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9 characteristics of critical thinking (and how you can develop them)

It's no secret that critical thinking is essential for growth and success. Yet many people aren't quite sure what it means — it sounds like being a critic or cynical, traits that many people want to avoid.

However, thinking critically isn't about being negative. On the contrary, effective critical thinkers possess many positive traits. Attributes like curiosity, compassion, and communication are among the top commonalities that critical thinkers share, and the good news is that we can all learn to develop these capabilities.

This article will discuss some of the principal characteristics of critical thinking and how developing these qualities can help you improve your decision-making and problem-solving skills. With a bit of self-reflection and practice, you'll be well on your way to making better decisions, solving complex problems, and achieving success across all areas of your life.

What is critical thinking?

Scholarly works on critical thinking propose many ways of interpreting the concept ( at least 17 in one reference! ), making it challenging to pinpoint one exact definition. In general, critical thinking refers to rational, goal-directed thought through logical arguments and reasoning. We use critical thinking to objectively assess and evaluate information to form reasonable judgments.

Critical thinking has its roots in ancient Greece. The philosopher Socrates is credited with being one of the first to encourage his students to think critically about their beliefs and ideas. Socrates believed that by encouraging people to question their assumptions, they would be able to see the flaws in their reasoning and improve their thought processes.

Today, critical thinking skills are considered vital for success in academia and everyday life. One of the defining " 21st-century skills ," critical thinking is integral to problem-solving, decision making, and goal setting.

Why is it necessary to develop critical thinking skills?

Critical thinking skills help us learn new information, understand complex concepts, and make better decisions. The ability to be objective and reasonable is an asset that can enhance personal and professional relationships.

The U.S. Department of Labor reports critical thinking is among the top desired skills in the workplace. The ability to develop a properly thought-out solution in a reasonable amount of time is highly valued by employers. Companies want employees who can solve problems independently and work well in a team. A desirable employee can evaluate situations critically and creatively, collaborate with others, and make sound judgments.

Critical thinking is an essential component of academic study as well. Critical thinking skills are vital to learners because they allow students to build on their prior knowledge and construct new understandings. This will enable learners to expand their knowledge and experience across various subjects.

Despite its importance, though, critical thinking is not something that we develop naturally or casually. Even though critical thinking is considered an essential learning outcome in many universities, only 45% of college students in a well-known study reported that their skills had improved after two years of classes.

9 characteristics of critical thinking

Clearly, improving our ability to think critically will require some self-improvement work. As lifelong learners, we can use this opportunity for self-reflection to identify where we can improve our thinking processes.

Strong critical thinkers possess a common set of personality traits, habits, and dispositions. Being aware of these attributes and putting them into action can help us develop a strong foundation for critical thinking. These essential characteristics of critical thinking can be used as a toolkit for applying specific thinking processes to any given situation.

Curiosity is one of the most significant characteristics of critical thinking. Research has shown that a state of curiosity drives us to continually seek new information . This inquisitiveness supports critical thinking as we need to constantly expand our knowledge to make well-informed decisions.

Curiosity also facilitates critical thinking because it encourages us to question our thoughts and mental models, the filters we use to understand the world. This is essential to avoid critical thinking barriers like biases and misconceptions. Challenging our beliefs and getting curious about all sides of an issue will help us have an open mind during the critical thinking process.

Actionable Tip: Choose to be curious. When you ask “why,” you learn about things around you and clarify ambiguities. Google anything you are curious about, read new books, and play with a child. Kids have a natural curiosity that can be inspiring.

Pique your curiosity

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2. Analytical

Investigation is a crucial component of critical thinking, so it's important to be analytical. Analytical thinking involves breaking down complex ideas into their simplest forms . The first step when tackling a problem or making a decision is to analyze information and consider it in smaller pieces. Then, we use critical thinking by gathering additional information before getting to a judgment or solution.

Being analytical is helpful for critical thinking because it allows us to look at data in detail. When examining an issue from various perspectives, we should pay close attention to these details to arrive at a decision based on facts. Taking these steps is crucial to making good decisions.

Actionable Tip: Become aware of your daily surroundings. Examine how things work — breaking things down into steps will encourage analysis. You can also play brain and puzzle games. These provide an enjoyable way to stimulate analytical thinking.

3. Introspective

Critical thinkers are typically introspective. Introspection is a process of examining our own thoughts and feelings. We do this as a form of metacognition, or thinking about thinking. Researchers believe that we can improve our problem-solving skills by using metacognition to analyze our reasoning processes .

Being introspective is essential to critical thinking because it helps us be self-aware. Self-awareness encourages us to acknowledge and face our own biases, prejudices, and selfish tendencies. If we know our assumptions, we can question them and suspend judgment until we have all the facts.

Actionable Tip: Start a journal. Keep track of your thoughts, feelings, and opinions throughout the day, especially when faced with difficult decisions. Look for patterns. You can avoid common thought fallacies by being aware of them.

4. Able to make inferences

Another characteristic of critical thinking is the ability to make inferences, which are logical conclusions based on reviewing the facts, events, and ideas available. Analyzing the available information and observing patterns and trends will help you find relationships and make informed decisions based on what is likely to happen.

The ability to distinguish assumptions from inferences is crucial to critical thinking. We decide something is true by inference because another thing is also true, but we decide something by assumption because of what we believe or think we know. While both assumptions and inferences can be valid or invalid, inferences are more rational because data support them.

Actionable Tip: Keep an eye on your choices and patterns during the day, noticing when you infer. Practice applying the Inference Equation — I observe + I already know = So now I am thinking — to help distinguish when you infer or assume.

5. Observant

Observation skills are also a key part of critical thinking. Observation is more than just looking — it involves arranging, combining, and classifying information through all five senses to build understanding. People with keen observation skills notice small details and catch slight changes in their surroundings.

Observation is one of the first skills we learn as children , and it is critical for problem-solving. Being observant allows us to collect more information about a situation and use that information to make better decisions and solve problems. Further, it facilitates seeing things from different perspectives and finding alternative solutions.

Actionable Tip: Limit your use of devices, and be mindful of your surroundings. Notice and name one thing for each of your five senses when you enter a new environment or even a familiar one. Being aware of what you see, hear, smell, taste, and touch allows you to fully experience the moment and it develops your ability to observe your surroundings.

6. Open-minded and compassionate

Open-minded and compassionate people are good critical thinkers. Being open-minded means considering new ideas and perspectives, even if they conflict with your own. This allows you to examine different sides of an issue without immediately dismissing them. Likewise, compassionate people can empathize with others, even if they disagree. When you understand another person's point of view, you can find common ground and understanding.

Critical thinking requires an open mind when analyzing opposing arguments and compassion when listening to the perspective of others. By exploring different viewpoints and seeking to understand others' perspectives, critical thinkers can gain a more well-rounded understanding of an issue. Using this deeper understanding, we can make better decisions and solve more complex problems.

Actionable Tip: Cultivate open-mindedness and compassion by regularly exposing yourself to new ideas and views. Read books on unfamiliar topics, listen to podcasts with diverse opinions, or talk with people from different backgrounds.

7. Able to determine relevance

The ability to assess relevance is an essential characteristic of critical thinking. Relevance is defined as being logically connected and significant to the subject. When a fact or statement is essential to a topic, it can be deemed relevant.

Relevance plays a vital role in many stages of the critical thinking process . It's especially crucial to identify the most pertinent facts before evaluating an argument. Despite being accurate and seemingly meaningful, a point may not matter much to your subject. Your criteria and standards are equally relevant, as you can't make a sound decision with irrelevant guidelines.

Actionable Tip: When you're in a conversation, pay attention to how each statement relates to what you're talking about. It's surprising how often we stray from the point with irrelevant information. Asking yourself, "How does that relate to the topic?" can help you spot unrelated issues.

Critical thinking requires willingness. Some scholars argue that the "willingness to inquire" is the most fundamental characteristic of critical thinking , which encompasses all the others. Being willing goes hand in hand with other traits, like being flexible and humble. Flexible thinkers are willing to adapt their thinking to new evidence or arguments. Those who are humble are willing to acknowledge their faults and recognize their limitations.

It's essential for critical thinking that we have an open mind and are willing to challenge the status quo. The willingness to question assumptions, consider multiple perspectives, and think outside the box allows critical thinkers to reach new and necessary conclusions.

Actionable Tip: Cultivate willingness by adopting a growth mindset. See challenges as learning opportunities. Celebrate others' accomplishments, and get curious about what led to their success.

9. Effective communicators

Being a good critical thinker requires effective communication. Effective critical thinkers know that communication is imperative when solving problems. They can articulate their goals and concerns clearly while recognizing others' perspectives. Critical thinking requires people to be able to listen to each other's opinions and share their experiences respectfully to find the best solutions.

A good communicator is also an attentive and active listener. Listening actively goes beyond simply hearing what someone says. Being engaged in the discussion involves:

• Listening to what they say
• Being present
• Asking questions that clarify their position

Actively listening is crucial for critical thinking because it helps us understand other people's perspectives.

Actionable Tip: The next time you speak with a friend, family member, or even a complete stranger, take the time to genuinely listen to what they're saying. It may surprise you how much you can learn about others — and about yourself — when you take the time to listen carefully.

The nine traits above represent just a few of the most common characteristics of critical thinking. By developing or strengthening these characteristics, you can enhance your capacity for critical thinking.

Get to the core of critical thinking

Critical thinking is essential for success in every aspect of life, from personal relationships to professional careers. By developing your critical thinking skills , you can challenge the status quo and gain a new perspective on the world around you. You can start improving your critical thinking skills today by determining which characteristics of critical thinking you need to work on and using the actionable tips to strengthen them. With practice, you can become a great critical thinker.

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If you are new to critical thinking or wish to deepen your conception of it, we recommend you review the content below and bookmark this page for future reference.

Our Conception of Critical Thinking...

"Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness..."

"Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in a fairminded way. People who think critically attempt, with consistent and conscious effort, to live rationally, reasonably, and empathically. They are keenly aware of the inherently flawed nature of human thinking when left unchecked. They strive to diminish the power of their egocentric and sociocentric tendencies. They use the intellectual tools that critical thinking offers – concepts and principles that enable them to analyze, assess, and improve thinking. They work diligently to develop the intellectual virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual humility, intellectual civility, intellectual empathy, intellectual sense of justice and confidence in reason. They realize that no matter how skilled they are as thinkers, they can always improve their reasoning abilities and they will at times fall prey to mistakes in reasoning, human irrationality, prejudices, biases, distortions, uncritically accepted social rules and taboos, self-interest, and vested interest.

They strive to improve the world in whatever ways they can and contribute to a more rational, civilized society. At the same time, they recognize the complexities often inherent in doing so. They strive never to think simplistically about complicated issues and always to consider the rights and needs of relevant others. They recognize the complexities in developing as thinkers, and commit themselves to life-long practice toward self-improvement. They embody the Socratic principle: The unexamined life is not worth living , because they realize that many unexamined lives together result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world."

Why Critical Thinking?

The Problem:

Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed, or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our lives and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated.

A Brief Definition:

Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it. The Result: 

  A well-cultivated critical thinker:

• raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
• gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively;
• comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
• thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
• communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.

Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem-solving abilities, and a commitment to overcoming our native egocentrism and sociocentrism. Read more about our concept of critical thinking .

The Essential Dimensions of Critical Thinking

Our conception of critical thinking is based on the substantive approach developed by Dr. Richard Paul and his colleagues at the Center and Foundation for Critical Thinking over multiple decades. It is relevant to every subject, discipline, and profession, and to reasoning through the problems of everyday life. It entails five essential dimensions of critical thinking:

At the left is an overview of the first three dimensions. In sum, the elements or structures of thought enable us to "take our thinking apart" and analyze it. The intellectual standards are used to assess and evaluate the elements. The intellectual traits are dispositions of mind embodied by the fairminded critical thinker. To cultivate the mind, we need command of these essential dimensions, and we need to consistently apply them as we think through the many problems and issues in our lives.

The Elements of Reasoning and Intellectual Standards

To learn more about the elements of thought and how to apply the intellectual standards, check out our interactive model. Simply click on the link below, scroll to the bottom of the page, and explore the model with your mouse.

