which approach is best . Choose either a topic outline or a sentence outline based on which one you believe will work best for you. However, once you begin developing an outline, it's helpful to stick to only one approach.
• Both topic and sentence outlines use Roman and Arabic numerals along with capital and small letters of the alphabet arranged in a consistent and rigid sequence. A rigid format should be used especially if you are required to hand in your outline.
• Although the format of an outline is rigid, it shouldn't make you inflexible about how to write your paper. Often when you start investigating a research problem [i.e., reviewing the research literature], especially if you are unfamiliar with the topic, you should anticipate the likelihood your analysis could go in different directions. If your paper changes focus, or you need to add new sections, then feel free to reorganize the outline.
• If appropriate, organize the main points of your outline in chronological order . In papers where you need to trace the history or chronology of events or issues, it is important to arrange your outline in the same manner, knowing that it's easier to re-arrange things now than when you've almost finished your paper.
• For a standard research paper of 15-20 pages, your outline should be no more than few pages in length . It may be helpful as you are developing your outline to also write down a tentative list of references.

Muirhead, Brent. “Using Outlines to Improve Online Student Writing Skills.” Journal on School Educational Technology 1, (2005): 17-23; Four Main Components for Effective Outlines. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; How to Make an Outline. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Kartawijaya, Sukarta. “Improving Students’ Writing Skill in Writing Paragraph through an Outline Technique.” Curricula: Journal of Teaching and Learning 3 (2018); Organization: Informal Outlines. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Organization: Standard Outline Form. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Outlining. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University; Plotnic, Jerry. Organizing an Essay. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Reverse Outline. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Reverse Outlines: A Writer's Technique for Examining Organization. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Using Outlines. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

A Disorganized Outline Means a Disorganized Paper!

If, in writing your paper, it begins to diverge from your outline, this is very likely a sign that you've lost your focus. How do you know whether to change the paper to fit the outline, or, that you need to reconsider the outline so that it fits the paper? A good way to check your progress is to use what you have written to recreate the outline. This is an effective strategy for assessing the organization of your paper. If the resulting outline says what you want it to say and it is in an order that is easy to follow, then the organization of your paper has been successful. If you discover that it's difficult to create an outline from what you have written, then you likely need to revise your paper.

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How to write subtopics in a research paper

Of course, Michael Researxh is better. UoPeople Communities. Subtopic headings are phrases that identify the sections of your paper or project. Depending papet your field of study, how to write subtopics in a research paper may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own subtopicz or survey. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the subtopic of the sentence. Wireless network research paper pdf than writing your research paper how to write subtopics in a research paper entirely at once, start with just the framework. Reflective writing in nursing essay a given sugtopics does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead. To see why Wikipedia can be used for subtopics but not for information research, view this YouTube video: " Is Wikipedia a Credible Source? The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:. Copyrightwith credit to the YouTube creators and Web article authors included. You are now on your way to making an outline. Exercise 2 Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence an optional piece of information to include and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Once you complete writing 10 to 20 pages, you may feel like throwing in the towel and going to sleep for a few hours. Sort Notes.

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How to Use Appropriate Headings for Subtopics Within a Research Paper

Research papers are often thought of as arduous tasks to complete. Outlining the paper with appropriate headings for subtopics can help to make the paper easier to write, as well as make the paper more understandable for your audience. Your subtopics should be based on the paper's thesis statement, which is the main point that you are trying to make. Appropriate headings will be different based on the research subject.

Write the thesis statement for your research paper. Your thesis statement can be more than one sentence, but it needs to summarize the point that you are making in your research. This is the basis of the paper, and subtopics will come from this information.

Write down an outline that includes an introduction, body and conclusion. The introduction will be the first heading and the conclusion the last heading.

Divide the body of the paper into smaller sections, which will be the subtopic headings. These will be based on the areas that you will be writing about in the paper's main section. They should break the thesis statement into small sections. Keep the headings no more than a few words long to be appropriate.

Include any subtopics that you are required to write about in your outline. Example may be methods, materials, population and discussion. Your instructor will provide you with this information when assigning the paper.

Common Subtopic Headings

How can I use this page?

:

Research Paper: A step-by-step guide: 3. Thesis Statement & Outline

• 1. Getting Started
• 2. Topic Ideas
• 3. Thesis Statement & Outline
• 4. Appropriate Sources
• 5. Search Techniques
• 6. Taking Notes & Documenting Sources
• 7. Evaluating Sources
• 8. Citations & Plagiarism
• 9. Writing Your Research Paper

About Thesis Statements

Qualities of a thesis statement.

Thesis statements:

• state the subject matter and main ideas of a paper.
• appear in the first paragraph and announces what you will discuss in your paper.
• define the scope and focus of your essay, and tells your reader what to expect.  
• are not a simple factual statement.  It is an assertion that states your claims and that you can prove with evidence.
• should be the product of research and your own critical thinking.
• can be very helpful in constructing an outline for your essay; for each point you make, ask yourself whether it is relevant to the thesis.

Steps you can use to create a thesis statement

1. Start out with the main topic and focus of your essay.

youth gangs + prevention and intervention programs

2. Make a claim or argument in one sentence.  It can be helpful to start with a question which you then turn into an argument

Can prevention and intervention programs stop youth gang activities?  How?  ►►►  "Prevention and intervention programs can stop youth gang activities by giving teens something else to do."

3. Revise the sentence by using specific terms.

"Early prevention programs in schools are the most effective way to prevent youth gang involvement by giving teens good activities that offer a path to success."

4. Further revise the sentence to cover the scope of your essay and make a strong statement.

"Among various prevention and intervention efforts that have been made to deal with the rapid growth of youth gangs, early school-based prevention programs are the most effective way to prevent youth gang involvement, which they do by giving teens meaningful activities that offer pathways to achievement and success."

5. Keep your thesis statement flexible and revise it as needed. In the process of researching and writing, you may find new information or refine your understanding of the topic.

You can view this short video for more tips on how to write a clear thesis statement.

An outline is the skeleton of your essay, in which you list the arguments and subtopics in a logical order. A good outline is an important element in writing a good paper. An outline helps to target your research areas, keep you within the scope without going off-track, and it can also help to keep your argument in good order when writing the essay.  Once your outline is in good shape, it is much easier to write your paper; you've already done most of the thinking, so you just need to fill in the outline with a paragraph for each point.

To write an outline: The most common way to write an outline is the list format.  List all the major topics and subtopics with the key points that support them. Put similar topics and points together and arrange them in a logical order.    Include an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. 

A list outline should arrange the main points or arguments in a hierarchical structure indicated by Roman numerals for main ideas (I, II, III...), capital letters for subtopics (A, B, C...), Arabic numerals for details (1,2,3...), and lower-case letters for fine details if needed (a,b,c...). This helps keep things organized.  

Here is a shortened example of an outline:

Introduction: background and thesis statement

I. First topic

1. Supporting evidence 2. Supporting evidence

II. Second Topic

III. Third Topic

I. Summarize the main points of your paper II. Restate your thesis in different words III. Make a strong final statement

You can see examples of a few different kinds of outlines and get more help at the Purdue OWL .

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How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example

Published on August 7, 2022 by Courtney Gahan . Revised on August 15, 2023.

A research paper outline is a useful tool to aid in the writing process , providing a structure to follow with all information to be included in the paper clearly organized.

A quality outline can make writing your research paper more efficient by helping to:

• Organize your thoughts
• Understand the flow of information and how ideas are related
• Ensure nothing is forgotten

A research paper outline can also give your teacher an early idea of the final product.

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Table of contents

Research paper outline example, how to write a research paper outline, formatting your research paper outline, language in research paper outlines.

• Definition of measles
• Rise in cases in recent years in places the disease was previously eliminated or had very low rates of infection
• Figures: Number of cases per year on average, number in recent years. Relate to immunization
• Symptoms and timeframes of disease
• Risk of fatality, including statistics
• How measles is spread
• Immunization procedures in different regions
• Different regions, focusing on the arguments from those against immunization
• Immunization figures in affected regions
• High number of cases in non-immunizing regions
• Illnesses that can result from measles virus
• Fatal cases of other illnesses after patient contracted measles
• Summary of arguments of different groups
• Summary of figures and relationship with recent immunization debate
• Which side of the argument appears to be correct?

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Follow these steps to start your research paper outline:

• Decide on the subject of the paper
• Write down all the ideas you want to include or discuss
• Organize related ideas into sub-groups
• Arrange your ideas into a hierarchy: What should the reader learn first? What is most important? Which idea will help end your paper most effectively?
• Create headings and subheadings that are effective
• Format the outline in either alphanumeric, full-sentence or decimal format

There are three different kinds of research paper outline: alphanumeric, full-sentence and decimal outlines. The differences relate to formatting and style of writing.

• Alphanumeric
• Full-sentence

An alphanumeric outline is most commonly used. It uses Roman numerals, capitalized letters, arabic numerals, lowercase letters to organize the flow of information. Text is written with short notes rather than full sentences.

• Sub-point of sub-point 1

Essentially the same as the alphanumeric outline, but with the text written in full sentences rather than short points.

• Additional sub-point to conclude discussion of point of evidence introduced in point A

A decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline, but with a different numbering system: 1, 1.1, 1.2, etc. Text is written as short notes rather than full sentences.

• 1.1.1 Sub-point of first point
• 1.1.2 Sub-point of first point
• 1.2 Second point

To write an effective research paper outline, it is important to pay attention to language. This is especially important if it is one you will show to your teacher or be assessed on.

There are four main considerations: parallelism, coordination, subordination and division.

Parallelism: Be consistent with grammatical form

Parallel structure or parallelism is the repetition of a particular grammatical form within a sentence, or in this case, between points and sub-points. This simply means that if the first point is a verb , the sub-point should also be a verb.

Example of parallelism:

• Include different regions, focusing on the different arguments from those against immunization

Coordination: Be aware of each point’s weight

Your chosen subheadings should hold the same significance as each other, as should all first sub-points, secondary sub-points, and so on.

Example of coordination:

• Include immunization figures in affected regions
• Illnesses that can result from the measles virus

Subordination: Work from general to specific

Subordination refers to the separation of general points from specific. Your main headings should be quite general, and each level of sub-point should become more specific.

Example of subordination:

Division: break information into sub-points.

Your headings should be divided into two or more subsections. There is no limit to how many subsections you can include under each heading, but keep in mind that the information will be structured into a paragraph during the writing stage, so you should not go overboard with the number of sub-points.