Why the Analysis of Thinking Is Important If you want to think well, you must understand at least the rudiments of thought, the most basic structures out of which all thinking is made. You must learn how to take thinking apart. Analyzing the Logic of a Subject When we understand the elements of reasoning, we realize that all subjects, all disciplines, have a fundamental logic defined by the structures of thought embedded within them. Therefore, to lay bare a subject’s most fundamental logic, we should begin with these questions:

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The 9 Traits of Critical Thinking™

By Integrating These 9 Traits Across the Curriculum, Educators Can Build a School-Wide Thinking Culture That Supports Student Growth and Achievement

Learn More About the 9 Traits of Critical Thinking™

Together, these 9 traits lay the foundation for promoting standards mastery, student achievement, and a culture of growth in the classroom. They will help develop critical thinkers who will be tomorrow’s leaders.

I adjust my actions and strategies to accomplish tasks.

I use a variety of methods to explore and to analyze.

I use my knowledge and imagination to express new and innovative ideas.

Communicate

I use clear language to express my ideas and to share information.

Collaborate

I work with others to achieve better outcomes.

I seek information that excites my curiosity and inspires my learning.

I apply knowledge to reach new understandings.

I review my thoughts and experiences to guide my actions.

I use effort and determination to focus on challenging tasks.

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An In-Depth Look at the 9 Traits of Critical Thinking™

Watch as Product Manager and former teacher and administrator, Ladona Cook goes in-depth with Mentoring Minds’ 9 Traits of Critical Thinking.

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Unlocking the Mind: 18 Essential Characteristics of Critical Thinkers

Critical thinking has become an invaluable skill in a world overflowing with information. It’s not just about analyzing arguments or solving problems; it’s a way of approaching life more logically and thoughtfully. But what makes someone a critical thinker? What are the characteristics that set them apart?

In this article, we delve into the minds of critical thinkers and uncover the 18 essential characteristics that define them. From curiosity and open-mindedness to skepticism and intellectual humility, we explore the traits that shape their thought process and decision-making abilities. We’ll also discuss the importance of critical thinking in various aspects of life, from personal relationships to professional success.

Whether you’re a student preparing for exams, a business professional making important decisions, or simply someone looking to enhance your cognitive skills, this article will provide valuable insights and tips to unlock the power of critical thinking. So join us on this journey of exploration as we unravel the mysteries of the critical thinker’s mind and inspire you to cultivate these essential characteristics for a more meaningful and successful life.

1. Open-Mindedness: The Cornerstone of Critical Thought

Open-mindedness stands out as a defining characteristic in the realm of critical thinking. This willingness to entertain various perspectives, ideas, and opinions without rushing to judgment is not merely a trait but a foundational pillar. But what makes open-mindedness so crucial in the framework of critical thought? An individual with a truly open mind doesn’t hastily dismiss ideas, especially if they’re novel or unfamiliar. Instead, they perceive them as opportunities – gateways to deeper learning, understanding, and personal growth. Everyone possesses inherent biases; it’s part of the human condition. However, an open-minded individual actively works to rise above these biases. This conscious effort becomes indispensable in our diverse global landscape, where interactions span various backgrounds and cultures.

Moreover, open-mindedness speaks to a certain flexibility in one’s beliefs. While holding onto certain beliefs is a natural human inclination, the open-minded are ever ready to reevaluate and recalibrate their beliefs in light of fresh evidence or alternative viewpoints. This adaptability doesn’t suggest fickleness but indicates a profound dedication to the pursuit of truth, even if it necessitates altering one’s stance. Additionally, these individuals have a heightened appreciation for the diversity of thought, recognizing how varied viewpoints can infuse discussions with rich insights, facilitate holistic problem-solving, and even be the catalysts for innovation.

One of the common pitfalls in reasoning is confirmation bias, a trap of only seeking information that aligns with our existing beliefs. Open-minded thinkers, however, remain vigilant against this bias. They actively pursue diverse sources and perspectives to gain a rounded understanding. This open-minded stance is frequently paired with an inherent curiosity. They commonly say, “I don’t have all the answers,” or “Let’s delve deeper into this,” highlighting their willingness to probe further into subjects and discussions. They also acknowledge the fluid nature of knowledge. In our ever-shifting world, they recognize that absolute certainty is elusive. They are comfortable navigating the ambiguities, understanding that most knowledge is tentative and evolving.

In essence, open-mindedness goes beyond mere passive acceptance. It’s a dynamic journey, a continuous commitment to shedding preconceived notions and embracing the broad array of ideas and perspectives the world presents. For those walking the path of critical thinking, open-mindedness is the starting point, paving the way for unbiased assessment, profound comprehension, and enlightened decision-making.

2. Curiosity: A natural inclination to question, explore, and understand deeper insights about a subject.

Diving deeper into the characteristics of critical thinkers, Curiosity stands out prominently. Often described as an insatiable thirst for knowledge, it serves as the driving force propelling critical thinkers forward in their intellectual quests. The importance of curiosity in critical thinking cannot be overstated. It’s reflected in the behavior and mindset of those who never cease to question and explore. This trait’s essence is an innate desire to learn, not driven by external rewards but by a profound intrinsic motivation to understand the world better.

Unlike many who might accept information as it’s presented, those fueled by curiosity have a restless mind. They are the ones challenging the status quo, continually asking questions like “Why?”, “How?”, and “What if?”. Such probing often leads them to challenge established norms, providing them with deeper insights and a more profound understanding. This drive pushes them beyond mere surface-level knowledge. They strive to get to the root of issues, taking the time to research, analyze, and reflect upon complex topics.

Moreover, their curiosity isn’t confined to just academic or intellectual arenas. It spills over into their daily lives, leading them to seek diverse experiences. They are stepping out of their comfort zones, eager to immerse themselves in new cultures or try out unfamiliar activities. Each of these experiences, they believe, adds a new layer to their understanding of the world. The unknown, which might deter many, is a beckoning call for them. They approach uncertainty with excitement, seeing it not as a hindrance but as a golden opportunity for discovery.

Such individuals also stand out in their engagement with information. Rather than being passive consumers, they actively engage with content. They reflect on ideas, discuss them with peers, and even engage in healthy debates to refine their understanding further. This constant quest for knowledge, however, doesn’t make them overconfident. They remain cautious, aware of the pitfalls of assumptions. Aware that every learning journey has its dangers, they ensure they don’t fall prey to presuming they have complete knowledge about a subject. This humility and their insatiable desire for understanding make them value lifelong learning. They don’t see the end of formal education as the end of their learning journey. Instead, they embrace every opportunity to expand their horizons, irrespective of where they are in their life or career.

Curiosity isn’t just another trait on a list; it’s a dynamic, ever-present force shaping a critical thinker’s very approach and outlook. It keeps them engaged, pushes them to explore varied avenues, and ensures they approach the world with humility and receptiveness; fostering and cherishing their curiosity is crucial for anyone keen on sharpening their critical thinking abilities.

3. Analytical Ability: Can dissect complex ideas or problems to understand their components.

Within the vast landscape of critical thinking, analytical ability emerges as a paramount pillar. It’s far more than a mere grasp of concepts or problems. Rather, it signifies the capacity to delve beneath the surface, fragmenting intricate issues into their elemental parts, revealing a nuanced understanding. Analytical thinkers are distinguished by their systematic approach, systematically dissecting situations to discern underlying patterns. In our data-saturated world, their aptitude for sifting essential information from the cacophony stands invaluable.

This leads to clarity and enables a holistic comprehension, ensuring each fragment is evaluated within the context of the larger tapestry. Such an approach greatly amplifies their problem-solving prowess, directing them toward the root of issues rather than mere symptoms. When faced with choices, this intricate understanding capacitates them to make well-informed decisions, gauging potential challenges and rewards. Their analytical strength also shines in communication, enabling them to elucidate complex concepts with clarity and persuasion.

This mindset invariably fuels their insatiable curiosity, urging them to bridge knowledge gaps and expand their horizons continuously. Furthermore, their ability to promptly dissect and adapt to new challenges becomes invaluable in our dynamic world. Analytical ability isn’t just a skill but a unique prism that enhances a critical thinker’s view of the world. This prism reveals hidden layers and connections, allowing for profound insights, fostering innovation, and engendering a deeper, more engaged interaction with intricate worldly challenges.

4. Logical Reasoning: The Structured Pathway to Sound Decisions

In the intricate maze of problem-solving and decision-making, logical reasoning is the guiding light, illuminating the path toward clarity and coherence. Unlike impulsive or emotion-driven approaches, logical reasoning epitomizes a methodical, step-by-step progression that ensures every decision or solution is rooted in reason and evidence.

At its core, logical reasoning is a marriage of structured thought processes and evidence-based conclusions. A thinker employing this approach will meticulously evaluate each piece of information, considering its relevance and validity. This discernment allows them to discard irrelevant or misleading data, ensuring that only the most pertinent facts shape their conclusions.

Furthermore, the structured nature of logical reasoning mandates the identification of cause-and-effect relationships. This means that the thinker anticipates potential outcomes and consequences before arriving at a solution or decision, weighing the pros and cons methodically. Such foresight minimizes unforeseen setbacks and strengthens the viability of the chosen solution or decision.

Additionally, logical reasoning is self-correcting. By consistently questioning and validating each step in their thought process, individuals are less likely to be swayed by cognitive biases or fallacies. If an inconsistency or error is spotted, they can trace their steps, pinpoint the flaw, and recalibrate their approach.

In essence, logical reasoning is not just a tool but an anchor, grounding critical thinkers in a realm of rationality and coherence. In a world teeming with information and complexity, this methodical approach stands as a beacon, guiding thinkers away from the pitfalls of hasty judgments and towards well-founded, robust conclusions. For anyone striving to master the art of critical thinking, honing their logical reasoning skills is not merely advantageous—it’s indispensable.

5. Attention to Detail: Unearthing Nuances in the Tapestry of Complexity

Amidst the vast expanse of information and stimuli we encounter daily, the ability to discern subtle details can be a transformative power. Attention to detail is much more than just observational prowess; it’s an art of recognizing the intricate stitches that, while seemingly insignificant on their own, form the fabric of larger narratives and problems.

A person endowed with keen attention to detail doesn’t merely skim the surface. They delve deeper, sifting through layers of information, discerning patterns and irregularities that might escape the cursory glance of many. It’s akin to a jeweler who, amidst the glitter of a gem-studded necklace, identifies one slightly flawed diamond that could compromise the entire piece’s value.

This trait is invaluable across myriad contexts. In analytical pursuits, for instance, noticing a minor discrepancy in data can be the key to unearthing larger issues or breakthrough insights. It could be the difference between a masterpiece and mediocrity in creative fields, as details breathe life and authenticity into artworks or narratives.

Moreover, acute attention to detail often translates into higher accuracy and efficiency. One can prevent larger complications or misunderstandings by catching errors or anomalies early on. It’s a proactive approach, eliminating the need for extensive revisions or damage control later.

Yet, it’s also essential to understand that this attribute isn’t about nitpicking or getting bogged down by minutiae. Instead, it’s about balancing recognizing subtleties and grasping the broader perspective. It’s the dance between the macro and the micro, ensuring neither is overlooked.

In conclusion, attention to detail is a compass in a world of information and distractions. It steers individuals towards clarity, precision, and excellence, making them stand out in a crowd where many are content with just seeing the bigger picture. For those aspiring to elevate their thinking and work to unprecedented heights, cultivating this discerning eye for detail is not just beneficial—it’s pivotal.

6. Skepticism: The Guardian of Authentic Knowledge

In an era overflowing with information, where digital platforms and media constantly bombard us with narratives, facts, and viewpoints, skepticism emerges as a crucial shield against misinformation and shallow understanding. Far from being a sign of cynicism or distrust, skepticism is a rigorous intellectual stance, urging individuals to pause, probe, and ponder before accepting any information.

A true skeptic does not dismiss information outright. Instead, they approach it with a discerning mind, evaluating its source, scrutinizing its context, and cross-referencing it with other reliable data. Such a perspective stems from an understanding that even well-intentioned sources can err, and even widely accepted beliefs can sometimes be misguided or incomplete.

This attitude is particularly invaluable in today’s “post-truth” world, where emotional or sensational narratives often overshadow factual accuracy. Skepticism is a filter helping individuals differentiate between genuine knowledge and mere noise. It pushes them to go beyond the surface, to trace the origins of claims, and to weigh them against empirical evidence.