Ready to start writing or looking for guidance on a different step in the process? Read our step-by-step guide on how to write a research paper .

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113 Great Research Paper Topics

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

Are you also learning about dynamic equilibrium in your science class? We break this sometimes tricky concept down so it's easy to understand in our complete guide to dynamic equilibrium .

Thinking about becoming a nurse practitioner? Nurse practitioners have one of the fastest growing careers in the country, and we have all the information you need to know about what to expect from nurse practitioner school .

Want to know the fastest and easiest ways to convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius? We've got you covered! Check out our guide to the best ways to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit (or vice versa).

These recommendations are based solely on our knowledge and experience. If you purchase an item through one of our links, PrepScholar may receive a commission.

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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Levels of organization for a research paper outline

First level of organization, second level of organization, third level of organization, fourth level of organization, tips for writing a research paper outline, research paper outline template, my research paper outline is complete: what are the next steps, frequently asked questions about a research paper outline, related articles.

The outline is the skeleton of your research paper. Simply start by writing down your thesis and the main ideas you wish to present. This will likely change as your research progresses; therefore, do not worry about being too specific in the early stages of writing your outline.

A research paper outline typically contains between two and four layers of organization. The first two layers are the most generalized. Each layer thereafter will contain the research you complete and presents more and more detailed information.

The levels are typically represented by a combination of Roman numerals, Arabic numerals, uppercase letters, lowercase letters but may include other symbols. Refer to the guidelines provided by your institution, as formatting is not universal and differs between universities, fields, and subjects. If you are writing the outline for yourself, you may choose any combination you prefer.

This is the most generalized level of information. Begin by numbering the introduction, each idea you will present, and the conclusion. The main ideas contain the bulk of your research paper 's information. Depending on your research, it may be chapters of a book for a literature review , a series of dates for a historical research paper, or the methods and results of a scientific paper.

I. Introduction

II. Main idea

III. Main idea

IV. Main idea

V. Conclusion

The second level consists of topics which support the introduction, main ideas, and the conclusion. Each main idea should have at least two supporting topics listed in the outline.

If your main idea does not have enough support, you should consider presenting another main idea in its place. This is where you should stop outlining if this is your first draft. Continue your research before adding to the next levels of organization.

• A. Background information
• B. Hypothesis or thesis
• A. Supporting topic
• B. Supporting topic

The third level of organization contains supporting information for the topics previously listed. By now, you should have completed enough research to add support for your ideas.

The Introduction and Main Ideas may contain information you discovered about the author, timeframe, or contents of a book for a literature review; the historical events leading up to the research topic for a historical research paper, or an explanation of the problem a scientific research paper intends to address.

• 1. Relevant history
• 2. Relevant history
• 1. The hypothesis or thesis clearly stated
• 1. A brief description of supporting information
• 2. A brief description of supporting information

The fourth level of organization contains the most detailed information such as quotes, references, observations, or specific data needed to support the main idea. It is not typical to have further levels of organization because the information contained here is the most specific.

• a) Quotes or references to another piece of literature
• b) Quotes or references to another piece of literature

Tip: The key to creating a useful outline is to be consistent in your headings, organization, and levels of specificity.

• Be Consistent : ensure every heading has a similar tone. State the topic or write short sentences for each heading but avoid doing both.
• Organize Information : Higher levels of organization are more generally stated and each supporting level becomes more specific. The introduction and conclusion will never be lower than the first level of organization.
• Build Support : Each main idea should have two or more supporting topics. If your research does not have enough information to support the main idea you are presenting, you should, in general, complete additional research or revise the outline.

By now, you should know the basic requirements to create an outline for your paper. With a content framework in place, you can now start writing your paper . To help you start right away, you can use one of our templates and adjust it to suit your needs.

After completing your outline, you should:

• Title your research paper . This is an iterative process and may change when you delve deeper into the topic.
• Begin writing your research paper draft . Continue researching to further build your outline and provide more information to support your hypothesis or thesis.
• Format your draft appropriately . MLA 8 and APA 7 formats have differences between their bibliography page, in-text citations, line spacing, and title.
• Finalize your citations and bibliography . Use a reference manager like Paperpile to organize and cite your research.
• Write the abstract, if required . An abstract will briefly state the information contained within the paper, results of the research, and the conclusion.

An outline is used to organize written ideas about a topic into a logical order. Outlines help us organize major topics, subtopics, and supporting details. Researchers benefit greatly from outlines while writing by addressing which topic to cover in what order.

The most basic outline format consists of: an introduction, a minimum of three topic paragraphs, and a conclusion.

You should make an outline before starting to write your research paper. This will help you organize the main ideas and arguments you want to present in your topic.

• Consistency: ensure every heading has a similar tone. State the topic or write short sentences for each heading but avoid doing both.
• Organization : Higher levels of organization are more generally stated and each supporting level becomes more specific. The introduction and conclusion will never be lower than the first level of organization.
• Support : Each main idea should have two or more supporting topics. If your research does not have enough information to support the main idea you are presenting, you should, in general, complete additional research or revise the outline.

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What kinds of topics are good ones?

The best topics are ones that originate out of your own reading of a work of literature, but here are some common approaches to consider:

• A discussion of a work's characters: are they realistic, symbolic, historically-based?
• A comparison/contrast of the choices different authors or characters make in a work
• A reading of a work based on an outside philosophical perspective (Ex. how would a Freudian read Hamlet ?)
• A study of the sources or historical events that occasioned a particular work (Ex. comparing G.B. Shaw's Pygmalion with the original Greek myth of Pygmalion)
• An analysis of a specific image occurring in several works (Ex. the use of moon imagery in certain plays, poems, novels)
• A "deconstruction" of a particular work (Ex. unfolding an underlying racist worldview in Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness )
• A reading from a political perspective (Ex. how would a Marxist read William Blake's "London"?)
• A study of the social, political, or economic context in which a work was written — how does the context influence the work?

How do I start research?

Once you have decided on an interesting topic and work (or works), the best place to start is probably the Internet. Here you can usually find basic biographical data on authors, brief summaries of works, possibly some rudimentary analyses, and even bibliographies of sources related to your topic.

The Internet, however, rarely offers serious direct scholarship; you will have to use sources found in the library, sources like journal articles and scholarly books, to get information that you can use to build your own scholarship-your literary paper. Consult the library's on-line catalog and the MLA Periodical Index. Avoid citing dictionary or encyclopedic sources in your final paper.

How do I use the information I find?

The secondary sources you find are only to be used as an aid. Your thoughts should make up most of the essay. As you develop your thesis, you will bring in the ideas of the scholars to back up what you have already said.

For example, say you are arguing that Huck Finn is a Christ figure ; that's your basic thesis. You give evidence from the novel that allows this reading, and then, at the right place, you might say the following, a paraphrase:

According to Susan Thomas, Huck sacrifices himself because he wants to set Jim free (129).

If the scholar states an important idea in a memorable way, use a direct quote.

"Huck's altruism and feelings of compassion for Jim force him to surrender to the danger" (Thomas 129).

Either way, you will then link that idea to your thesis.

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What Are Examples of Subtopics in an Essay?

The subtopic of an essay is a topic that supports the main topic of the essay and helps to bolster its credibility. An example of a subtopic in an essay about transitioning to a new school might be difficulty making new friends or learning what each teacher expects.

Essays with subtopics typically follow a standard format. Taking the example one step further, the first paragraph for an essay entitled “My Journey Transitioning to a New High School” would need to have an introductory sentence with 1 to 3 subtopic sentences that tell readers what the essay will be about as well as a concluding sentence.

From here, the writer would move on to the second paragraph where the first subtopic sentence would be explored. In this paragraph or possibly set of paragraphs, there should be three to five different example sentences that lend support to the subtopic sentence. This should be repeated for each paragraph. Then the writer should close with a concluding paragraph that sums up all of the subtopic ideas as well as the overall topic.

Most essays benefit from writers who have a clear understanding of what it is they want to share and how they feel about it. Essay writers should have an opinion about what they are writing. Before writing the essay itself, many universities and secondary schools recommend creating an outline.

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Formulating a Research Topic

by Evan Kramer

Motivation and scope

As master’s and PhD students, we all aspire to conduct quality research. The question many of us are faced with is: how do we formulate a research topic that is well poised for performing quality research? Research topics are meant to encompass the majority or entirety of our work during our graduate career and, when well-defined, can result in opportunities to publish several high-impact academic papers. The effort required to formulate a well-defined research topic is significant, but necessary to avoid running into unforeseen challenges during your PhD. This blog post discusses the concepts that should be considered for anyone looking to define their research topic. While students have varying degrees of autonomy in shaping their research due to funding constraints and advisor expectations, the concepts discussed in this blog post account for these facets and can serve as a framework for any situation.

Overview diagram of a framework for formulating a well-defined research topic.

What is quality research?

Quality research is independent , important , and unique .

This definition identifies a set of requirements that a research topic must meet. These requirements will be discussed in more detail to orient the research topic formulation process.

Independent – Independent research can be conducted entirely by you without assistance from outside sources. While you should actively seek collaborations with others to boost the reach of your work, will you be able to complete your research objectives without relying on resources provided by others? Framing your research topic and objectives in this manner gives you protection to flakey collaborators and will keep you on track to graduate on time. For example, something you may want to avoid is crafting a research topic around the usage of one particular data set maintained by a private company. While initial collaboration talks may go smoothly, you don’t want your ability to pursue your research project in the hands of someone else!

Important – Important research makes a contribution towards answering a specific question, or a gap in knowledge, among a research community that has been posed by several scholars. You may ask yourself: if you carry out your research to completion, will your contributions answer outstanding questions posed by multiple scholars in your research community? Note that the question your work addresses may not be explicitly posed in the literature, but identifying common limitations can help formulate a gap in knowledge that you can work towards filling. Aligning your research objectives with specific and commonly posed questions can increase the chance of your work being cited by other scholars and integrated into practices in industry. 

Unique – Unique research makes a first-of-its-kind contribution. There are several ways in which your research can be unique. For example, uniqueness may be assumed if you contribute the first work to a completely unanswered question in your field. Alternatively, you may make a unique contribution to a question that has already been addressed by approaching it in a new way. Knowledge of your chosen field’s state of the art and previous foundations is useful when checking the uniqueness of your work, which can only be verified by thorough literature review. Regardless of the way your research is unique, it is important to identify the uniqueness of your work within the context of existing work in related areas.

With these three research topic characteristics in mind, the following presents a high level path to formulating your well-defined research topic.

A framework for formulating a well-defined research topic

1. look inwards.

Based on previous experiences in coursework, internships, and extracurricular activities, create a two-column list. The first column lists research fields you found interesting. The second column lists ideas that align with your personal motivations for pursuing a career in STEM research. An example of this list may look like the following:

Space propulsion	Reducing aerospace industry contributions to climate change
Aerospace controls	Increasing equitable access to space capabilities for low-resource nations
Remote sensing	Improving accessibility of space data for non-experts
High-speed aerodynamics	Bolstering safety of space travel
LEO constellation astrodynamics	Enabling efficient natural disaster response for remote communities

2. Read Widely

Given the two-column lists you created, start familiarizing yourself with the current state of the art. Starting with articles in popular science media outlets can be effective for initial cursory surveys. Any articles that pique your interest should be followed by deeper dives into related literature in Google Scholar. It is likely that several of the topics in the left column of your list get crossed off quickly when you realize they no longer interest you. Continue this process until a subset of around three areas remains. Your two-column list may then look like this:

	Reducing aerospace industry contributions to climate change
Aerospace controls	Increasing equitable access to space capabilities for low-resource nations
Remote sensing	Improving accessibility of space data for non-experts
	Bolstering safety of space travel
LEO constellation astrodynamics	Enabling efficient natural disaster response for remote communities

Note that the right hand column remains unchanged. You very likely will not be able to address all of your personal motivations for pursuing STEM research in your eventual research topic, but now is when you can start connecting topics you find interesting to research applications that personally motivate you. 

3. Consider funding and lab focus areas

While the research topic definition process should be approached predominantly with your own interests in mind, at this stage, it is important to consider where your funding is coming from. Typically, there will be specific fields your research must overlap with based on your funding source. Schedule a discussion with your advisor to share your topic definition process so far and ask if there are topics you should add to your list based on research group and funding requirements. Based on this discussion, add a third column to the list you’ve created that describes the necessary areas of overlap for your research.

	Reducing aerospace industry contributions to climate change	AI applied to satellite operations
Aerospace controls	Increasing equitable access to space capabilities for low-resource nations	Testbed development for satellite dynamics and control algorithm testing
Remote sensing	Improving accessibility of space data for non-experts	Effects of the space environment on satellite operations
	Bolstering safety of space travel
LEO constellation astrodynamics	Enabling efficient natural disaster response for remote communities

4. Continue reading and form a research statement

At this point you are trying to iterate on combinations identified in your three-column list. You can begin to formulate an overarching research statement from these combinations. Research statements generally have the form “To…by…while…”. This sentence structure explicitly identifies what you are trying to accomplish, how you will accomplish it, and which constraints you will account for. A possible research statement could be defined with one entry from each column, or you may be able to create a topic with multiple entries from each column. In this blog’s example list, a research statement could be the following:

To enable efficient natural disaster response for remote communities by developing an AI-powered rapid response scheduling algorithm for a remote sensing satellite while accounting for limitations to satellite operations imposed by the space environment .

5. Iterate and keep track of your work

You may create a few iterations of overarching research statements like this. As you continue to read focused areas in the literature, formulate a focus area Venn Diagram. By allocating articles in your literature search to portions of the diagram, you can stay organized and keep track of the work you’re doing. For the example statement above, your Venn Diagram could look like this:

Venn diagram of research topic focus areas. The most relevant literature review items can be added to each region of the diagram to track and organize your efforts.

At this point, you are well on your way to formalizing your research topic. The formalization step involves writing research questions, drafting objective statements, and identifying your research contributions. AeroAstro Communications Lab fellows can help you with these next steps through one-on-one appointments !

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Public Speaking Tips & Speech Topics

717 Good Research Paper Topics

Jim Peterson has over 20 years experience on speech writing. He wrote over 300 free speech topic ideas and how-to guides for any kind of public speaking and speech writing assignments at My Speech Class.

Some examples of common research paper styles include:

• Argumentative Research Papers
• Persuasive Research Papers
• Education Research Papers
• Analytical Research Papers
• Informative Research Papers

Your research essay topic may also need to be related to the specific class you are taking. For example, an economics class may require a business research paper, while a class on human behavior may call for a psychology research paper.

The requirements for your paper will vary depending on whether you are in high school, college, or a postgraduate student. In high school, you may be able to choose an easy topic and cite five or six sources you found on Google or Yahoo!, but college term papers require more in-depth research from reliable sources, such as scholarly books and peer-reviewed journals.

Do you need some help with brainstorming for topics? Some common research paper topics include abortion, birth control, child abuse, gun control, history, climate change, social media, AI, global warming, health, science, and technology. 

But we have many more!

On this page, we have hundreds of good research paper topics across a wide range of subject fields. Each of these topics could be used “as is” to write your paper, or as a starting point to develop your own topic ideas.

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How to Choose Your Research Paper Topic

The first step to developing an interesting research paper is choosing a good topic. Finding a topic can be difficult, especially if you don’t know where to start. Finding the Right Research Paper Topic

If you are in a class that allows you to choose your own term paper topic, there are some important areas to consider before you begin your project:

Your Level of Interest: Research papers are time-consuming; you will be spending countless hours researching the topic and related topics, developing several primary and secondary sources, and putting everything together into a paper that is coherent and accomplishes your objectives. If you do not choose a topic you are passionate about, the process will be far more tedious, and the finished product may suffer as a result.

Your Level of Experience: Being interested in a topic is great, but it is even more helpful if you already know something about it. If you can find a topic that you already have some personal and/or professional experience with, it will vastly reduce the amount of research needed and make the whole process much easier.

Available Information on the Topic: Be sure to choose a topic that is not only interesting but also one that has numerous sources available from which to compile your research. A researchable topic with several potential sources gives you access to the level of information you need to become an authority on the subject.

Your Audience: An interesting topic to you may not necessarily be interesting to your professor or whoever is grading your research paper. Before you begin, consider the level of interest of the person(s) who will be reading it. If you are writing a persuasive or argumentative essay, also consider their point of view on the subject matter.

As you begin researching your topic, you may want to revise your thesis statement based on new information you have learned. This is perfectly fine, just have fun and pursue the truth, wherever it leads. If you find that you are not having fun during the research phase, you may want to reconsider the topic you have chosen.

The process of writing the research paper is going to be very time consuming so it’s important to select a topic that is going to sustain your interest for the duration of the project. It is good to select a topic that is relevant to your life since you are going to spend a long time researching and writing about it. Perhaps you are considering starting your own business or pursuing a career in politics. Look through the suggested research paper topics and find one in a category that you can relate to easily. Finding a topic that you have some personal interest in will help make the arduous task a lot easier, and the project will have better results because of your vested interest.

Our List of Research Topics and Issues

Affirmative action, health, pharmacy, medical treatments, interpersonal communication, marketing and advertising, barack obama, discrimination, bill clinton, hilary clinton, computer crimes and security, cosmetic surgery, controversial, criminal justice, donald trump, easy/simple, environment, family violence, foreign policy, gambling and lotteries, the lgbtq community, generational conflict, gun control, hate crimes, immigration, middle east, maternity/paternity leave, natural disasters, police work, population explosion, pornography, prisons and prisoners, prostitution, ronald reagan, student loan debt, teen issues, women, mothers, what, why, and how, relationships.

We compiled an exhaustive list of topics that would make excellent research papers. The topics are specifically organized to help you find one that will work for your project. Broad topics are headed, and then below them are narrowed topics, all to help you find an area to focus on. The way we have organized the topics for research papers can save you lots of time getting prepared to write your research paper.

We have topics that fit into categories that cover such areas as education, environmental sciences, communication and languages, current events, politics, business, criminal justice, art, psychology, economics to name just a few. Simply get started by choosing the category that interests you and peruse through the topics listed in that category and you’ll be well on your way to constructing an excellent research paper.

Be sure to check other topics ideas: persuasive speech topics , argumentative speech topics , policy speech topics . We also have some sample outlines and essay templates .