Moreover, skepticism nurtures a proactive mindset. Instead of passively absorbing information, skeptics actively engage with it, raising questions, spotting inconsistencies, and seeking clarifications. This ensures they gather authentic knowledge and deepens their understanding of the subject at hand.

But it’s also worth noting that skepticism, while invaluable, must be balanced with an openness to new ideas. It should not morph into stubborn disbelief or close-mindedness. Rather, it should serve as a tool for rigorous evaluation, ensuring that the knowledge one acquires is robust and reliable.

In essence, skepticism is not a barrier but a beacon in the pursuit of truth. It challenges us to elevate our standards of acceptance, demand evidence, and never settle for the superficial. For those committed to genuine understanding and informed decision-making, cultivating a healthy skepticism is not just an asset—it’s a necessity.

7. Clear Communication: The Bridge Between Thought and Understanding

Clear communication emerges as the choreographer in the intricate dance of ideas, arguments, and insights that define our interpersonal and intellectual interactions. It is the channel through which complex concepts flow, are understood, and eventually take shape in the minds of others. But what does it truly mean to communicate clearly, and why is it such an essential facet of a well-rounded thinker?

At its core, clear communication is about transcending mere information transfer. It’s about ensuring that the essence of an idea, with all its subtleties and nuances, is accurately and effectively conveyed. This requires linguistic proficiency and a deep empathy for the listener’s perspective. Clear communicators are acutely aware of their audience, tailoring their message to suit the listener’s background, level of understanding, and potential biases.

Several dimensions define this art:

• Simplicity: While it’s tempting to use jargon or complex language, especially when discussing intricate topics, clear communication often thrives in simplicity. It’s about breaking down complex ideas into digestible, relatable chunks.
• Structure: An organized flow of thoughts, with a clear beginning, middle, and end, aids comprehension. Clear communicators are adept at sequencing their points logically, guiding their audience through the narrative.
• Relevance: Effective communicators ensure their message remains potent and undiluted by staying on topic and avoiding tangential diversions.
• Feedback: Interactivity is a hallmark of clear communication. By encouraging questions, seeking clarifications, and being receptive to feedback, communicators can ensure their message lands as intended.
• Visual Aids: Whether it’s a simple diagram, a comprehensive infographic, or a vivid analogy, visual or descriptive tools can dramatically enhance understanding, bridging gaps that words alone might leave behind.
• Empathy: Understanding and anticipating the audience’s needs, doubts, or potential misconceptions allows a communicator to address them proactively, fostering a deeper connection and comprehension.

Clear communication stands out as a beacon of clarity in a world filled with noise, ambiguity, and information overload. It’s more than just a skill—it’s a responsibility, ensuring that ideas reach others and truly resonate. For anyone aspiring to influence, educate, or connect on a deeper level, mastering the art of clear communication is an investment that pays immeasurable dividends.

8. Problem-Solving: The Systematic Unraveling of Challenges

In the vast and intricate landscape of skills required to navigate our world, problem-solving firmly establishes itself as an indispensable cornerstone. This prowess extends beyond mere solution-seeking; it delves deep, aiming to understand, dissect, and craft enduring resolutions to challenges. But how does one truly master this art, and what role does it play in the broader spectrum of critical thinking?

Envision problem-solving as an orchestra of cognitive processes seamlessly converging toward a singular goal. It resembles a detective’s diligence in piecing together seemingly unrelated clues. The journey of a proficient problem solver begins with clearly identifying the problem, differentiating between mere symptoms and the core issue. This clarity paves the way for gathering pertinent data, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the challenge.

As this information is sifted through, patterns are discerned, leading to the crystallization of potential solutions. Rather than settling for a single answer, multiple pathways are assessed for pros and cons. Armed with these alternatives, they employ logical reasoning to zero in on the most practical solution, always mindful of its broader implications. Once decided, the focus shifts to the effective implementation of this solution. However, the process doesn’t end there; a genuine problem solver consistently evaluates the solution’s efficacy, making necessary adjustments.

In life’s grand puzzle filled with diverse challenges, a methodical approach to problem-solving transforms daunting hurdles into solvable mysteries. This skill provides solutions and nurtures confidence, resilience, and proactive thinking — traits vital in all endeavors. Those who aspire to leave a mark, professionally and personally, will find sharpening their problem-solving acumen to be a pursuit of unparalleled worth.

9. Objectivity: Navigating Truth Beyond Personal Filters

In the vast landscape of critical thinking, the significance of Objectivity is undeniable. Living in an era of information and many viewpoints, our need for a reliable compass—a tool that helps us distinguish truth from falsehood—has never been more pronounced. Objectivity emerges as that guiding compass. But what does it entail?

To truly grasp the essence of objectivity, one must see it as an art of discerning truth without being ensnared by personal emotions, biases, or preconceived notions. It’s about achieving a vantage point, a place from which things can be seen for what they are, devoid of personal coloring or distortion.

An individual rooted in objectivity doesn’t blindly embrace any piece of information. Instead, they prioritize evidence-based facts, sidelining unverified claims or mere anecdotes. This meticulous approach ensures that their decisions and beliefs are anchored firmly in truth. Emotional intelligence plays a part too. While emotions are integral to our humanity, they can sometimes muddy the waters of clear thinking. Objective thinkers possess the astuteness to acknowledge their feelings without letting them skew the interpretation of facts.

The world isn’t black and white; it’s a kaleidoscope of experiences and backgrounds. Each person’s life story comes with its unique set of biases. Recognizing and addressing these inherent biases is a hallmark of the objective thinker. They actively seek multiple perspectives, understanding that a multifaceted approach often leads to a richer, more comprehensive grasp of issues. This openness also extends to their informational sources. They strive to diversify, ensuring they don’t become ensnared in echo chambers that merely echo back their existing beliefs.

Perhaps one of the most notable traits of objective individuals is their unwavering commitment to the truth. They’re not rigidly attached to their beliefs. They’re more than willing to adapt when presented with compelling evidence that challenges their stance, highlighting their ceaseless quest for genuine understanding. In today’s era, where “opinionated facts” often blur the lines between evidence and mere opinion, objectivity is a bastion of reason and clarity.

Objectivity isn’t just a skill—it’s a guiding philosophy. It serves as a beacon, illuminating the path for critical thinkers amidst the storms of misinformation, bias, and emotional upheaval. By emphasizing clear, unbiased thinking, objectivity ensures that our journey through this intricate, interconnected world is rooted in truth and clarity. Those who truly wish to engage with the world’s complexities would do well to embrace and nurture their objective thinking, for it promises clarity and a deeper, more genuine connection with the world around them.

10. Empathy: Bridging Minds and Hearts in Critical Thought

In discussions about critical thinking, one might not immediately think of empathy as a cornerstone. Yet, this emotion-driven quality finds its strength in the world of feelings and rigorous analytical thinking. Critical thinking, while primarily governed by logic and objectivity, finds profound enhancement when paired with the deep understanding inherent to empathy. So, why is empathy invaluable in critical reasoning? Empathy goes beyond mere sympathy.

It is the profound ability to wear the shoes of another, deeply understanding their perspectives, emotions, and lived experiences. This capability of genuine understanding offers many advantages to the discerning mind. For one, it permits a richer and more nuanced understanding of matters, tapping into the underlying intricacies that a single perspective might overlook. Empathy also paves the way for more effective communication.

Discussions transform into more constructive exchanges when we approach dialogue with an understanding heart. It also plays a vital role in curbing biases. By immersing ourselves in diverse perspectives, we are more equipped to challenge and rectify our inherent biases. This empathetic approach drives more inclusive decision-making, ensuring that choices are well-rounded, considering all stakeholders involved. Moreover, in situations of disagreement, empathy proves to be an unparalleled tool, assisting in pinpointing shared grounds and crafting mutually beneficial solutions.

Engaging empathetically also deepens our learning experience. It prods us to continually evaluate our beliefs and grow our understanding, opening us up to a wealth of insights. Furthermore, empathy reminds us of the human stories behind the numbers in a world increasingly leaning towards data and statistics. It ensures that our decision-making, while data-informed, remains human-centric. As we traverse the complexities of today’s interconnected world, the amalgamation of diverse cultures and ideas underscores the need for empathy.

It’s more than just a commendable trait; it’s a vital skill, acting as a bridge that fosters mutual understanding in an often polarized world. In the journey of critical thinking, embedding empathy ensures that the journey is intellectually rich and profoundly humane.

11. Flexibility in Critical Thinking: The Power to Pivot in an Ever-Changing Landscape

Adaptability is a beacon of effective decision-making in our modern, rapidly-evolving era of diverse information. Amidst the overflowing ocean of varied ideas, beliefs, and insights, flexibility emerges — not as an emblem of indecisiveness but as a testament to intellectual maturity. True flexibility in critical thinking transcends mere vacillation between opinions.

Instead, it represents a profound acknowledgment of the dynamic nature of knowledge and an individual’s capacity to recalibrate their perspectives when new, compelling evidence surfaces, even if it juxtaposes their entrenched beliefs.

This intellectual dance encompasses various dimensions: a perpetual commitment to learning, recognizing that enlightenment is an unending journey; an aversion to the constrictions of dogma, valuing the fluid essence of understanding; an insatiable curiosity that fuels exploration beyond the familiar; an appreciation for the mosaic of diverse opinions, understanding that this tapestry lends depth to comprehension; an emotional steadiness that responds to contrasting views with intrigue rather than defensiveness; and, most vitally, unwavering allegiance to truth, even if it demands a humbling shift in stance.

As we chart our course through the intricate maze of knowledge, flexibility becomes our compass — ensuring our navigation is nimble, receptive, and perennially aligned with the quest for profound truths. It embodies not the weakness of being effortlessly influenced but the strength to refine one’s understanding with the expanding vistas of enlightenment.

12. Patience: The Deliberate Pursuit of Depth in Thought

In our age of immediacy, patience emerges as a refreshing, even revolutionary, trait. It stands contrary to our digital landscape’s quick clicks and rapid scrolls, particularly within critical thinking. So, what makes patience so integral, especially when the world often demands immediate answers?

Patience isn’t mere waiting; it’s an intentional deep dive into the ocean of thought, providing the time and space for ideas to germinate and evolve. This considered approach offers discerning thinkers several advantages:

• Depth Over Speed: Rather than skimming the surface, patient thinkers plunge into the depths, uncovering intricacies that might be overlooked in haste.
• Minimizing Mistakes: Rushed judgments can be fraught with errors. By pondering over details, patient thinkers ensure accuracy and thoroughness.
• Comprehensive Insights: Giving thoughts time to simmer allows thinkers to view issues from multiple angles, leading to a rounded understanding.
• Balanced Emotions: Reactivity can cloud judgment. Patience acts as a stabilizing force, ensuring emotions don’t unduly sway decisions.
• Cultivating Curiosity: Patience encourages a journey led by curiosity, where every avenue of thought is explored, and nothing is taken at face value.
• Resilience in Problem-Solving: When faced with knotty challenges, it’s patience that grants thinkers the perseverance to unravel them.
• Clearer Conclusions: Giving ample time for reflection often results in sharper clarity, enabling thinkers to differentiate between the essential and the extraneous.

In a nutshell, patience is the unsung hero of critical thinking. While it may seem counterintuitive in our fast-paced world, patience often leads to the most profound and enduring insights. As thinkers navigate the vast seas of information, this virtue ensures they don’t merely paddle on the surface but dive deep, seeking pearls of wisdom that lie beneath.

13. Self-awareness: The Mirror of Mindful Thinking

Like a dance, critical thinking requires an acute awareness of every step and nuance. In this choreography of the mind, self-awareness stands out as a dancer would attune to their every movement. This isn’t just a venture into the vast expanse of external knowledge but a deep dive inward. This journey uncovers our personal biases and the underlying reasons for our beliefs. So, what makes self-awareness so crucial in our thinking processes?

When we speak of self-awareness, we refer to the introspective lens that illuminates our feelings, beliefs, and inherent biases. It acknowledges our mental processes, triggers, and innate tendencies. This depth of understanding oneself offers many benefits for those dedicated to critical thinking. For starters, it aids in identifying our intellectual blind spots. Even the most objective of us harbor biases, often unbeknownst to us. Recognizing these is the first step towards ensuring they don’t unduly skew our judgments. This self-recognition leads to enhanced objectivity. By being aware of our predispositions, we can tackle issues with a clearer, less biased mind. Furthermore, it helps regulate our emotions, ensuring that while we respect our feelings, we don’t let them cloud our analytical process.