• What limits are responsible?
• What limits are realistic?
• How to protect abortion doctors, pregnant women, and the protection of abortion clinics vs. the right to protest
• Partial birth abortion
• Scientific evidence vs. definition of viability
• Stem cell research
• Unborn victims of violence
• Relative equality has been achieved vs. serious inequities continue
• Can racial balance in business, education, and the military be achieved without policies that promote Affirmative Action
• Reverse discrimination
• NOW, National Organization for Women
• No government support vs. fairness to parents who pay twice for education
• Separation of church and state vs. religion’s contribution to the public good
• Placement by age vs. placement by academic ability
• Mainstreaming students with disabilities vs. special classrooms for their special needs
• Required standardized tests for advancement vs. course requirements only
• National standardized tests vs. local control of education
• Discrimination in education
• Multicultural/bilingual education vs. traditional basics
• Teacher competency tests vs. degree requirements only
• Teacher’s needs/demands vs. teaching as a service profession
• Policing schools
• School’s responsibility vs. parental responsibility for school violence
• Drug and alcohol abuse, pregnancy, suicide
• Zero tolerance toward violence vs. toughness with flexibility
• Permit corporal punishment
• Exams often do little more than measure a person’s ability to take exams. Should exams be outlawed in favor of another form of assessment?
• Should teens in the U.S. adopt the British custom of taking a “gap year” between high school and college?
• In some European schools, fewer than 10% of students get “As”. Is there grade inflation in the U.S.? Why so many “As” for Americans?
• Education and funding
• Grade inflation
• No Child Left Behind Act: Is it working?
• Home schooling
• Standardized tests
• Are children smarter (or more socialized) because of the Internet?
• Should the federal government be allowed to regulate information on the internet?
• How has the music industry been affected by the internet and digital downloading?
• How does a search engine work?
• What are the effects of prolonged steroid use on the human body?
• What are the benefits and hazards of medical marijuana?
• How does tobacco use affect the human body?
• Do the benefits of vaccination outweigh the risks?
• What are some common sleep disorders and how are they treated?
• What are the risks of artificial tanning or prolonged exposure to the sun?
• Should thin people have to pay Medicare and other health costs for the health problems of obese people? Should obese people have higher premiums?
• Low carbohydrate vs. low fat diets
• Benefits of weight training vs. aerobics
• How much weekly exercise is needed to achieve lasting health benefits
• Health websites give too much information
• Psychological disorders, such as cutting and self-harm, eating disorders, Autism, Tourette Syndrome, ADHD, ADD, Asperger Syndrome
• Are we taking it too far by blaming fast food restaurants for obesity? When is it individual responsibility and when is it appropriate to place blame?
• Should companies allow employees to exercise on work time?
• Steroids, Antibiotics, Sprays; Are food manufacturers killing us?
• Alternative medicine
• Alzheimer’s disease
• Causes of eating disorders, society’s portrayal of women
• Eating disorders statistics
• Down’s syndrome
• Birth control
• Dietary supplements
• Exercise and fitness
• Heart disease
• In vitro fertilization
• Attention deficit disorder
• Investigate the history and authenticity of ADHD and ADD.
• Organic foods
• Prescription drugs
• Vegetarianism
• Learning disabilities
• Schizophrenia
• Coma recovery: techniques, successes, new strategies.
• What are the primary types of cancer, and in what ways are they related?
• Investigate the success ratio of holistic and non-medical cancer treatments.
• Is Alzheimer’s inevitable? Examine theories regarding its prevention.
• What forms of physical degeneracy are seen as linked to aging?
• Investigate the connections between emotional stability and physical well-being, and provide evidence as to how the two may be related.
• Investigate differences in rates of injury recovery and overcoming illness based on cultural parameters.
• Examine the modern history of viral epidemics, researching what is known about the emergence of deadly viruses.
• Examine how congenital heart disease may be treated, and how it differs from other forms of heart disease.
• Is occasional depression a natural state to an extent, and is society too eager to treat this as a disorder?
• Investigate Sociopathy, determine biological and psychological roots, typical patterns, and potentials of treatment.
• How are compulsive behaviors determined as such? Explore examples of anal retention and expulsion, OCD, etc., as offering accepted criteria.
• Research and analyze the nature of codependency as both a normal state of relations and as an unhealthy extreme.
• Investigate the history and practice of electroshock, analyzing how and why this extreme treatment came to be widely used.
• Hoarding: symptoms and treatments, causes, types of hoarding
• Limits on extraordinary, costly treatments vs. doing everything possible
• Nutritional/alternative therapy vs. mainstream medical treatment insurance coverage for alternative treatment?
• Government grants for alternative treatment research?
• Health superiority of alternative treatments?
• Assisted suicide vs. preservation of life
• Governmental insurance requirements
• Should there be a national database to track controlled substances (i.e., OXYCODONE) or should it be a state issue?
• Should parents avoid vaccinating their children?
• Decline of communication due to technology
• Online social networks and their influence
• Impact of texting and cell phones
• How do men and women communicate differently using body language, and why does it matter (in dating, the workplace, and social circles)?
• Limitations of the media
• Marketing to children
• Sexual innuendos in marketing
• Global marketing trends
• Should certain kinds of ads be banned in the interest of health/morality/annoyance – alcohol, cigarettes, prescription meds, etc…?
• Children’s programming and advertising
• Most controversial political ads
• Media response and public outcry to political ads
• Campaign funds and their relation to political advertising
• Domestic policy
• Separation of church and state
• Judge nominations and make up of supreme court
• Congressional opposition to presidential nominees/filibusters
• Affirmative action
• Erosion of civil liberties vs. protection against terrorism
• Patriot Act One and Two
• Most developed nations have universal health coverage. Why doesn’t the U.S., the wealthiest nation, have it?
• Tax cut as economic stimulation
• Needs of the states vs. needs of the individuals
• Budget deficits and deficit spending
• Rich vs. poor
• Protection of victims vs. freedom of speech/rights of the accused
• How to improve race relations
• Women still earn only 75 cents for every $1 a man earns. Explain why.
• Discrimination in the workplace: analyzing issues for today’s corporations.
• Gender discrimination
• Interracial marriage
• Should government impose restrictions on what kinds of foods can be served in school cafeterias?
• Pros and cons of school uniforms.
• Do children learn better in boys-only and girls-only schools?
• Charter schools
• Prayer in schools
• Rights of the individual vs. community safety (or campus safety)
• Funding for research
• U.S. obligation to third world countries
• Manufacturing of generic drugs vs. U.S. pharmaceutical companies
• How contagious diseases “jump” from animal hosts to human
• What treatments are available to people infected with HIV and are they effective?
• Right to privacy of a child with AIDS vs. safety of other children
• Limits for campus safety vs. personal freedom
• Implications on violence and crime
• Issues with binge drinking
• Should the U.S. lower the drinking age to 18?
• Leniency because of condition vs. community safety
• Revoking drivers license vs. being able to attend classes and work
• Age discrimination of violators
• Animal rights vs. medical research
• Should it be illegal to use animals for sports and entertainment?
• Humane treatment of animals vs. factory farms
• Animal welfare in slaughter houses
• Animal protection vs. business, employment interests
• School prestige vs. academic standards
• Should shoe companies be able to give away free shoes and equipment to high school athletes?
• Should college athletes be paid?
• Doping in sports
• What are the effects on children whose parents push them in sports?
• Steroids: Should they be legalized?
• Title IX: Has it helped women’s sports? Has it harmed men’s sports?
• Social effects of team sports
• Needed in public school library/curriculum?
• Needed in entertainment industry?
• Needed on the Internet?
• Should parents censor textbooks and other literature for children in schools?
• Parental filters on the Internet. Does censorship actually increase curiosity and use of pornography?
• How is internet censorship used in China and around the world?
• How has United States censorship changed over the decades?
• Democratic kingmaker, influence on political succession
• Impact of global initiative
• Influence on fundraising
• Influence as Secretary of State
• Foreign policies
• Influence on women
• ACT or SAT score requirements
• Promotional techniques, such as 1st time scholarships
• 4 year vs. 2 year colleges
• College admission policies
• College tuition planning
• Distance education
• Diploma mills
• Online porn vs. freedom of speech
• Stalking, invasion of privacy vs. reasonable access
• Hacking crimes–workable solutions?
• What are the latest ways to steal identity and money?
• From where does spam email come and can we stop it?
• How do computer viruses spread and in what ways do they affect computers?
• Cyber security
• Securing Internet commerce: is it possible in today’s arms’ race of hackers and evolving technology?
• Is downloading of media (music, videos, software) infringing on the rights of media producers and causing economic hardships on media creators?
• Should media producers prosecute students and individuals that they suspect of downloading copyrighted materials?
• Programs such as SPOTIFY and PANDORA
• Copyright Law
• Age limitations on surgery
• Addiction to surgery
• Demand for beauty by society
• The dangers of breast implants for teenagers
• The cost of cosmetic surgery
• Plastic surgery
• Weight loss surgery
• Are surgeons “scissor happy,” and are surgeries widely unnecessarily
• Negative texting, instant messaging, email
• Is cyber-bullying as bad as face-to-face?
• Kinds of punishment for cyber-bullying
• Media response
• Should the state or federal government put laws into place to prevent bullying?
• Is homosexuality a choice, or are people born gay?
• Evolution vs. Creationism.
• Should “under God” remain in the Pledge of Allegiance?
• Is healthcare a right or a privilege?
• Fossil fuels vs. alternative energy.
• Transgender bathroom policies.
• Capitalism vs. socialism.
• Should parents be allowed to spank their children?
• Should sanctuary cities lose their federal funding?
• The pros and cons of gun control.
• Should the U.S. continue drone strikes in foreign countries?
• Was the U.S. justified in going to war with Iraq?
• How to solve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
• The pros and cons of animal testing.
• Do pro athletes have the right to sit during the national anthem?
• Incarceration rates in the U.S.
• Technology and the criminal justice system.
• Police brutality and minorities.
• Should the police wear body cameras?
• In what circumstances should the death penalty be allowed?
• Should we have stiffer penalties for drunk driving?
• Should those who text while driving be put in jail?
• White-collar crime and punishment.
• Criminalizing protests and activism.
• The rise of wrongful convictions.
• Mutual consent vs. exploitation
• Campuses with “no touch” policy
• Drugs associated to Date Rape
• Violence and Rape
• Government support vs. parental financing
• Benefits vs. harmful effects
• Trump’s unconventional presidential campaign.
• The psychology of Donald Trump.
• Who is behind Trump’s political rise?
• Donald Trump and evangelical voters.
• Donald Trump the businessman.
• Trump’s war on the press (aka “fake news”).
• The Trump Organization and conflicts of interest.
• The border wall and illegal immigration policy.
• Global warming and climate change policy.
• Trump-Russia collusion.
• The rapid rise of “The Resistance.”
• Trump’s legislative agenda; e.g., health care, tax policy, deregulation, etc.
• Trump’s “America First” trade and foreign policy.
• The case for (or against) the Trump presidency.
• Punishment vs. treatment
• Family reactions
• Social acceptance
• Community safety vs. legalization
• United States military involvement in Colombian drug trade?
• Drug legalization
• Abstinence Program: Do they work?
• Should the federal government legalize the use of marijuana?
• What is the true key to happiness?
• What is the cause of America’s obesity crisis?
• Why sleep is necessary.
• Are plastic bottles really bad for you?
• How to encourage people to recycle more.
• How 3D printers benefit everyone.
• How do GPS systems on smartphones work?
• How have oil spills impacted the environment?
• Verbal vs. nonverbal communication.
• The accuracy of lie detector tests.
• How Bill Gates and Steve Jobs changed the world.
• The pros and cons of hitchhiking.
• The PC vs. the Mac.
• What causes tornadoes?
• Pollution, air, and water
• Endangered species
• What are the risks of climate change and global warming?
• Rain forests
• Alternative energy
• Alternative fuel/hybrid vehicles
• Conservation
• Deforestation
• Greenhouse effect
• Marine pollution
• How have oil spills affected the planet and what steps are being taken to prevent them?
• Sustainability of buildings
• Recycling programs
• Cost of “green” programs
• Wind turbines
• Landfill issues
• Renewable fuels
• Radioactive waste disposal
• Soil pollution
• Wildlife conservation: what efforts are being taken to protect endangered wildlife?
• Excessive burden on industries?
• Drilling for oil in Alaska’s ANWR (Arctic National Wildlife Refuge)
• Gasoline consumption vs. SUV’s popularity
• Wildlife protection vs. rights of developers
• Clean air and water standards–weakened vs. strengthened
• What are the dangers of scuba diving and underwater exploration?
• Should the use of coal be subjected to stricter environmental regulations than other fuels?
• Is global warming a hoax? Is it being exaggerated?
• How much is too much noise? What, if anything, should we do to curb it?
• Protecting victims vs. rights of the accused
• Women who kill abusive husbands vs. punishment for murder
• Marital rape?
• How to protect children vs. respect for parental rights
• Children who kill abusive parents
• Child abuse–workable solutions?
• Child abuse
• Domestic abuse
• Organic farming vs. mainline use of chemical sprays
• How to best protect the environment; conservation
• Family vs. corporate farms
• Food production costs
• Interventionism?
• Third world debt and World Bank/International Monetary Fund
• Military support vs. economic development of third world countries
• Human rights violations
• European Union in competition with the U.S.
• Unilateralism
• Relevance of the United Nations
• Neocon role in foreign policy
• Christian right influence on foreign policy
• Pentagon vs. State Department
• Nation building as a policy
• Arms control
• Obama’s National Strategy for Counterterrorism
• Control of al Qaeda
• Drawdown of U.S. Armed Forces in the Middle East
• Cats vs. dogs: which makes the better pet?
• My pet can live forever: why I love animal clones.
• According to my social media profile, my life is perfect.
• Football vs. baseball: which sport is America’s favorite pastime?
• Starbucks vs. Caribou: whose coffee is better?
• What does your dog really think of you?
• Why millennials deserve lower pay.
• What makes people end up with so many mismatched socks?
• How to become a research paper master.
• How reading Tuesdays with Morrie can make you wiser.
• Easy way to earn revenues vs. social damage
• Individual freedom vs. social damage
• Do lotteries actually benefit education or is it a scam?
• Can gamblers ever acquire a statistical advantage over the house in casino games?
• Should there be a constitutional amendment that allows gays and lesbians to legally marry?
• Adoption rights?
• Need special rights for protection?
• College campus response
• Gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender
• Gay parenting
• Elderly to share in the tax burden vs. government support of elderly
• Future of social security
• Job discrimination
• Child rearing
• Employment issues
• Generational differences
• Community and police safety vs. unrestricted right to bear arms
• NRA (National Rifle Association)
• 2nd Amendment
• Do states that allow citizens to carry guns have higher or lower crime rates?
• Community safety vs. freedom of Speech
• Punishment inequities
• Persecution of alternative lifestyles
• Church Arson: Hate crime?
• Prevention of hazing
• Greek organizations and rituals of hazing
• Statistics of death or injury due to Hazing
• High Schools and Hazing
• What happened during the Salem witch trials?
• How did trains and railroads change life in America?
• What may have occurred during the Roswell UFO incident of 1947?
• What Olympic events were practiced in ancient Greece?
• How did Cleopatra come to power in Egypt? What did she accomplish during her reign?
• What are the origins of the conflict in Darfur?
• What was the women’s suffrage movement and how did it change America?
• How was the assassination of Abraham Lincoln plotted and executed?
• How did Cold War tension affect the US and the world?
• What happened to the lost settlers at Roanoke?
• How did Julius Caesar affect Rome?
• How did the Freedom Riders change society?
• What was the code of the Bushido and how did it affect samurai warriors?
• How did Joan of Arc change history?
• What dangers and hardships did Lewis and Clark face when exploring the Midwest?
• How are the Great Depression and the Great Recession similar and different?
• What was the Manhattan Project and what impact did it have on the world?
• Why did Marin Luther protest against the Catholic Church?
• How did the Roman Empire fall?
• How did the black plague affect Europe?
• How did Genghis Khan conquer Persia?
• How did journalists influence US war efforts in Vietnam?
• Who is Vlad the Impaler and what is his connection to Count Dracula?
• Who was a greater inventor, Leonardo di Vinci or Thomas Edison?
• What was the role of African Americans during the Revolutionary War?
• What was Britain’s view of India during British rule?
• What were the factors in the China-Tibet conflict?
• Research and analyze the emergence of the Catholic Church as a political force following the collapse of the Roman Empire.
• Investigate Dr. Eileen Powers’ claim that the Roman Empire was lost primarily due to an inability to perceive itself as subject to the change inevitable to all governments, or her “force of nature” theory.
• Explore and discuss the actual cooperation occurring through the centuries of Barbarian conquest of Rome.
• Examine the differences and similarities between Western and Eastern concepts and practices of kingship.
• Investigate and explain the trajectory of ALEXANDER THE GREAT’s empire, with minimal emphasis on personal leadership.
• To what extent did commerce first link Eastern and Western cultures, and how did this influence early international relations?
• Research and analyze how Japan moved from a feudalistic to a modern state, and how geographic isolation played a role in the process.
• Analyze the process and effects of Romanization on the Celtic people of ancient England: benefits, conflicts, influences.
• Overview of British dominance of Ireland, Wales, and Scotland! How was this justified in each case, and what motivated the attempts over centuries of rebellion and failure?
• Investigate the known consequences of Guttenberg’s printing press within the first 30 years of its invention, and only in regard to the interaction between European nations.
• Identify and analyze the point at which the Reformation became fused with European politics and nationalist agendas.
• To what extent did Henry VIII promote the Reformation, despite his vigorous persecution of heretics in England?
• Trace and discuss the uses of papal power as a military and political device in the 14th and 15th centuries.
• Research the city/state of Florence from the 13th to the 16th centuries, discussing how and why it evolved as so fiercely republican.
• Compare and contrast the Russian Czarism of Peter, Elizabeth, and Catherine with the monarchies of England and France in the 18th and 19th centuries.
• Investigate the enormous significance of Catholic Orthodoxy as the dominant faith in Russia, and its meaning and influence in an empire populated by a minimal aristocracy and predominant serfdom.
• To what extent did Philip II’s religious convictions shape European policy and conflict in the 16th century?
• Trace the path leading to the convocation of the Estates in France in the late 18th century, leading to the Revolution. Assess political and social errors responsible.
• What eventually ended serfdom in Russia, and why were numerous attempts to end it by the Czars in power consistently unsuccessful?
• Research and report on how England was transformed in the 19th century by the industrial revolution and the advent of the railroad.
• Compare and contrast the consequences of the industrial revolutions in England and America in terms of urbanization.
• What were the circumstances leading to World War I, and how might the war have been averted?
• Assess the Cold War of the 20th century in an historical context: can any parallels be made between this conflict and other ongoing tensions between major powers in earlier centuries?
• Analyze Roosevelt’s decisions in implementing the New Deal, beginning with the closing of the banks. Suggest alternative strategies, or reinforce the rationale of the actions.
• What architectural marvels were found in Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire?
• What was the cultural significance of the first moon landing?
• Food programs
• Welfare reform
• Governmental supplementation
• Homeless: urban restrictions vs. needs of the destitute
• Workable solutions?
• Realistic limits vs. openness toward people in need
• English as official language vs. respect for diversity
• Should illegal immigrants be made legal citizens?
• Access to public school and public programs for Illegal Aliens
• Policing borders–workable solutions?
• Employment and/or taxation for Illegal Aliens
• International trade
• Democratization
• “Shock and awe”
• U.S. occupation vs. liberation
• Iraqi run vs. U.S. puppet state
• Oil and Gas prices-Control of resources
• Effective self-government
• War on Terrorism
• Is America winning or losing the War? What is the measurement of success? Have the benefits outweighed the costs?
• Parental leave for both parents
• FMLA (Family Medical Leave Act)
• Bonding time
• Preemptive strike policy
• Precision weapons
• Intelligence reliability
• Afghanistan – a success or stalemate
• Should the U.S. have mandatory military conscriptions? For whom?
• Governmental support
• Preparedness
• School emergency plans
• Community warning systems
• Damage costs
• U.S. presidential elections should be decided by the popular vote, rather than the Electoral College.
• The minimum wage should be increased to provide a “livable” wage for working families.
• There should be stiffer penalties for those who commit animal cruelty.
• School vouchers increase competition and create better quality schools.
• The corporate tax rate should be lowered to create more jobs.
• Social Security should be privatized.
• Human torture should be banned in all circumstances.
• Affirmative action is still needed to ensure racial and gender equality.
• The U.S. dollar should go back on the gold standard.
• Euthanasia and assisted suicide should be outlawed.
• Police brutality vs. dangers that police face
• Racially motivated brutality?
• Politician’s right to privacy vs. the public’s right to know
• Amount of money going into presidential campaigns
• Views on abortion, gay marriage, and other controversial topics
• Political debates throughout history
• Third-party candidates at presidential debates
• Rights of religious citizens vs. freedom from imposition (e.g. prayer in schools)
• Religious motivation for political involvement vs. cultural pluralism
• Christian Right’s influence on foreign policy
• How serious? Causes? Workable solutions?
• Funding abortion as a form of birth control in third world countries?
• What would happen globally if the demand for natural resources is greater than the supply?
• Limitation of social deterioration vs. freedom of speech
• Definition of Pornography
• Child Pornography
• Building prisons vs. alternative sentencing
• Adjusted sentencing for lesser crimes
• Community service
• Diversion Programs for inmates
• How does the prison population in America compare to other nations?
• Prostitution laws in the US and abroad
• Benefits and drawbacks to legalizing prostitution
• Psychological effect on prostitutes and former prostitutes
• Sex slavery, buying and selling
• Should the government be allowed to wire tap without permission?
• What limitations, if any, should be applied to the paparazzi?
• What medical information should be confidential? Who, if anybody, should have access to medical records?
• Does the public have a right to know about a public figure’s private life?
• Privacy rights
• Do harsher punishments mean fewer convictions?
• Date rape: consent vs. exploitation
• Drugs-Rohypnol, GHB, KETAMINE
• Legalization of Date Rape Drugs
• Recently, a 17-year-old boy was sentenced to 10 years in prison for having consensual oral sex with a 15-year-old girl. Are statutory rape laws patronizing to girls and discriminatory to boys?
• Acquaintance rape
• Is there one true religion?
• Freedom of religion
• Offer distinct reasons why the Bible should be studied as literature, removed from religious significance.
• From Hollywood to the White House: the political rise of Ronald Reagan.
• The Great Communicator: how Reagan captured the hearts of Americans.
• 1981 assassination attempt: bullet wound leaves Reagan inches away from death.
• Reagan appoints the first female Supreme Court justice.
• The PATCO breakup and decline of the labor unions.
• Tax cuts and “Reaganomics.”
• The “Iran-Contra” scandal.
• Reagan, Gorbachev, and the end of the Cold War.
• The final act: Reagan’s Alzheimer’s disease diagnosis and long goodbye.
• How has airport security intensified since September 11th, 2001?
• Identity theft
• Homeland Security: Are we safer since the creation of this department?
• Should the government use invasive pat-downs and body scans to ensure passenger safety or are there better methods?
• Is arming Pilots a good idea?
• What responsibilities do secret service agents have?
• Student loan scams
• How to avoid student loan debt
• Managing student loan debt
• Driverless cars and the future of transportation.
• Breaking the glass ceiling: the impact of the women’s rights movement.
• How seniors contribute to societal well-being.
• How disabled individuals are viewed by society.
• The modern-day civil rights movement.
• Has technology made us more detached from society?
• The role of religion in society.
• In today’s society, are we better off or worse off than previous generations?
• Popular music and its impact on the culture.
• Class and geographical segregation.
• The differences between life in the city, suburbs, and/or rural areas.
• Should parents be able to create designer babies?
• Should microchips be implanted inside humans for better tracking and security?
• Will smart watches eventually replace cell phones?
• The pros and cons of being a global citizen.
• Progressive vs. flat tax
• Excessive taxes vs. worthwhile programs
• Is text messaging contributing to teen illiteracy?
• How eating disorders impact teens.
• Tablets vs. textbooks.
• Do standardized tests improve teen education?
• Are violent video games contributing to juvenile delinquency?
• Is English literature relevant for today’s teens?
• Should the HPV vaccine be required for teen girls?
• Do teachers inflate grades so students can pass?
• Should advertisers be allowed to target teens?
• How to encourage teens to stop smoking.
• The causes and effects of teen alcohol and drug abuse.
• How to prevent teen pregnancy.
• Osama Bin Laden
• World Trade Center and Pentagon bombings
• September 11, 2001
• War on terrorism
• Afghanistan
• Bioterrorism
• Al Qaida: Has U.S. policy actually spread terrorism rather than contained it? Will it get better or worse? Why and how?
• Can terrorism ever be justified?
• What kind of person becomes a suicide bomber?
• What were the circumstances surrounding the death of Osama Bin Laden?
• Has the Patriot Act prevented or stopped terrorist acts in America?
• How is text messaging affecting teen literacy?
• Cell Phones: How have they changed us socially?
• Does the Information Age mean we are losing important historical information?
• Where did hip-hop music originate?
• A day in the life of a Buddhist monk.
• How does the brain store and retrieve memories?
• What life is like inside an ant colony.
• The case for and against the existence of UFOs.
• Can virtual reality adequately substitute for actual reality?
• Are dreams hidden messages or just hot air?
• Why do people collect the most ridiculous things?
• When is it time to get out of an abusive relationship?
• The art of pretending to care.
• Public attitudes toward veterans
• Health issues caused by service time
• Organizations for veterans
• Governmental support for veterans
• What programs are available to help war veterans get back into society?
• Iraq War Vets: Are they being cheated on medical benefits?
• Is there a glass ceiling?
• Obstacles to women running for political office?
• Should women be priests, pastors, ministers, and rabbis?
• What differences, if any, are there in children who are raised by stay-at-home moms and working moms? Does society today still discriminate against working mothers who wish to have flexible work schedules?
• Should stay-at-home moms get a salary from the government?
• Why do we sleep?
• How do GPS systems work?
• Who was the first person to reach the North Pole?
• Did anybody ever escape Alcatraz?
• What was life like for a gladiator?
• Are there any effective means of repelling insects?
• How is bulletproof clothing made?
• How was the skateboard invented and how has it changed over the years?
• What is life like inside of a beehive?
• Where did hip hop originate and who were its founders?
• What makes the platypus a unique and interesting mammal?
• What is daily life like for a Buddhist monk?
• How did gunpowder change warfare?
• How were cats and dogs domesticated and for what purposes?
• What do historians know about ninjas?
• Are humans still evolving?
• What is the curse of the pharaohs?
• Why was Socrates executed?
• How did ancient sailors navigate the globe?
• How are black holes formed?
• How do submarines work?
• Do lie detector tests accurately determine truthful statements?
• How does a hybrid car save energy?
• What ingredients can be found in a hotdog?
• How does a shark hunt?
• How does the human brain store and retrieve memories?
• How does stealth technology shield aircraft from radar?
• What causes tornados?
• How does night vision work?
• What causes desert mirages, and how do they affect wanderers?
• What are sinkholes, and how are they formed?
• What are the major theories explaining the disappearance of the dinosaurs?
• Should we reform laws to make it harder to get a divorce?
• Divorce rates
• Family relationships
• Family values
• Race relations
• Marriage and Divorce
• A view of home life and its effect on child development
• How 4 generations in the workplace can work together.
• Building positive employee relationships
• Modern work environments
• Business leadership
• Workforce regulations
• Small business and taxation
• Corporate law
• Issues in modern Human Resources: Are today’s corporations patronizing employees or being more responsible for them?
• Cultural conflict in globalization: Strategies for successfully establishing a presence in a foreign culture
• Corporate abuse: How can executives so successfully manipulate corporations criminally?
• Identifying stakeholders in non-public companies: is the corporate responsibility the same as for public offerings?
• Devise a new model of leadership for business today, incorporating elements of existing leadership models and theories.
• Examine the actual impact of social media as a business promotion instrument.
• Devise a scenario in which traditionally unethical business practices may be justified.
• Should newspaper reporters be required to reveal their sources?
• Do the media (both print and broadcast) report fairly? Do they ever cross the line between reporting the news and creating the news?
• Does news coverage favor whites?
• What steps are involved in creating a movie or television show?
• How have the film and music industries dealt with piracy?
• Media conglomerates/ownership
• Minorities in mass media
• Portrayal of women
• Reality television
• Television violence
• Media portrayals
• Sensationalized media
• Examine the issues of responsibility in pharmaceutical companies’ promotion of drugs in the media.
• Forensic science technology
• What are the current capabilities and future goals of genetic engineers?
• What obstacles faced scientists in breaking the sound barrier?
• What is alchemy and how has it been attempted?
• What technologies are available to home owners to help them conserve energy?
• Nuclear energy
• Clean energy resources
• Wind energy: Is wind energy really that inexpensive? Is it effective? Is it practical?
• What are the dangers and hazards of using nuclear power?
• Investigate Freud’s contributions to psychology as they exist today: what value remains?
• Are there gender foundations to psychology and behavior that are removed from cultural considerations? To what extent does gender actually dictate thought process?
• To what extent is sexual orientation dictated by culture, and is there an orientation not subject to social and cultural influences?
• Investigate the psychological process in group dynamics with regard to the emergence of leaders and the compliance of others.
• Compare and contrast Jung, Freud, and Adler: explore distinctions and commonalities.
• What is “normal,” and to what extent is psychology reliant on culture to define this?
• Research and assess the effectiveness of radical psychotherapies and unconventional treatments.
• Research the concept of human will as both a component of individual psychology and a process or element removed from it.
• To what extent is self-image influenced by culture in regard to eating disorders? Are external factors entirely to blame?
• How do centuries-old beliefs of madness and dementia relate to modern conceptions of mental illness?
• Is psychology itself inevitably a non-science in that virtually any theory may be substantiated, or is there a foundation of science to the subject to which all theorists must conform?
• Examine Euripides and gender psychology: what do the Trojan Women and Medea reveal?
• Using three characters, explore Chaucer’s insight into human behavior in The Canterbury Tales.
• Identify the true relationship between Dante and Virgil in The Divine Comedy, emphasizing Dante’s reliance on the poet.
• Research and discuss the English fascination for euphemism and ornate narratives in the 16th century, beginning with John Lyly.
• Examine any existing controversies regarding Shakespearean authorship, citing arguments on both sides.
• Analyze similarities and differences between Marlowe and Shakespeare in regard to Tamburlaine and Titus Andronicus.
• Defend or support Bloom’s assertion of Shakespeare as the “inventor of the human being.”
• To what degree are Shakespeare’s plays influenced by, or reflective, of the Elizabethan era? Identify specific cultural and national events linked to at least 3 plays.
• Analyze the unusual construction of A Winter’s Tale in regard to transition from comedy to drama. Is this valid? Does the transition benefit or harm the play?
• Support the belief that Shakespeare is representing himself as Prospero through evidence, or similarly refute the belief.
• Why was extreme violence so popular in English Reformation drama? Cite Marlowe, Kyd, Webster, and Shakespeare.
• Analyze the metaphysical in Donne’s poetry: is it spiritual, existential, or both?
• What is Shelley seeking to say in Frankenstein? Support your answer with passages from the novel.
• Compare and contrast Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina with Flaubert’s Madame Bovary, noting the characters of the heroines.
• It is argued that Dickens failed when he turned to serious, romantic narrative in his novels. Using Copperfield, Great Expectations, and Dombey and Son, defend or refute this claim.
• Assess Dickens’ stance as a moralist in Bleak House and Hard Times: to what extent does he seek reform, and to what does he comment on the human condition?
• Was the Harry Potter phenomenon warranted by quality of storytelling or more a matter of public receptivity at the time combined with media exposure?