But the journey doesn’t end there. Self-awareness fosters continuous personal and intellectual growth. It’s the driving force behind self-improvement, pushing us to refine our beliefs and actions constantly. When making decisions, an awareness of our biases can help us seek out diverse perspectives, leading to more informed and holistic choices. On a more interpersonal level, understanding ourselves sets the foundation for understanding and empathizing with others, promoting fruitful and empathetic discussions. Additionally, true authenticity in thought springs from self-awareness. It ensures our beliefs are genuine reflections of our understanding, not just molded by societal expectations or external pressures.

To sum it up, self-awareness is not just a tool but the compass for our intellectual journey. In the information age, where we’re bombarded with many opinions and perspectives, self-awareness keeps us anchored. It reminds us to challenge the vast world of external information and regularly question and understand the intricate world within us.

14. Resilience: A Pillar of Critical Thinking in the Face of Challenges

When we delve into the world of critical thinking, resilience emerges as a steadfast anchor, holding firm amidst the turbulent waves of intellectual challenges. It’s more than just a skill; it’s a driving force that empowers thinkers to transform setbacks into springboards for growth. But what role does resilience, a trait so deeply tied to enduring hardships, play in our journey of knowledge?

Resilience, at its core, champions the undeterred pursuit of knowledge. It isn’t just about the journey but an acknowledgment that this journey, filled with its twists, turns, and bumps, is replete with invaluable lessons. What sets a resilient thinker apart?

Such thinkers view failures as invaluable lessons, pivoting from potential dead-ends to deep introspection and learning. They remain staunchly committed to understanding, even when faced with perplexing complexities. Mistakes become growth opportunities, analyzed in depth to ensure they’re not repeated. Their strategy is fluid, always ready to adapt to overcome hurdles. They maintain a broad viewpoint, ensuring temporary challenges don’t detract from their objectives. Their ethos is grounded in a growth mindset, viewing challenges as avenues for intellectual expansion. Beyond this, their emotional resilience keeps them anchored, ensuring that emotional highs and lows don’t deter their quest.

In the intricate world of critical thinking, resilience acts as the binding thread, maintaining the fabric’s coherence and strength. It is a testament to a thinker’s ability to endure and flourish amidst adversity. As they navigate the dense terrains of information, theories, and hypotheses, resilience is their guiding light, reinforcing an ever-evolving quest for knowledge.

15. Humility: The Beacon of Critical Thought

In critical thinking, where myriad traits claim prominence, humility subtly commands respect. It thrives quietly in a society that often conflates boldness with brilliance, making humility’s power even more remarkable. Contrary to conventional thought, this virtue doesn’t indicate feebleness; it’s a testament to intellectual authenticity and a willingness to evolve.

At its core, humility embraces the vastness of knowledge, acknowledging our limited grasp and the infinite lessons awaiting discovery. It’s a gentle nudge, reminding thinkers that true wisdom lies in understanding the scope of what they don’t know. This humbleness in approach drives a continuous hunger for learning, prompting individuals to value varied perspectives, acknowledging that collective insights often eclipse solitary views. Such thinkers, grounded in humility, not only admit their lapses but use them as pivot points for growth.

Their authenticity in admitting errors earns them trust, facilitating enriching dialogues. Moreover, humble thinkers shield themselves against personal biases, ensuring balanced and fair decisions. Their modesty naturally attracts collaboration, fostering a spirit of shared discovery.

But perhaps most crucially, humility is the guardian of a thinker’s sincerity, emphasizing truth over ego, making the intellectual journey not a race to be right but a pursuit of genuine understanding. In an era overflowing with information, humility anchors thinkers, guiding them through the expansive oceans of knowledge, always reminding them that learning is an endless voyage and every individual a constant apprentice.

16. Holistic Thinking: The Art of Seeing Beyond the Pieces

Within the vast panorama of cognitive abilities, holistic thinking shines as a beacon, orchestrating diverse elements into a harmonized whole. This thinking style prompts us to step back and embrace the entire tableau in an era often lost in the details. Rather than merely focusing on isolated fragments, it insists on recognizing their place within the greater mosaic.

Holistic thinkers see landscapes beyond individual trees or streams; they fathom how each element contributes to the collective ecosystem. This breadth of vision equips them to discern intricate relationships, anticipate far-reaching consequences, and cultivate synergies. Such thinkers are not merely addressing the symptoms of issues but delving into their very core, crafting comprehensive solutions that consider the broader context.

Their approach is a testament to the belief that the entirety of a situation often offers insights that its parts cannot. As the modern world inundates us with fragmented information, holistic thinking stands as our guide, ensuring we navigate with a perspective that acknowledges the interwoven intricacies of our complex reality.

17. Active Listening: The Unsung Hero of Effective Communication

In today’s cacophonous world, brimming with distractions and the relentless tug for our attention, genuine communication becomes a treasure. Active listening emerges as potent and paradoxically under-recognized among the myriad communication tools.

This isn’t merely the passive receipt of words; it’s an immersion into deep engagement, empathy, and connection. At the heart of active listening is a profound recognition of words’ essence, context, and the emotions they channel. Such listening demands our full presence, sidelining any preconceptions or hurried responses.

We build trust and rapport when we actively listen, laying the foundations for more profound interactions. This form of attentive listening illuminates nuances and subtle cues, fostering an enriched understanding. It significantly reduces miscommunication, nurtures empathy, and promotes open dialogue.

Furthermore, with a more rounded grasp of various perspectives, active listeners can make better-informed decisions and absorb information deeply, enhancing learning. At its deepest level, active listening is both a skill and a gift—a profound acknowledgment that the speaker’s thoughts and feelings are valued and understood.

As it becomes increasingly challenging to focus on in our digitized age, the cultivation of active listening is a testament to the significance of true human connection. Through this art, we hear and truly connect, reminding ourselves and others of the irreplaceable power of being genuinely present.

18. Continuous Learning: Embracing the Infinite Potential of Knowledge

At the heart of human evolution lies an insatiable hunger for knowledge. This isn’t just about formal education or acquiring skills for professional pursuits; it’s about the unending journey of personal and intellectual growth. Continuous learning embodies this journey. It’s not a phase or a stage but a lifestyle choice championed by those who realize that the realms of knowledge are limitless.

The continuous learner emerges as an adaptive powerhouse in today’s rapidly evolving world, with its surging technological innovations and shifting paradigms. Such individuals aren’t merely reacting to change; they’re anticipating it, armed with fresh insights, diverse skills, and a mindset anchored in curiosity. This approach transcends professional excellence. It’s about personal fulfillment, where every new knowledge adds depth to one’s worldview, fuels creativity, and nurtures resilience. The continuous learner understands that every day offers lessons, every person they meet can be a teacher, and every challenge, while daunting, carries the seeds of growth.

Moreover, as they delve into diverse fields and platforms, they build networks, fostering professionally enriching and personally rewarding connections. The essence of continuous learning is understanding that our quest for knowledge is a journey without a final destination. In embracing this, individuals don’t just keep pace with the world; they often lead the way, charting paths into yet undiscovered territories of potential and understanding.

In Conclusion: The Symphony of the Mind

Each attribute explored in this series—humility, holistic thinking, active listening, or continuous learning—serves as a distinct note in the vast symphony of critical thinking and personal growth. Individually, they are powerful; collectively, they are transformative. In a constantly evolving world, where challenges morph, and opportunities arise in unexpected quarters, these traits empower us to navigate with clarity, empathy, and foresight.

But beyond the practical benefits, there lies a deeper truth. Our pursuit of knowledge, understanding, and growth is a testament to the indomitable human spirit. It affirms our innate curiosity, resilience, and insatiable desire to make a meaningful mark on the world.

As readers, whether you’re embarking on a personal quest for knowledge or seeking to inspire others in their journeys, remember this: The path to enlightenment isn’t a straight line but a mosaic of experiences, insights, and lessons. And every step taken with an open mind and eager heart adds a vibrant tile to this ever-expanding tapestry of understanding.

Thank you for joining us on this exploration. May you carry these insights with you, and may they illuminate your path wherever it may lead.

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Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms for thinking carefully, and the thinking components on which they focus. Its adoption as an educational goal has been recommended on the basis of respect for students’ autonomy and preparing students for success in life and for democratic citizenship. “Critical thinkers” have the dispositions and abilities that lead them to think critically when appropriate. The abilities can be identified directly; the dispositions indirectly, by considering what factors contribute to or impede exercise of the abilities. Standardized tests have been developed to assess the degree to which a person possesses such dispositions and abilities. Educational intervention has been shown experimentally to improve them, particularly when it includes dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring. Controversies have arisen over the generalizability of critical thinking across domains, over alleged bias in critical thinking theories and instruction, and over the relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking.

2.1 Dewey’s Three Main Examples

2.2 dewey’s other examples, 2.3 further examples, 2.4 non-examples, 3. the definition of critical thinking, 4. its value, 5. the process of thinking critically, 6. components of the process, 7. contributory dispositions and abilities, 8.1 initiating dispositions, 8.2 internal dispositions, 9. critical thinking abilities, 10. required knowledge, 11. educational methods, 12.1 the generalizability of critical thinking, 12.2 bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, 12.3 relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking, other internet resources, related entries.

Use of the term ‘critical thinking’ to describe an educational goal goes back to the American philosopher John Dewey (1910), who more commonly called it ‘reflective thinking’. He defined it as

active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey 1910: 6; 1933: 9)

and identified a habit of such consideration with a scientific attitude of mind. His lengthy quotations of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill indicate that he was not the first person to propose development of a scientific attitude of mind as an educational goal.

In the 1930s, many of the schools that participated in the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association (Aikin 1942) adopted critical thinking as an educational goal, for whose achievement the study’s Evaluation Staff developed tests (Smith, Tyler, & Evaluation Staff 1942). Glaser (1941) showed experimentally that it was possible to improve the critical thinking of high school students. Bloom’s influential taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives (Bloom et al. 1956) incorporated critical thinking abilities. Ennis (1962) proposed 12 aspects of critical thinking as a basis for research on the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking ability.

Since 1980, an annual international conference in California on critical thinking and educational reform has attracted tens of thousands of educators from all levels of education and from many parts of the world. Also since 1980, the state university system in California has required all undergraduate students to take a critical thinking course. Since 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions in conjunction with the divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association (APA). In 1987, the APA’s Committee on Pre-College Philosophy commissioned a consensus statement on critical thinking for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (Facione 1990a). Researchers have developed standardized tests of critical thinking abilities and dispositions; for details, see the Supplement on Assessment . Educational jurisdictions around the world now include critical thinking in guidelines for curriculum and assessment.

For details on this history, see the Supplement on History .

2. Examples and Non-Examples

Before considering the definition of critical thinking, it will be helpful to have in mind some examples of critical thinking, as well as some examples of kinds of thinking that would apparently not count as critical thinking.

Dewey (1910: 68–71; 1933: 91–94) takes as paradigms of reflective thinking three class papers of students in which they describe their thinking. The examples range from the everyday to the scientific.

Transit : “The other day, when I was down town on 16th Street, a clock caught my eye. I saw that the hands pointed to 12:20. This suggested that I had an engagement at 124th Street, at one o’clock. I reasoned that as it had taken me an hour to come down on a surface car, I should probably be twenty minutes late if I returned the same way. I might save twenty minutes by a subway express. But was there a station near? If not, I might lose more than twenty minutes in looking for one. Then I thought of the elevated, and I saw there was such a line within two blocks. But where was the station? If it were several blocks above or below the street I was on, I should lose time instead of gaining it. My mind went back to the subway express as quicker than the elevated; furthermore, I remembered that it went nearer than the elevated to the part of 124th Street I wished to reach, so that time would be saved at the end of the journey. I concluded in favor of the subway, and reached my destination by one o’clock.” (Dewey 1910: 68–69; 1933: 91–92)

Ferryboat : “Projecting nearly horizontally from the upper deck of the ferryboat on which I daily cross the river is a long white pole, having a gilded ball at its tip. It suggested a flagpole when I first saw it; its color, shape, and gilded ball agreed with this idea, and these reasons seemed to justify me in this belief. But soon difficulties presented themselves. The pole was nearly horizontal, an unusual position for a flagpole; in the next place, there was no pulley, ring, or cord by which to attach a flag; finally, there were elsewhere on the boat two vertical staffs from which flags were occasionally flown. It seemed probable that the pole was not there for flag-flying.