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20 thoughts on “717 Good Research Paper Topics”

How has music evolved? How has music effected history? Music of the past vs music of the present. How has the music industry effected the music’s quality?

Do you think abortion is legal? Why they do abortion?

Why are people instinctively afraid of animals that are not mammals?

Should abortion be legalized? Should domestic abuse and child abuse victims be granted clemency for killing their abuser?

Jewish holocaust and its contribution to European History, specifically Germany

What is the most popular college in the United States?

The Black Knight: Space Waste or Alien Satellite? The Moon Landing: Real or Hollywood Hoax? Have We Become Too Politically Correct? Paranormal Research: Real? Fake? Should it be offered in college? Who really was Jack the Ripper? Can a zombie apocalypse truly occur? Who is the best or worst president of the USA? The Men in Black: real or hoax?

Why Marching Band is a sport.

Marching band is not a sport

how did aids start?

Topic : Alternative medicine Research question : Does the alternative medicine is safe and standardized Hypothesis : analyse the quality controle of alternative medicine formulations

Does our nostalgic music/childhood songs affect our present lifestyle, and in what ways?

reverse discriminations is still discrimination so there’s no such thing as that. like reverse racism isn’t a thing because that is still racism

Men on birth control and not women.

You forget the topic Islamophobia 😉

You should add a music section. Is Muzio Clementi overshadowed by Mozart? The Toccata and Fugue in D- really wasn’t written by Bach The use of the “Dies Irae” in cinema Why is modern music so repetitive and simple compared to classical music?

I want to do a research project on Education

I want to research but not get a perfect topic help me give me a best topic about current affairs

Topic: History. Are the Crusades oversimplified? where they justified? If so, how? Topic: Current affairs. Is the term “conspiracy theory” used to discredit any non-mainstream, controversial opinions. Topic: Gun control. Does limiting magazine capacity for firearms have any effect on gun crime? Are high-capacity magazines ever necessary for self-defense? Topic: Economics. Are minimum wage laws necessary to guarantee “decent”, or do the laws of supply and demand automatically ensure that?