“I then tried to imagine all possible purposes of the pole, and to consider for which of these it was best suited: (a) Possibly it was an ornament. But as all the ferryboats and even the tugboats carried poles, this hypothesis was rejected. (b) Possibly it was the terminal of a wireless telegraph. But the same considerations made this improbable. Besides, the more natural place for such a terminal would be the highest part of the boat, on top of the pilot house. (c) Its purpose might be to point out the direction in which the boat is moving.

“In support of this conclusion, I discovered that the pole was lower than the pilot house, so that the steersman could easily see it. Moreover, the tip was enough higher than the base, so that, from the pilot’s position, it must appear to project far out in front of the boat. Moreover, the pilot being near the front of the boat, he would need some such guide as to its direction. Tugboats would also need poles for such a purpose. This hypothesis was so much more probable than the others that I accepted it. I formed the conclusion that the pole was set up for the purpose of showing the pilot the direction in which the boat pointed, to enable him to steer correctly.” (Dewey 1910: 69–70; 1933: 92–93)

Bubbles : “In washing tumblers in hot soapsuds and placing them mouth downward on a plate, bubbles appeared on the outside of the mouth of the tumblers and then went inside. Why? The presence of bubbles suggests air, which I note must come from inside the tumbler. I see that the soapy water on the plate prevents escape of the air save as it may be caught in bubbles. But why should air leave the tumbler? There was no substance entering to force it out. It must have expanded. It expands by increase of heat, or by decrease of pressure, or both. Could the air have become heated after the tumbler was taken from the hot suds? Clearly not the air that was already entangled in the water. If heated air was the cause, cold air must have entered in transferring the tumblers from the suds to the plate. I test to see if this supposition is true by taking several more tumblers out. Some I shake so as to make sure of entrapping cold air in them. Some I take out holding mouth downward in order to prevent cold air from entering. Bubbles appear on the outside of every one of the former and on none of the latter. I must be right in my inference. Air from the outside must have been expanded by the heat of the tumbler, which explains the appearance of the bubbles on the outside. But why do they then go inside? Cold contracts. The tumbler cooled and also the air inside it. Tension was removed, and hence bubbles appeared inside. To be sure of this, I test by placing a cup of ice on the tumbler while the bubbles are still forming outside. They soon reverse” (Dewey 1910: 70–71; 1933: 93–94).

Dewey (1910, 1933) sprinkles his book with other examples of critical thinking. We will refer to the following.

Weather : A man on a walk notices that it has suddenly become cool, thinks that it is probably going to rain, looks up and sees a dark cloud obscuring the sun, and quickens his steps (1910: 6–10; 1933: 9–13).

Disorder : A man finds his rooms on his return to them in disorder with his belongings thrown about, thinks at first of burglary as an explanation, then thinks of mischievous children as being an alternative explanation, then looks to see whether valuables are missing, and discovers that they are (1910: 82–83; 1933: 166–168).

Typhoid : A physician diagnosing a patient whose conspicuous symptoms suggest typhoid avoids drawing a conclusion until more data are gathered by questioning the patient and by making tests (1910: 85–86; 1933: 170).

Blur : A moving blur catches our eye in the distance, we ask ourselves whether it is a cloud of whirling dust or a tree moving its branches or a man signaling to us, we think of other traits that should be found on each of those possibilities, and we look and see if those traits are found (1910: 102, 108; 1933: 121, 133).

Suction pump : In thinking about the suction pump, the scientist first notes that it will draw water only to a maximum height of 33 feet at sea level and to a lesser maximum height at higher elevations, selects for attention the differing atmospheric pressure at these elevations, sets up experiments in which the air is removed from a vessel containing water (when suction no longer works) and in which the weight of air at various levels is calculated, compares the results of reasoning about the height to which a given weight of air will allow a suction pump to raise water with the observed maximum height at different elevations, and finally assimilates the suction pump to such apparently different phenomena as the siphon and the rising of a balloon (1910: 150–153; 1933: 195–198).

Diamond : A passenger in a car driving in a diamond lane reserved for vehicles with at least one passenger notices that the diamond marks on the pavement are far apart in some places and close together in others. Why? The driver suggests that the reason may be that the diamond marks are not needed where there is a solid double line separating the diamond lane from the adjoining lane, but are needed when there is a dotted single line permitting crossing into the diamond lane. Further observation confirms that the diamonds are close together when a dotted line separates the diamond lane from its neighbour, but otherwise far apart.

Rash : A woman suddenly develops a very itchy red rash on her throat and upper chest. She recently noticed a mark on the back of her right hand, but was not sure whether the mark was a rash or a scrape. She lies down in bed and thinks about what might be causing the rash and what to do about it. About two weeks before, she began taking blood pressure medication that contained a sulfa drug, and the pharmacist had warned her, in view of a previous allergic reaction to a medication containing a sulfa drug, to be on the alert for an allergic reaction; however, she had been taking the medication for two weeks with no such effect. The day before, she began using a new cream on her neck and upper chest; against the new cream as the cause was mark on the back of her hand, which had not been exposed to the cream. She began taking probiotics about a month before. She also recently started new eye drops, but she supposed that manufacturers of eye drops would be careful not to include allergy-causing components in the medication. The rash might be a heat rash, since she recently was sweating profusely from her upper body. Since she is about to go away on a short vacation, where she would not have access to her usual physician, she decides to keep taking the probiotics and using the new eye drops but to discontinue the blood pressure medication and to switch back to the old cream for her neck and upper chest. She forms a plan to consult her regular physician on her return about the blood pressure medication.

Candidate : Although Dewey included no examples of thinking directed at appraising the arguments of others, such thinking has come to be considered a kind of critical thinking. We find an example of such thinking in the performance task on the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+), which its sponsoring organization describes as

a performance-based assessment that provides a measure of an institution’s contribution to the development of critical-thinking and written communication skills of its students. (Council for Aid to Education 2017)

A sample task posted on its website requires the test-taker to write a report for public distribution evaluating a fictional candidate’s policy proposals and their supporting arguments, using supplied background documents, with a recommendation on whether to endorse the candidate.

Immediate acceptance of an idea that suggests itself as a solution to a problem (e.g., a possible explanation of an event or phenomenon, an action that seems likely to produce a desired result) is “uncritical thinking, the minimum of reflection” (Dewey 1910: 13). On-going suspension of judgment in the light of doubt about a possible solution is not critical thinking (Dewey 1910: 108). Critique driven by a dogmatically held political or religious ideology is not critical thinking; thus Paulo Freire (1968 [1970]) is using the term (e.g., at 1970: 71, 81, 100, 146) in a more politically freighted sense that includes not only reflection but also revolutionary action against oppression. Derivation of a conclusion from given data using an algorithm is not critical thinking.

What is critical thinking? There are many definitions. Ennis (2016) lists 14 philosophically oriented scholarly definitions and three dictionary definitions. Following Rawls (1971), who distinguished his conception of justice from a utilitarian conception but regarded them as rival conceptions of the same concept, Ennis maintains that the 17 definitions are different conceptions of the same concept. Rawls articulated the shared concept of justice as

a characteristic set of principles for assigning basic rights and duties and for determining… the proper distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation. (Rawls 1971: 5)

Bailin et al. (1999b) claim that, if one considers what sorts of thinking an educator would take not to be critical thinking and what sorts to be critical thinking, one can conclude that educators typically understand critical thinking to have at least three features.

• It is done for the purpose of making up one’s mind about what to believe or do.
• The person engaging in the thinking is trying to fulfill standards of adequacy and accuracy appropriate to the thinking.
• The thinking fulfills the relevant standards to some threshold level.

One could sum up the core concept that involves these three features by saying that critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking. This core concept seems to apply to all the examples of critical thinking described in the previous section. As for the non-examples, their exclusion depends on construing careful thinking as excluding jumping immediately to conclusions, suspending judgment no matter how strong the evidence, reasoning from an unquestioned ideological or religious perspective, and routinely using an algorithm to answer a question.

If the core of critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking, conceptions of it can vary according to its presumed scope, its presumed goal, one’s criteria and threshold for being careful, and the thinking component on which one focuses. As to its scope, some conceptions (e.g., Dewey 1910, 1933) restrict it to constructive thinking on the basis of one’s own observations and experiments, others (e.g., Ennis 1962; Fisher & Scriven 1997; Johnson 1992) to appraisal of the products of such thinking. Ennis (1991) and Bailin et al. (1999b) take it to cover both construction and appraisal. As to its goal, some conceptions restrict it to forming a judgment (Dewey 1910, 1933; Lipman 1987; Facione 1990a). Others allow for actions as well as beliefs as the end point of a process of critical thinking (Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b). As to the criteria and threshold for being careful, definitions vary in the term used to indicate that critical thinking satisfies certain norms: “intellectually disciplined” (Scriven & Paul 1987), “reasonable” (Ennis 1991), “skillful” (Lipman 1987), “skilled” (Fisher & Scriven 1997), “careful” (Bailin & Battersby 2009). Some definitions specify these norms, referring variously to “consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey 1910, 1933); “the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning” (Glaser 1941); “conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul 1987); the requirement that “it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is self-correcting” (Lipman 1987); “evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations” (Facione 1990a); and “plus-minus considerations of the product in terms of appropriate standards (or criteria)” (Johnson 1992). Stanovich and Stanovich (2010) propose to ground the concept of critical thinking in the concept of rationality, which they understand as combining epistemic rationality (fitting one’s beliefs to the world) and instrumental rationality (optimizing goal fulfillment); a critical thinker, in their view, is someone with “a propensity to override suboptimal responses from the autonomous mind” (2010: 227). These variant specifications of norms for critical thinking are not necessarily incompatible with one another, and in any case presuppose the core notion of thinking carefully. As to the thinking component singled out, some definitions focus on suspension of judgment during the thinking (Dewey 1910; McPeck 1981), others on inquiry while judgment is suspended (Bailin & Battersby 2009, 2021), others on the resulting judgment (Facione 1990a), and still others on responsiveness to reasons (Siegel 1988). Kuhn (2019) takes critical thinking to be more a dialogic practice of advancing and responding to arguments than an individual ability.

In educational contexts, a definition of critical thinking is a “programmatic definition” (Scheffler 1960: 19). It expresses a practical program for achieving an educational goal. For this purpose, a one-sentence formulaic definition is much less useful than articulation of a critical thinking process, with criteria and standards for the kinds of thinking that the process may involve. The real educational goal is recognition, adoption and implementation by students of those criteria and standards. That adoption and implementation in turn consists in acquiring the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker.

Conceptions of critical thinking generally do not include moral integrity as part of the concept. Dewey, for example, took critical thinking to be the ultimate intellectual goal of education, but distinguished it from the development of social cooperation among school children, which he took to be the central moral goal. Ennis (1996, 2011) added to his previous list of critical thinking dispositions a group of dispositions to care about the dignity and worth of every person, which he described as a “correlative” (1996) disposition without which critical thinking would be less valuable and perhaps harmful. An educational program that aimed at developing critical thinking but not the correlative disposition to care about the dignity and worth of every person, he asserted, “would be deficient and perhaps dangerous” (Ennis 1996: 172).

Dewey thought that education for reflective thinking would be of value to both the individual and society; recognition in educational practice of the kinship to the scientific attitude of children’s native curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquiry “would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste” (Dewey 1910: iii). Schools participating in the Eight-Year Study took development of the habit of reflective thinking and skill in solving problems as a means to leading young people to understand, appreciate and live the democratic way of life characteristic of the United States (Aikin 1942: 17–18, 81). Harvey Siegel (1988: 55–61) has offered four considerations in support of adopting critical thinking as an educational ideal. (1) Respect for persons requires that schools and teachers honour students’ demands for reasons and explanations, deal with students honestly, and recognize the need to confront students’ independent judgment; these requirements concern the manner in which teachers treat students. (2) Education has the task of preparing children to be successful adults, a task that requires development of their self-sufficiency. (3) Education should initiate children into the rational traditions in such fields as history, science and mathematics. (4) Education should prepare children to become democratic citizens, which requires reasoned procedures and critical talents and attitudes. To supplement these considerations, Siegel (1988: 62–90) responds to two objections: the ideology objection that adoption of any educational ideal requires a prior ideological commitment and the indoctrination objection that cultivation of critical thinking cannot escape being a form of indoctrination.