Are women funny?

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© 2024 My Speech Class

• Open access
• Published: 14 August 2024

Health policy and systems research priority-setting exercise in Ethiopia: a collaborative approach

• Getasew Amare   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2147-9754 1 , 3 ,
• Berhanu Fikadie Endehabtu 2 , 3 ,
• Asmamaw Atnafu 1 , 3 ,
• Lemma Derseh 3 , 4 ,
• Kassu Ketema Gurmu 5 , 6 , 7 ,
• Theodros Getachew 8 &
• Binyam Tilahun 2 , 3  

Health Research Policy and Systems volume  22 , Article number:  107 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Introduction

Health policy and systems research (HPSR) is a multi-disciplinary approach of generating health system and policy-level evidence. Setting HPSR agendas is considered as an efficient strategy to map and identify policy and cost-effective research topics, but its practice in developing countries is limited. This paper aimed to conduct a collaborative health policy and system research priority-setting exercise in Ethiopia.

The WHO’s plan, implement, publish, and evaluate (PIPE) framework and the Delphi technique were used to conduct the priority-setting exercise. The PIPE model was used to lead the priority-setting process from planning to evaluation, while the Delphi technique was used to run the rating and ranking exercise with the aim of reaching a consensus. Two rounds of expert panel workshops supplemented with an online survey were used for the HPSR agenda setting, rating and ranking purposes. Groups were formed using the WHO health system building blocks as a base framework to identify and prioritize the HPSR topics.

Under 8 themes, 32 sub-themes and 182 HPSR topics were identified. The identified research themes include leadership management and governance, health policy, health information system, healthcare financing, human resource for health, medical products and supply, service delivery and cross-cutting issues.

Conclusions

Priority HPSR topics focussing on national health priority issues were identified. The identified topics were shared with policymakers and academic and research institutions. Evidence generation on the identified priority topics will guide future research endeavours and improve evidence-informed decision-making practice, health system performance and national health goals and targets.

Peer Review reports

The current global health system agenda focusses on strengthening health systems with a system-thinking approach [ 1 , 2 ]. Health policy and systems research (HPSR) seeks to understand and improve how societies organize themselves to achieve collective health goals and how different actors interact in policy implementation to contribute to policy outcomes [ 3 ]. HPSR is experiencing a diverse level of interest [ 4 ], and has been identified as essential to scaling up interventions to achieve different health goals in general and universal health coverage (UHC) in particular [ 5 ]. Moreover, HPSR is a vital research approach for a responsive, adaptive and resilient health system. It helps with collaboration, fund mapping and priority, efficient and effective resource allocation, as well as with improving health system performance [ 6 ]. However, current research priority-setting exercises often do not address HPSR well. HPSR prioritization is crucial, as it helps to best utilize available resources in areas that maximize the impact of research on population health [ 7 ]. It also significantly impacts the relevance and utility of evidence to policymakers and decision-makers [ 3 ]. Low- and middle-income countries, including Ethiopia, face serious resource scarcity to the healthcare system; these countries need critical, informed, evidence-based decisions on properly allocating resources to the health system [ 2 , 8 ]. Cognizant of this, allocating limited resources to essential areas of the health system with high impact, priority-setting and ranking the areas of interest is a strategic approach. Timely evidence generation and utilization while allocating resources, designing, implementing and evaluating appropriate interventions is paramount.

Ethiopia has developed and implemented a national health policy since 1993 emphasizing health promotion and disease prevention in rural areas. Moreover, several national health strategic plans and initiatives have been developed for the last 30 years [ 9 ]. In 2015, the country launched a long-term health sector transformation roadmap titled Envisioning Ethiopia’s Path towards Universal Coverage through Strengthening Primary Health Care. This health sector transformation plan has four phases and a 5-year implementation period. The strategic plan aims to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs), UHC and global health agendas and targets [ 10 , 11 ].

Despite all the efforts of developing different strategic health plans, initiatives and transformation agendas, the health outcome improvement of the nation is not progressing as expected. The performance of key health variables and progress towards UHC is still low [ 12 , 13 ]. The challenges include poor resource allocations, lack of evidence-based decisions, weak public–private partnerships, weak inter-sectoral collaboration and weak academia and health policymakers’ collaborations [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. In many developing countries, including Ethiopia, health policy and systems research studies are not the primary focus and lead to decisions without sufficient evidence; thus, the practice of evidence-based initiative, strategic plans and policy development in the health system is limited. Research findings and evidence for different decisions are essential to overcome the challenges.

Most health research in Ethiopia has focussed on clinical and biomedical research and HPSR receives little attention. A scoping review has shown that the research prioritization exercises done in Ethiopia focussed on reproductive maternal, newborn, child and adolescent health and nutrition (RMNCAHN); human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); sexually transmitted diseases; tuberculosis; and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Therefore, this paper aimed to conduct a collaborative HPSR priority agenda-setting exercise in the case of Ethiopia.

Priority-setting approach

In the present paper, the authors employed the WHO’s plan, implement, publish and evaluate (PIPE) model [ 21 ] and the Delphi technique for the health policy and systems research (HPSR) priority-setting exercise. The PIPE model, which was used in other similar settings [ 22 , 23 ], served as a framework to guide the overarching implementation of this priority-setting activity. During the planning phase, a scoping review was done to identify what was already known and what was already done in the country, as well as identifying the principles that guide the priority-setting exercise, agreeing upon the methodology and developing an implementation proposal. Key priority-setting activities were done in the implementation phase according to the proposal. At the publishing stage, the findings were communicated with key stakeholders and this manuscript was developed. The final evaluation role was given to the Ministry of Health (MoH) and the Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI) (Fig.  1 ).

The PIPE framework used for the HPSR priority-setting exercise adapted from WHO research priority-setting exercise [ 21 ]

In addition, we conducted two rounds of the Delphi technique, which involved rating and ranking exercises, to reach a consensus on the identified research topics (Fig.  2 ). The Delphi technique, established during the 1950s, consists of a systematic, multistep procedure that involves expert panellists engaging in a sequence of rounds to pinpoint, elucidate and ultimately reach an agreement on a specific matter. Each round consists of clear, unbiased statements on the basis of prior responses. The goal is to achieve consensus through information feedback and repetition, concluding once the agreement has been obtained [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Different countries used the Delphi technique as a consensus-building approach for health research priority-setting [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ].

HPSR priority-setting Delphi technique process

Selection of participants for priority-setting

To select the participants for HPSR priority-setting, the research team, in consultation with the Policy, Strategy, and Research Executive Office of the Ministry of Health of Ethiopia, developed the selection parameters. Initially, before mapping the participants we group the potential HPSR topics on the basis of the WHO health system building blocks and we set parameters to identify participants under each thematic area. The participants were identified on the basis of the parameters set by the research team: active engagement in the area by health system leadership, program implementation, policy development, research and evidence generation, partnership and funding programs. During participant selection we also tried to include participants from different types of organizations who have an active stake in the health system and policy of Ethiopia. Considering their representatives, 112 participants were chosen from diverse organizations such as the MoH, regional health bureaus (RHB), national health agencies, research institutes, universities, development partners, private facilities and community representatives.

The WHO’s health system building blocks were used as a foundation for assigning experts in different healthcare areas, including health policy leadership management and governance (LMG), health information systems (HIS), human resources for health (HRH), healthcare financing (HCF) and medical supplies and service delivery [ 33 ].

The priority-setting exercise comprised an expert panel workshop complemented by an online assessment survey. Two rounds of workshop for agenda-setting and consensus-building were conducted to ensure a comprehensive approach to the priority-setting process.

Agenda-setting through expert panel workshop and online assessment survey

The HPSR agendas were mapped using the expert panel workshop supplemented by the online assessment survey.

An expert panel workshop was organized with 40 participants to set the HPSR agendas from 21–25 December 2022. During the agenda-setting workshop, the several key activities were performed.

To mention some: the research team presented six HPSR prioritization criteria to workshop participants, and a discussion took place. The prioritization criteria were adapted by review different priority setting approaches by considering importance of the topic in improving the body of knowledge or solving the problem, the alignment with national priority health initiatives, its adaptability to the local context, the capacity of implementation and the key stakeholders’ demands [ 34 , 35 ]. Participants discussed and agreed on the presented priority-setting criteria and their respective weights. The criteria are relevance to policymakers, impact on the health, workability (ability to answer the question using existing data), feasibility (cost, ethics, expertise), availability of evidence and practicability of results (to be translated into action) (Table  1 ).

The workshop participants were grouped into seven groups using the WHO health system building blocks as a base framework and adding health policy theme. The group formation was based on the participants’ profession and expertise. The groups were used as a theme for the identified HPSR research agendas. Each group was assigned to set the HPSR agendas under each theme on the basis of their opinion and the above-mentioned criteria. After setting the HPSR topics, each team presented the identified research topics for the workshop participants, and further discussions were conducted on the topics’ scope and context from the HPSR perspective. After the discussions, feedback was forwarded to each team for revision and amendments. In addition, after the discussion, additional cross-cutting research topics were identified. The team makes revisions to the topics they set and submit by the end of the workshop.

The HPSR agenda-setting practice was also supplemented by an online assessment survey from 72 participants from January to April 2023. The online participants were also identified from different fields of expertise on the basis of the identified themes.

Rating, ranking and consensus building

A workshop with 38 participants was organized from 22–26 July 2023 to conduct rating and ranking exercises and build consensus on the identified research topics. The rating, ranking and consensus building on the priority topics were done through the following steps. Initially, the participants were grouped into seven and discussed the identified topics’ relevance, duplication and comprehensiveness.

Then participants conducted the rating and ranking exercise. The rating and ranking exercise was done at the sub-theme level. First, each participant gave their scores and displayed them to the group members for discussion. After brainstorming and a thorough discussion, the group members gave the final and agreed score for each research topic with consensus. The scoring was done by evaluating each research topic under each sub-theme using the pre-defined priority-setting criteria and scoring 0 to 10. For example, under the health policy theme, policy implementation and evaluation sub-theme, five identified topics were evaluated and scored from 0 (least valued) to 10 (highest valued) for each of the six criteria. The average score from the scores given at each criterion was generated for each research topic. Even if the score was considered from 60, in the end we computed it from 100. The ranking was done by comparing the average scores of each research topic from 100 at the sub-theme level.