Despite the diversity of our 11 examples, one can recognize a common pattern. Dewey analyzed it as consisting of five phases:

• suggestions , in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution;
• an intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought;
• the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis , to initiate and guide observation and other operations in collection of factual material;
• the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposition ( reasoning , in the sense on which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference); and
• testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action. (Dewey 1933: 106–107; italics in original)

The process of reflective thinking consisting of these phases would be preceded by a perplexed, troubled or confused situation and followed by a cleared-up, unified, resolved situation (Dewey 1933: 106). The term ‘phases’ replaced the term ‘steps’ (Dewey 1910: 72), thus removing the earlier suggestion of an invariant sequence. Variants of the above analysis appeared in (Dewey 1916: 177) and (Dewey 1938: 101–119).

The variant formulations indicate the difficulty of giving a single logical analysis of such a varied process. The process of critical thinking may have a spiral pattern, with the problem being redefined in the light of obstacles to solving it as originally formulated. For example, the person in Transit might have concluded that getting to the appointment at the scheduled time was impossible and have reformulated the problem as that of rescheduling the appointment for a mutually convenient time. Further, defining a problem does not always follow after or lead immediately to an idea of a suggested solution. Nor should it do so, as Dewey himself recognized in describing the physician in Typhoid as avoiding any strong preference for this or that conclusion before getting further information (Dewey 1910: 85; 1933: 170). People with a hypothesis in mind, even one to which they have a very weak commitment, have a so-called “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998): they are likely to pay attention to evidence that confirms the hypothesis and to ignore evidence that counts against it or for some competing hypothesis. Detectives, intelligence agencies, and investigators of airplane accidents are well advised to gather relevant evidence systematically and to postpone even tentative adoption of an explanatory hypothesis until the collected evidence rules out with the appropriate degree of certainty all but one explanation. Dewey’s analysis of the critical thinking process can be faulted as well for requiring acceptance or rejection of a possible solution to a defined problem, with no allowance for deciding in the light of the available evidence to suspend judgment. Further, given the great variety of kinds of problems for which reflection is appropriate, there is likely to be variation in its component events. Perhaps the best way to conceptualize the critical thinking process is as a checklist whose component events can occur in a variety of orders, selectively, and more than once. These component events might include (1) noticing a difficulty, (2) defining the problem, (3) dividing the problem into manageable sub-problems, (4) formulating a variety of possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (5) determining what evidence is relevant to deciding among possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (6) devising a plan of systematic observation or experiment that will uncover the relevant evidence, (7) carrying out the plan of systematic observation or experimentation, (8) noting the results of the systematic observation or experiment, (9) gathering relevant testimony and information from others, (10) judging the credibility of testimony and information gathered from others, (11) drawing conclusions from gathered evidence and accepted testimony, and (12) accepting a solution that the evidence adequately supports (cf. Hitchcock 2017: 485).

Checklist conceptions of the process of critical thinking are open to the objection that they are too mechanical and procedural to fit the multi-dimensional and emotionally charged issues for which critical thinking is urgently needed (Paul 1984). For such issues, a more dialectical process is advocated, in which competing relevant world views are identified, their implications explored, and some sort of creative synthesis attempted.

If one considers the critical thinking process illustrated by the 11 examples, one can identify distinct kinds of mental acts and mental states that form part of it. To distinguish, label and briefly characterize these components is a useful preliminary to identifying abilities, skills, dispositions, attitudes, habits and the like that contribute causally to thinking critically. Identifying such abilities and habits is in turn a useful preliminary to setting educational goals. Setting the goals is in its turn a useful preliminary to designing strategies for helping learners to achieve the goals and to designing ways of measuring the extent to which learners have done so. Such measures provide both feedback to learners on their achievement and a basis for experimental research on the effectiveness of various strategies for educating people to think critically. Let us begin, then, by distinguishing the kinds of mental acts and mental events that can occur in a critical thinking process.

• Observing : One notices something in one’s immediate environment (sudden cooling of temperature in Weather , bubbles forming outside a glass and then going inside in Bubbles , a moving blur in the distance in Blur , a rash in Rash ). Or one notes the results of an experiment or systematic observation (valuables missing in Disorder , no suction without air pressure in Suction pump )
• Feeling : One feels puzzled or uncertain about something (how to get to an appointment on time in Transit , why the diamonds vary in spacing in Diamond ). One wants to resolve this perplexity. One feels satisfaction once one has worked out an answer (to take the subway express in Transit , diamonds closer when needed as a warning in Diamond ).
• Wondering : One formulates a question to be addressed (why bubbles form outside a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , how suction pumps work in Suction pump , what caused the rash in Rash ).
• Imagining : One thinks of possible answers (bus or subway or elevated in Transit , flagpole or ornament or wireless communication aid or direction indicator in Ferryboat , allergic reaction or heat rash in Rash ).
• Inferring : One works out what would be the case if a possible answer were assumed (valuables missing if there has been a burglary in Disorder , earlier start to the rash if it is an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug in Rash ). Or one draws a conclusion once sufficient relevant evidence is gathered (take the subway in Transit , burglary in Disorder , discontinue blood pressure medication and new cream in Rash ).
• Knowledge : One uses stored knowledge of the subject-matter to generate possible answers or to infer what would be expected on the assumption of a particular answer (knowledge of a city’s public transit system in Transit , of the requirements for a flagpole in Ferryboat , of Boyle’s law in Bubbles , of allergic reactions in Rash ).
• Experimenting : One designs and carries out an experiment or a systematic observation to find out whether the results deduced from a possible answer will occur (looking at the location of the flagpole in relation to the pilot’s position in Ferryboat , putting an ice cube on top of a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , measuring the height to which a suction pump will draw water at different elevations in Suction pump , noticing the spacing of diamonds when movement to or from a diamond lane is allowed in Diamond ).
• Consulting : One finds a source of information, gets the information from the source, and makes a judgment on whether to accept it. None of our 11 examples include searching for sources of information. In this respect they are unrepresentative, since most people nowadays have almost instant access to information relevant to answering any question, including many of those illustrated by the examples. However, Candidate includes the activities of extracting information from sources and evaluating its credibility.
• Identifying and analyzing arguments : One notices an argument and works out its structure and content as a preliminary to evaluating its strength. This activity is central to Candidate . It is an important part of a critical thinking process in which one surveys arguments for various positions on an issue.
• Judging : One makes a judgment on the basis of accumulated evidence and reasoning, such as the judgment in Ferryboat that the purpose of the pole is to provide direction to the pilot.
• Deciding : One makes a decision on what to do or on what policy to adopt, as in the decision in Transit to take the subway.

By definition, a person who does something voluntarily is both willing and able to do that thing at that time. Both the willingness and the ability contribute causally to the person’s action, in the sense that the voluntary action would not occur if either (or both) of these were lacking. For example, suppose that one is standing with one’s arms at one’s sides and one voluntarily lifts one’s right arm to an extended horizontal position. One would not do so if one were unable to lift one’s arm, if for example one’s right side was paralyzed as the result of a stroke. Nor would one do so if one were unwilling to lift one’s arm, if for example one were participating in a street demonstration at which a white supremacist was urging the crowd to lift their right arm in a Nazi salute and one were unwilling to express support in this way for the racist Nazi ideology. The same analysis applies to a voluntary mental process of thinking critically. It requires both willingness and ability to think critically, including willingness and ability to perform each of the mental acts that compose the process and to coordinate those acts in a sequence that is directed at resolving the initiating perplexity.

Consider willingness first. We can identify causal contributors to willingness to think critically by considering factors that would cause a person who was able to think critically about an issue nevertheless not to do so (Hamby 2014). For each factor, the opposite condition thus contributes causally to willingness to think critically on a particular occasion. For example, people who habitually jump to conclusions without considering alternatives will not think critically about issues that arise, even if they have the required abilities. The contrary condition of willingness to suspend judgment is thus a causal contributor to thinking critically.

Now consider ability. In contrast to the ability to move one’s arm, which can be completely absent because a stroke has left the arm paralyzed, the ability to think critically is a developed ability, whose absence is not a complete absence of ability to think but absence of ability to think well. We can identify the ability to think well directly, in terms of the norms and standards for good thinking. In general, to be able do well the thinking activities that can be components of a critical thinking process, one needs to know the concepts and principles that characterize their good performance, to recognize in particular cases that the concepts and principles apply, and to apply them. The knowledge, recognition and application may be procedural rather than declarative. It may be domain-specific rather than widely applicable, and in either case may need subject-matter knowledge, sometimes of a deep kind.

Reflections of the sort illustrated by the previous two paragraphs have led scholars to identify the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a “critical thinker”, i.e., someone who thinks critically whenever it is appropriate to do so. We turn now to these three types of causal contributors to thinking critically. We start with dispositions, since arguably these are the most powerful contributors to being a critical thinker, can be fostered at an early stage of a child’s development, and are susceptible to general improvement (Glaser 1941: 175)

8. Critical Thinking Dispositions

Educational researchers use the term ‘dispositions’ broadly for the habits of mind and attitudes that contribute causally to being a critical thinker. Some writers (e.g., Paul & Elder 2006; Hamby 2014; Bailin & Battersby 2016a) propose to use the term ‘virtues’ for this dimension of a critical thinker. The virtues in question, although they are virtues of character, concern the person’s ways of thinking rather than the person’s ways of behaving towards others. They are not moral virtues but intellectual virtues, of the sort articulated by Zagzebski (1996) and discussed by Turri, Alfano, and Greco (2017).

On a realistic conception, thinking dispositions or intellectual virtues are real properties of thinkers. They are general tendencies, propensities, or inclinations to think in particular ways in particular circumstances, and can be genuinely explanatory (Siegel 1999). Sceptics argue that there is no evidence for a specific mental basis for the habits of mind that contribute to thinking critically, and that it is pedagogically misleading to posit such a basis (Bailin et al. 1999a). Whatever their status, critical thinking dispositions need motivation for their initial formation in a child—motivation that may be external or internal. As children develop, the force of habit will gradually become important in sustaining the disposition (Nieto & Valenzuela 2012). Mere force of habit, however, is unlikely to sustain critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinkers must value and enjoy using their knowledge and abilities to think things through for themselves. They must be committed to, and lovers of, inquiry.

A person may have a critical thinking disposition with respect to only some kinds of issues. For example, one could be open-minded about scientific issues but not about religious issues. Similarly, one could be confident in one’s ability to reason about the theological implications of the existence of evil in the world but not in one’s ability to reason about the best design for a guided ballistic missile.

Facione (1990a: 25) divides “affective dispositions” of critical thinking into approaches to life and living in general and approaches to specific issues, questions or problems. Adapting this distinction, one can usefully divide critical thinking dispositions into initiating dispositions (those that contribute causally to starting to think critically about an issue) and internal dispositions (those that contribute causally to doing a good job of thinking critically once one has started). The two categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, open-mindedness, in the sense of willingness to consider alternative points of view to one’s own, is both an initiating and an internal disposition.

Using the strategy of considering factors that would block people with the ability to think critically from doing so, we can identify as initiating dispositions for thinking critically attentiveness, a habit of inquiry, self-confidence, courage, open-mindedness, willingness to suspend judgment, trust in reason, wanting evidence for one’s beliefs, and seeking the truth. We consider briefly what each of these dispositions amounts to, in each case citing sources that acknowledge them.

• Attentiveness : One will not think critically if one fails to recognize an issue that needs to be thought through. For example, the pedestrian in Weather would not have looked up if he had not noticed that the air was suddenly cooler. To be a critical thinker, then, one needs to be habitually attentive to one’s surroundings, noticing not only what one senses but also sources of perplexity in messages received and in one’s own beliefs and attitudes (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
• Habit of inquiry : Inquiry is effortful, and one needs an internal push to engage in it. For example, the student in Bubbles could easily have stopped at idle wondering about the cause of the bubbles rather than reasoning to a hypothesis, then designing and executing an experiment to test it. Thus willingness to think critically needs mental energy and initiative. What can supply that energy? Love of inquiry, or perhaps just a habit of inquiry. Hamby (2015) has argued that willingness to inquire is the central critical thinking virtue, one that encompasses all the others. It is recognized as a critical thinking disposition by Dewey (1910: 29; 1933: 35), Glaser (1941: 5), Ennis (1987: 12; 1991: 8), Facione (1990a: 25), Bailin et al. (1999b: 294), Halpern (1998: 452), and Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo (2001).
• Self-confidence : Lack of confidence in one’s abilities can block critical thinking. For example, if the woman in Rash lacked confidence in her ability to figure things out for herself, she might just have assumed that the rash on her chest was the allergic reaction to her medication against which the pharmacist had warned her. Thus willingness to think critically requires confidence in one’s ability to inquire (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
• Courage : Fear of thinking for oneself can stop one from doing it. Thus willingness to think critically requires intellectual courage (Paul & Elder 2006: 16).
• Open-mindedness : A dogmatic attitude will impede thinking critically. For example, a person who adheres rigidly to a “pro-choice” position on the issue of the legal status of induced abortion is likely to be unwilling to consider seriously the issue of when in its development an unborn child acquires a moral right to life. Thus willingness to think critically requires open-mindedness, in the sense of a willingness to examine questions to which one already accepts an answer but which further evidence or reasoning might cause one to answer differently (Dewey 1933; Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b; Halpern 1998, Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). Paul (1981) emphasizes open-mindedness about alternative world-views, and recommends a dialectical approach to integrating such views as central to what he calls “strong sense” critical thinking. In three studies, Haran, Ritov, & Mellers (2013) found that actively open-minded thinking, including “the tendency to weigh new evidence against a favored belief, to spend sufficient time on a problem before giving up, and to consider carefully the opinions of others in forming one’s own”, led study participants to acquire information and thus to make accurate estimations.
• Willingness to suspend judgment : Premature closure on an initial solution will block critical thinking. Thus willingness to think critically requires a willingness to suspend judgment while alternatives are explored (Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Halpern 1998).
• Trust in reason : Since distrust in the processes of reasoned inquiry will dissuade one from engaging in it, trust in them is an initiating critical thinking disposition (Facione 1990a, 25; Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001; Paul & Elder 2006). In reaction to an allegedly exclusive emphasis on reason in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, Thayer-Bacon (2000) argues that intuition, imagination, and emotion have important roles to play in an adequate conception of critical thinking that she calls “constructive thinking”. From her point of view, critical thinking requires trust not only in reason but also in intuition, imagination, and emotion.
• Seeking the truth : If one does not care about the truth but is content to stick with one’s initial bias on an issue, then one will not think critically about it. Seeking the truth is thus an initiating critical thinking disposition (Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). A disposition to seek the truth is implicit in more specific critical thinking dispositions, such as trying to be well-informed, considering seriously points of view other than one’s own, looking for alternatives, suspending judgment when the evidence is insufficient, and adopting a position when the evidence supporting it is sufficient.

Some of the initiating dispositions, such as open-mindedness and willingness to suspend judgment, are also internal critical thinking dispositions, in the sense of mental habits or attitudes that contribute causally to doing a good job of critical thinking once one starts the process. But there are many other internal critical thinking dispositions. Some of them are parasitic on one’s conception of good thinking. For example, it is constitutive of good thinking about an issue to formulate the issue clearly and to maintain focus on it. For this purpose, one needs not only the corresponding ability but also the corresponding disposition. Ennis (1991: 8) describes it as the disposition “to determine and maintain focus on the conclusion or question”, Facione (1990a: 25) as “clarity in stating the question or concern”. Other internal dispositions are motivators to continue or adjust the critical thinking process, such as willingness to persist in a complex task and willingness to abandon nonproductive strategies in an attempt to self-correct (Halpern 1998: 452). For a list of identified internal critical thinking dispositions, see the Supplement on Internal Critical Thinking Dispositions .

Some theorists postulate skills, i.e., acquired abilities, as operative in critical thinking. It is not obvious, however, that a good mental act is the exercise of a generic acquired skill. Inferring an expected time of arrival, as in Transit , has some generic components but also uses non-generic subject-matter knowledge. Bailin et al. (1999a) argue against viewing critical thinking skills as generic and discrete, on the ground that skilled performance at a critical thinking task cannot be separated from knowledge of concepts and from domain-specific principles of good thinking. Talk of skills, they concede, is unproblematic if it means merely that a person with critical thinking skills is capable of intelligent performance.

Despite such scepticism, theorists of critical thinking have listed as general contributors to critical thinking what they variously call abilities (Glaser 1941; Ennis 1962, 1991), skills (Facione 1990a; Halpern 1998) or competencies (Fisher & Scriven 1997). Amalgamating these lists would produce a confusing and chaotic cornucopia of more than 50 possible educational objectives, with only partial overlap among them. It makes sense instead to try to understand the reasons for the multiplicity and diversity, and to make a selection according to one’s own reasons for singling out abilities to be developed in a critical thinking curriculum. Two reasons for diversity among lists of critical thinking abilities are the underlying conception of critical thinking and the envisaged educational level. Appraisal-only conceptions, for example, involve a different suite of abilities than constructive-only conceptions. Some lists, such as those in (Glaser 1941), are put forward as educational objectives for secondary school students, whereas others are proposed as objectives for college students (e.g., Facione 1990a).

The abilities described in the remaining paragraphs of this section emerge from reflection on the general abilities needed to do well the thinking activities identified in section 6 as components of the critical thinking process described in section 5 . The derivation of each collection of abilities is accompanied by citation of sources that list such abilities and of standardized tests that claim to test them.

Observational abilities : Careful and accurate observation sometimes requires specialist expertise and practice, as in the case of observing birds and observing accident scenes. However, there are general abilities of noticing what one’s senses are picking up from one’s environment and of being able to articulate clearly and accurately to oneself and others what one has observed. It helps in exercising them to be able to recognize and take into account factors that make one’s observation less trustworthy, such as prior framing of the situation, inadequate time, deficient senses, poor observation conditions, and the like. It helps as well to be skilled at taking steps to make one’s observation more trustworthy, such as moving closer to get a better look, measuring something three times and taking the average, and checking what one thinks one is observing with someone else who is in a good position to observe it. It also helps to be skilled at recognizing respects in which one’s report of one’s observation involves inference rather than direct observation, so that one can then consider whether the inference is justified. These abilities come into play as well when one thinks about whether and with what degree of confidence to accept an observation report, for example in the study of history or in a criminal investigation or in assessing news reports. Observational abilities show up in some lists of critical thinking abilities (Ennis 1962: 90; Facione 1990a: 16; Ennis 1991: 9). There are items testing a person’s ability to judge the credibility of observation reports in the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests, Levels X and Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). Norris and King (1983, 1985, 1990a, 1990b) is a test of ability to appraise observation reports.

Emotional abilities : The emotions that drive a critical thinking process are perplexity or puzzlement, a wish to resolve it, and satisfaction at achieving the desired resolution. Children experience these emotions at an early age, without being trained to do so. Education that takes critical thinking as a goal needs only to channel these emotions and to make sure not to stifle them. Collaborative critical thinking benefits from ability to recognize one’s own and others’ emotional commitments and reactions.

Questioning abilities : A critical thinking process needs transformation of an inchoate sense of perplexity into a clear question. Formulating a question well requires not building in questionable assumptions, not prejudging the issue, and using language that in context is unambiguous and precise enough (Ennis 1962: 97; 1991: 9).

Imaginative abilities : Thinking directed at finding the correct causal explanation of a general phenomenon or particular event requires an ability to imagine possible explanations. Thinking about what policy or plan of action to adopt requires generation of options and consideration of possible consequences of each option. Domain knowledge is required for such creative activity, but a general ability to imagine alternatives is helpful and can be nurtured so as to become easier, quicker, more extensive, and deeper (Dewey 1910: 34–39; 1933: 40–47). Facione (1990a) and Halpern (1998) include the ability to imagine alternatives as a critical thinking ability.

Inferential abilities : The ability to draw conclusions from given information, and to recognize with what degree of certainty one’s own or others’ conclusions follow, is universally recognized as a general critical thinking ability. All 11 examples in section 2 of this article include inferences, some from hypotheses or options (as in Transit , Ferryboat and Disorder ), others from something observed (as in Weather and Rash ). None of these inferences is formally valid. Rather, they are licensed by general, sometimes qualified substantive rules of inference (Toulmin 1958) that rest on domain knowledge—that a bus trip takes about the same time in each direction, that the terminal of a wireless telegraph would be located on the highest possible place, that sudden cooling is often followed by rain, that an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug generally shows up soon after one starts taking it. It is a matter of controversy to what extent the specialized ability to deduce conclusions from premisses using formal rules of inference is needed for critical thinking. Dewey (1933) locates logical forms in setting out the products of reflection rather than in the process of reflection. Ennis (1981a), on the other hand, maintains that a liberally-educated person should have the following abilities: to translate natural-language statements into statements using the standard logical operators, to use appropriately the language of necessary and sufficient conditions, to deal with argument forms and arguments containing symbols, to determine whether in virtue of an argument’s form its conclusion follows necessarily from its premisses, to reason with logically complex propositions, and to apply the rules and procedures of deductive logic. Inferential abilities are recognized as critical thinking abilities by Glaser (1941: 6), Facione (1990a: 9), Ennis (1991: 9), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 99, 111), and Halpern (1998: 452). Items testing inferential abilities constitute two of the five subtests of the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (Watson & Glaser 1980a, 1980b, 1994), two of the four sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), three of the seven sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), 11 of the 34 items on Forms A and B of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992), and a high but variable proportion of the 25 selected-response questions in the Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Experimenting abilities : Knowing how to design and execute an experiment is important not just in scientific research but also in everyday life, as in Rash . Dewey devoted a whole chapter of his How We Think (1910: 145–156; 1933: 190–202) to the superiority of experimentation over observation in advancing knowledge. Experimenting abilities come into play at one remove in appraising reports of scientific studies. Skill in designing and executing experiments includes the acknowledged abilities to appraise evidence (Glaser 1941: 6), to carry out experiments and to apply appropriate statistical inference techniques (Facione 1990a: 9), to judge inductions to an explanatory hypothesis (Ennis 1991: 9), and to recognize the need for an adequately large sample size (Halpern 1998). The Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) includes four items (out of 52) on experimental design. The Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) makes room for appraisal of study design in both its performance task and its selected-response questions.

Consulting abilities : Skill at consulting sources of information comes into play when one seeks information to help resolve a problem, as in Candidate . Ability to find and appraise information includes ability to gather and marshal pertinent information (Glaser 1941: 6), to judge whether a statement made by an alleged authority is acceptable (Ennis 1962: 84), to plan a search for desired information (Facione 1990a: 9), and to judge the credibility of a source (Ennis 1991: 9). Ability to judge the credibility of statements is tested by 24 items (out of 76) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) and by four items (out of 52) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). The College Learning Assessment’s performance task requires evaluation of whether information in documents is credible or unreliable (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Argument analysis abilities : The ability to identify and analyze arguments contributes to the process of surveying arguments on an issue in order to form one’s own reasoned judgment, as in Candidate . The ability to detect and analyze arguments is recognized as a critical thinking skill by Facione (1990a: 7–8), Ennis (1991: 9) and Halpern (1998). Five items (out of 34) on the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992) test skill at argument analysis. The College Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) incorporates argument analysis in its selected-response tests of critical reading and evaluation and of critiquing an argument.

Judging skills and deciding skills : Skill at judging and deciding is skill at recognizing what judgment or decision the available evidence and argument supports, and with what degree of confidence. It is thus a component of the inferential skills already discussed.

Lists and tests of critical thinking abilities often include two more abilities: identifying assumptions and constructing and evaluating definitions.

In addition to dispositions and abilities, critical thinking needs knowledge: of critical thinking concepts, of critical thinking principles, and of the subject-matter of the thinking.

We can derive a short list of concepts whose understanding contributes to critical thinking from the critical thinking abilities described in the preceding section. Observational abilities require an understanding of the difference between observation and inference. Questioning abilities require an understanding of the concepts of ambiguity and vagueness. Inferential abilities require an understanding of the difference between conclusive and defeasible inference (traditionally, between deduction and induction), as well as of the difference between necessary and sufficient conditions. Experimenting abilities require an understanding of the concepts of hypothesis, null hypothesis, assumption and prediction, as well as of the concept of statistical significance and of its difference from importance. They also require an understanding of the difference between an experiment and an observational study, and in particular of the difference between a randomized controlled trial, a prospective correlational study and a retrospective (case-control) study. Argument analysis abilities require an understanding of the concepts of argument, premiss, assumption, conclusion and counter-consideration. Additional critical thinking concepts are proposed by Bailin et al. (1999b: 293), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 105–106), Black (2012), and Blair (2021).