Each group then presented the final list of priority research topics with scores and ranks for the workshop participants. After discussions, each group collects feedback from the workshop participants for finalization. Finally, the workshop participants presented and approved the revised list of topics as a final list of priority HPSR topics.

Ethical clearance

Ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Gondar’s ethical review board (ref. VP/RTT/05/218/2022). Consent was received from the participants, and the participant’s anonymity was maintained.

Participant characteristics

A total of 112 participants participated in the HPSR priority-setting exercise through expert panel workshops and online assessment surveys; 30 experts were from universities and 50 were from national research institutes and the MoH. In addition, 18 experts from developmental partners and 10 from RHBs participated. There were also four participants from private facilities and other government sectors (Table  2 ).

Prioritized HPSR topics

Findings from the hpsr agenda-setting workshop and the online survey.

Under 8 themes, 34 sub-themes and 227 research topics were identified with the agenda-setting workshop and online assessment survey.

Rating, ranking and consensus building of HPSR-identified topics

After the discussion during the consensus building workshop, the participants agreed to approve 182 research topics under 32 sub-themes and 8 themes (Table  3 ). The identified topics were allied with the current national and global health priority issues and transformation agendas. The average score given during rating ranges from a minimum of 73.3 to a maximum of 96.7 out of 100.

Leadership, management and governance (LMG)

Under LMG-related HPSR topics, 29 research topics were identified under 5 sub-themes (Table  4 ). The priority topics were healthcare leadership skills and competencies, social governance and accountability, and healthcare management. The evidence on the identified topics will help produce sound evidence and design appropriate and context-specific interventions on one of the critical components of the health system. Transforming healthcare leadership is one of the transformations of Ethiopian HSTP to enhance the healthcare leadership capacity, regulation, accountability, and health planning skills to dive into national health initiatives [ 11 ].

Health-policy-related priority HPSR topics

Under the health policy theme, 28 research topics under 3 sub-themes were identified (Table  5 ). The identified priority topics were focussed on population policy needs, policy formulation, implementation and evaluation.

Health information system

For HIS HPSR priority-setting, 35 research topics from 5 sub-themes were identified, and a subsequent rating and ranking exercise was also done (Table  6 ). The identified research topics, which focussed on digitalization data quality, analysis and use, received priority. These topics align with the national health information system strategy, digital health blueprint initiatives and HSTP transformation agenda. Evidence generated on the selected priority topics will enhance informed decision-making and the county’s progress towards stated HIS targets [ 11 , 36 , 37 ].

Healthcare financing

The other HPSR priority-setting exercise area was healthcare financing, and 23 priority research topics were identified under 5 sub-themes (Table  7 ). The priority topics focus on evaluating first-generation HCF reforms and testing different strategic payment modalities. In addition, the other identified priority topics are equity, efficiency and effectiveness in implementing HCF reforms and applying digital health systems. Information on the identified priority topics will help design different HCF implementation strategies. This will help achieve the national healthcare financing initiatives and the country’s progress towards universal health coverage [ 13 , 38 , 39 ].

Human resource for health (HRH)

A total of 17 research topics under 3 sub-themes were identified for the HRH theme (Table  8 ). Under this theme, the identified topics focus on human resource adequacy, competency, distribution and HRH practices. Research findings on the identified topics will help achieve the national HRH strategic vision, which is to have an adequate number of well-qualified, committed, compassionate, respectful and caring health workers contributing to the health sector vision of Ethiopia [ 40 ].

Pharmaceutical and medical products and supply

A total of 10 research topics were identified under the medical product and supply theme (Table  9 ). The priority topics are focussed on health technology assessment, medical equipment and supply chain management. The identified topics align with the national pharmaceutical and medical supply initiatives. Evidence produced in pharmaceutical and medical products and supplies will help to progress the targets set in the program area, which aims to ensure the sustainable supply of quality-assured and affordable pharmaceutical and medical equipment, ensure rational use of medicines, and integrate traditional and modern medicine [ 41 ].

Service delivery

In the service delivery theme, 31 research questions were generated under 8 sub-themes (Table  10 ). The identified priority topics focussed on primary healthcare services; reproductive, maternal, neonatal, child, adolescent and youth health services; hospital services; nutrition; communicable and non-communicable diseases; injuries; and mental health. These topics are the priority and public health concerns of the country. Knowledge generation and synthesis on these priority topics will enhance the practice of evidence-based decisions and interventions to improve service quality, equity and access. In addition, the evidence will support the achievements of the county’s HSTP and sustainable development goal targets [ 11 , 42 ].

Cross-cutting HPSR priority topics

During the discussion of each research topic under each theme, nine priority cross-cutting research topics were identified, and it was decided to bring the theme into a separate cross-cutting theme (Table  11 ). Health system resilience, responsiveness, social determinants of health, multi-sectoral collaboration, preferences studies, global initiatives’ role and economic evaluation of healthcare interventions were among the identified cross-cutting topics. Evidence on the cross-cutting research topics will help to understand the multi-contextual and systemic factors of the health system and to design appropriate interventions with the system thinking approach.

A total of 182 priority HPSR topics were identified with the collaboration of key stakeholders. The topic identification was matches with the current Ethiopian and global health initiatives and targets. The identified research topics tried to address different health system components by referencing the health system building blocks. The HPSR topics were identified under the following themes: health policy, HIS, HCF, LMG, HRH, pharmaceutical and medical product and supply, service delivery and cross-cutting issues.

Application of the findings

The identified priority HPSR topics were disseminated to MoH, RHBs, research and academic institutes. Therefore, the research and academic institutes should do the evidence generation and synthesis practice on the priority research topics. Since the topics identified are referencing the current national and global health priorities by experts with a reach experience in each theme, the evidence produced will help improve the program and health system performance. Moreover, the results of this research will have relevance to the context of Ethiopia. Firstly, the participants were mapped and selected with their active engagement and experience in different aspects of Ethiopian health system and policy development and implementation. Secondly, the process of setting priorities in health policy and systems research (HPSR) specifically addresses the needs, gaps and key areas of focus within the Ethiopian healthcare system.

Availability of data and materials

Data will be available upon request from the corresponding author.

Abbreviations

Ethiopian Public Health Institute

Human immunodeficiency virus

Health policy and system research

Human resource for health

Leadership, management and governance

Ministry of Health

Planning, implementing, publish and evaluate

Regional health bureau

Reproductive, maternal, newborn, child and adolescent health and nutrition

Sustainable development goals

Universal health coverage

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Acknowledgements

We want to thank the WHO for its financial support. We would also like to acknowledge the unreserved cooperation from the Ministry of Health, Armauer Hansen Research Institute and Ethiopian Public Health Institute in giving information about their experience in research prioritization.

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Department of Health Systems and Policy, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia

Getasew Amare & Asmamaw Atnafu

Department of Health Informatics, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia

Berhanu Fikadie Endehabtu & Binyam Tilahun

Center for Digital Health and Implementation Science, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia

Getasew Amare, Berhanu Fikadie Endehabtu, Asmamaw Atnafu, Lemma Derseh & Binyam Tilahun

Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia

Lemma Derseh

Universal Health Coverage Life Course Cluster, Health Systems Team, World Health Organization Country Office, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Kassu Ketema Gurmu

Department of Health Policy and Management, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia

Department of Health Policy and Global Health, Addis Continental Institute of Public Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Health System and Reproductive Health Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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B.T. conceived the study and edited the manuscript. G.A., A.A., L.D., T.G. and B.F.E. searched, evaluated, extracted data and drafted the manuscript. K.K.G. edited the manuscript.

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Amare, G., Endehabtu, B.F., Atnafu, A. et al. Health policy and systems research priority-setting exercise in Ethiopia: a collaborative approach. Health Res Policy Sys 22 , 107 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-024-01198-4

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Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence

Title: the ai scientist: towards fully automated open-ended scientific discovery.

Abstract: One of the grand challenges of artificial general intelligence is developing agents capable of conducting scientific research and discovering new knowledge. While frontier models have already been used as aides to human scientists, e.g. for brainstorming ideas, writing code, or prediction tasks, they still conduct only a small part of the scientific process. This paper presents the first comprehensive framework for fully automatic scientific discovery, enabling frontier large language models to perform research independently and communicate their findings. We introduce The AI Scientist, which generates novel research ideas, writes code, executes experiments, visualizes results, describes its findings by writing a full scientific paper, and then runs a simulated review process for evaluation. In principle, this process can be repeated to iteratively develop ideas in an open-ended fashion, acting like the human scientific community. We demonstrate its versatility by applying it to three distinct subfields of machine learning: diffusion modeling, transformer-based language modeling, and learning dynamics. Each idea is implemented and developed into a full paper at a cost of less than $15 per paper. To evaluate the generated papers, we design and validate an automated reviewer, which we show achieves near-human performance in evaluating paper scores. The AI Scientist can produce papers that exceed the acceptance threshold at a top machine learning conference as judged by our automated reviewer. This approach signifies the beginning of a new era in scientific discovery in machine learning: bringing the transformative benefits of AI agents to the entire research process of AI itself, and taking us closer to a world where endless affordable creativity and innovation can be unleashed on the world's most challenging problems. Our code is open-sourced at this https URL

Subjects:	Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI); Computation and Language (cs.CL); Machine Learning (cs.LG)
Cite as:	[cs.AI]
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Deserted: The U.S. Military's Sexual Assault Crisis as a Cost of War

Over the past decade, the U.S. military has implemented policies to promote gender equality, notably lifting the ban on women in combat roles in 2013 and opening all military jobs to women by 2016. Yet, even as U.S. military policy reforms during the “War on Terror” appear to reflect greater equality, violent patterns of abuse and misogyny continued within military workplaces.

This author of this report found that sexual assault prevalence in the military is likely two to four times higher than official government estimations. Based on a comparison of available data collected by the U.S. Department of Defense to independent data, the research estimates there were 75,569 cases of sexual assault in 2021 and 73,695 cases in 2023. On average, over the course of the war in Afghanistan, 24 percent of active-duty women and 1.9 percent of active-duty men experienced sexual assault. The report highlights how experiences of gender inequality are most pronounced for women of color, who experience intersecting forms of racism and sexism and are one of the fastest-growing populations within the military. Independent data also confirm queer and trans service members’ disproportionately greater risk for sexual assault.

The report notes that during the post-9/11 wars, the prioritization of force readiness above all else allowed the problem of sexual assault to fester, papering over internal violence and gender inequalities within military institutions.

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