According to Glaser (1941: 25), ability to think critically requires knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning. If we review the list of abilities in the preceding section, however, we can see that some of them can be acquired and exercised merely through practice, possibly guided in an educational setting, followed by feedback. Searching intelligently for a causal explanation of some phenomenon or event requires that one consider a full range of possible causal contributors, but it seems more important that one implements this principle in one’s practice than that one is able to articulate it. What is important is “operational knowledge” of the standards and principles of good thinking (Bailin et al. 1999b: 291–293). But the development of such critical thinking abilities as designing an experiment or constructing an operational definition can benefit from learning their underlying theory. Further, explicit knowledge of quirks of human thinking seems useful as a cautionary guide. Human memory is not just fallible about details, as people learn from their own experiences of misremembering, but is so malleable that a detailed, clear and vivid recollection of an event can be a total fabrication (Loftus 2017). People seek or interpret evidence in ways that are partial to their existing beliefs and expectations, often unconscious of their “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998). Not only are people subject to this and other cognitive biases (Kahneman 2011), of which they are typically unaware, but it may be counter-productive for one to make oneself aware of them and try consciously to counteract them or to counteract social biases such as racial or sexual stereotypes (Kenyon & Beaulac 2014). It is helpful to be aware of these facts and of the superior effectiveness of blocking the operation of biases—for example, by making an immediate record of one’s observations, refraining from forming a preliminary explanatory hypothesis, blind refereeing, double-blind randomized trials, and blind grading of students’ work. It is also helpful to be aware of the prevalence of “noise” (unwanted unsystematic variability of judgments), of how to detect noise (through a noise audit), and of how to reduce noise: make accuracy the goal, think statistically, break a process of arriving at a judgment into independent tasks, resist premature intuitions, in a group get independent judgments first, favour comparative judgments and scales (Kahneman, Sibony, & Sunstein 2021). It is helpful as well to be aware of the concept of “bounded rationality” in decision-making and of the related distinction between “satisficing” and optimizing (Simon 1956; Gigerenzer 2001).

Critical thinking about an issue requires substantive knowledge of the domain to which the issue belongs. Critical thinking abilities are not a magic elixir that can be applied to any issue whatever by somebody who has no knowledge of the facts relevant to exploring that issue. For example, the student in Bubbles needed to know that gases do not penetrate solid objects like a glass, that air expands when heated, that the volume of an enclosed gas varies directly with its temperature and inversely with its pressure, and that hot objects will spontaneously cool down to the ambient temperature of their surroundings unless kept hot by insulation or a source of heat. Critical thinkers thus need a rich fund of subject-matter knowledge relevant to the variety of situations they encounter. This fact is recognized in the inclusion among critical thinking dispositions of a concern to become and remain generally well informed.

Experimental educational interventions, with control groups, have shown that education can improve critical thinking skills and dispositions, as measured by standardized tests. For information about these tests, see the Supplement on Assessment .

What educational methods are most effective at developing the dispositions, abilities and knowledge of a critical thinker? In a comprehensive meta-analysis of experimental and quasi-experimental studies of strategies for teaching students to think critically, Abrami et al. (2015) found that dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring each increased the effectiveness of the educational intervention, and that they were most effective when combined. They also found that in these studies a combination of separate instruction in critical thinking with subject-matter instruction in which students are encouraged to think critically was more effective than either by itself. However, the difference was not statistically significant; that is, it might have arisen by chance.

Most of these studies lack the longitudinal follow-up required to determine whether the observed differential improvements in critical thinking abilities or dispositions continue over time, for example until high school or college graduation. For details on studies of methods of developing critical thinking skills and dispositions, see the Supplement on Educational Methods .

12. Controversies

Scholars have denied the generalizability of critical thinking abilities across subject domains, have alleged bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, and have investigated the relationship of critical thinking to other kinds of thinking.

McPeck (1981) attacked the thinking skills movement of the 1970s, including the critical thinking movement. He argued that there are no general thinking skills, since thinking is always thinking about some subject-matter. It is futile, he claimed, for schools and colleges to teach thinking as if it were a separate subject. Rather, teachers should lead their pupils to become autonomous thinkers by teaching school subjects in a way that brings out their cognitive structure and that encourages and rewards discussion and argument. As some of his critics (e.g., Paul 1985; Siegel 1985) pointed out, McPeck’s central argument needs elaboration, since it has obvious counter-examples in writing and speaking, for which (up to a certain level of complexity) there are teachable general abilities even though they are always about some subject-matter. To make his argument convincing, McPeck needs to explain how thinking differs from writing and speaking in a way that does not permit useful abstraction of its components from the subject-matters with which it deals. He has not done so. Nevertheless, his position that the dispositions and abilities of a critical thinker are best developed in the context of subject-matter instruction is shared by many theorists of critical thinking, including Dewey (1910, 1933), Glaser (1941), Passmore (1980), Weinstein (1990), Bailin et al. (1999b), and Willingham (2019).

McPeck’s challenge prompted reflection on the extent to which critical thinking is subject-specific. McPeck argued for a strong subject-specificity thesis, according to which it is a conceptual truth that all critical thinking abilities are specific to a subject. (He did not however extend his subject-specificity thesis to critical thinking dispositions. In particular, he took the disposition to suspend judgment in situations of cognitive dissonance to be a general disposition.) Conceptual subject-specificity is subject to obvious counter-examples, such as the general ability to recognize confusion of necessary and sufficient conditions. A more modest thesis, also endorsed by McPeck, is epistemological subject-specificity, according to which the norms of good thinking vary from one field to another. Epistemological subject-specificity clearly holds to a certain extent; for example, the principles in accordance with which one solves a differential equation are quite different from the principles in accordance with which one determines whether a painting is a genuine Picasso. But the thesis suffers, as Ennis (1989) points out, from vagueness of the concept of a field or subject and from the obvious existence of inter-field principles, however broadly the concept of a field is construed. For example, the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning hold for all the varied fields in which such reasoning occurs. A third kind of subject-specificity is empirical subject-specificity, according to which as a matter of empirically observable fact a person with the abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker in one area of investigation will not necessarily have them in another area of investigation.

The thesis of empirical subject-specificity raises the general problem of transfer. If critical thinking abilities and dispositions have to be developed independently in each school subject, how are they of any use in dealing with the problems of everyday life and the political and social issues of contemporary society, most of which do not fit into the framework of a traditional school subject? Proponents of empirical subject-specificity tend to argue that transfer is more likely to occur if there is critical thinking instruction in a variety of domains, with explicit attention to dispositions and abilities that cut across domains. But evidence for this claim is scanty. There is a need for well-designed empirical studies that investigate the conditions that make transfer more likely.

It is common ground in debates about the generality or subject-specificity of critical thinking dispositions and abilities that critical thinking about any topic requires background knowledge about the topic. For example, the most sophisticated understanding of the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning is of no help unless accompanied by some knowledge of what might be plausible explanations of some phenomenon under investigation.

Critics have objected to bias in the theory, pedagogy and practice of critical thinking. Commentators (e.g., Alston 1995; Ennis 1998) have noted that anyone who takes a position has a bias in the neutral sense of being inclined in one direction rather than others. The critics, however, are objecting to bias in the pejorative sense of an unjustified favoring of certain ways of knowing over others, frequently alleging that the unjustly favoured ways are those of a dominant sex or culture (Bailin 1995). These ways favour:

• reinforcement of egocentric and sociocentric biases over dialectical engagement with opposing world-views (Paul 1981, 1984; Warren 1998)
• distancing from the object of inquiry over closeness to it (Martin 1992; Thayer-Bacon 1992)
• indifference to the situation of others over care for them (Martin 1992)
• orientation to thought over orientation to action (Martin 1992)
• being reasonable over caring to understand people’s ideas (Thayer-Bacon 1993)
• being neutral and objective over being embodied and situated (Thayer-Bacon 1995a)
• doubting over believing (Thayer-Bacon 1995b)
• reason over emotion, imagination and intuition (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
• solitary thinking over collaborative thinking (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
• written and spoken assignments over other forms of expression (Alston 2001)
• attention to written and spoken communications over attention to human problems (Alston 2001)
• winning debates in the public sphere over making and understanding meaning (Alston 2001)

A common thread in this smorgasbord of accusations is dissatisfaction with focusing on the logical analysis and evaluation of reasoning and arguments. While these authors acknowledge that such analysis and evaluation is part of critical thinking and should be part of its conceptualization and pedagogy, they insist that it is only a part. Paul (1981), for example, bemoans the tendency of atomistic teaching of methods of analyzing and evaluating arguments to turn students into more able sophists, adept at finding fault with positions and arguments with which they disagree but even more entrenched in the egocentric and sociocentric biases with which they began. Martin (1992) and Thayer-Bacon (1992) cite with approval the self-reported intimacy with their subject-matter of leading researchers in biology and medicine, an intimacy that conflicts with the distancing allegedly recommended in standard conceptions and pedagogy of critical thinking. Thayer-Bacon (2000) contrasts the embodied and socially embedded learning of her elementary school students in a Montessori school, who used their imagination, intuition and emotions as well as their reason, with conceptions of critical thinking as

thinking that is used to critique arguments, offer justifications, and make judgments about what are the good reasons, or the right answers. (Thayer-Bacon 2000: 127–128)

Alston (2001) reports that her students in a women’s studies class were able to see the flaws in the Cinderella myth that pervades much romantic fiction but in their own romantic relationships still acted as if all failures were the woman’s fault and still accepted the notions of love at first sight and living happily ever after. Students, she writes, should

be able to connect their intellectual critique to a more affective, somatic, and ethical account of making risky choices that have sexist, racist, classist, familial, sexual, or other consequences for themselves and those both near and far… critical thinking that reads arguments, texts, or practices merely on the surface without connections to feeling/desiring/doing or action lacks an ethical depth that should infuse the difference between mere cognitive activity and something we want to call critical thinking. (Alston 2001: 34)

Some critics portray such biases as unfair to women. Thayer-Bacon (1992), for example, has charged modern critical thinking theory with being sexist, on the ground that it separates the self from the object and causes one to lose touch with one’s inner voice, and thus stigmatizes women, who (she asserts) link self to object and listen to their inner voice. Her charge does not imply that women as a group are on average less able than men to analyze and evaluate arguments. Facione (1990c) found no difference by sex in performance on his California Critical Thinking Skills Test. Kuhn (1991: 280–281) found no difference by sex in either the disposition or the competence to engage in argumentative thinking.

The critics propose a variety of remedies for the biases that they allege. In general, they do not propose to eliminate or downplay critical thinking as an educational goal. Rather, they propose to conceptualize critical thinking differently and to change its pedagogy accordingly. Their pedagogical proposals arise logically from their objections. They can be summarized as follows:

• Focus on argument networks with dialectical exchanges reflecting contesting points of view rather than on atomic arguments, so as to develop “strong sense” critical thinking that transcends egocentric and sociocentric biases (Paul 1981, 1984).
• Foster closeness to the subject-matter and feeling connected to others in order to inform a humane democracy (Martin 1992).
• Develop “constructive thinking” as a social activity in a community of physically embodied and socially embedded inquirers with personal voices who value not only reason but also imagination, intuition and emotion (Thayer-Bacon 2000).
• In developing critical thinking in school subjects, treat as important neither skills nor dispositions but opening worlds of meaning (Alston 2001).
• Attend to the development of critical thinking dispositions as well as skills, and adopt the “critical pedagogy” practised and advocated by Freire (1968 [1970]) and hooks (1994) (Dalgleish, Girard, & Davies 2017).

A common thread in these proposals is treatment of critical thinking as a social, interactive, personally engaged activity like that of a quilting bee or a barn-raising (Thayer-Bacon 2000) rather than as an individual, solitary, distanced activity symbolized by Rodin’s The Thinker . One can get a vivid description of education with the former type of goal from the writings of bell hooks (1994, 2010). Critical thinking for her is open-minded dialectical exchange across opposing standpoints and from multiple perspectives, a conception similar to Paul’s “strong sense” critical thinking (Paul 1981). She abandons the structure of domination in the traditional classroom. In an introductory course on black women writers, for example, she assigns students to write an autobiographical paragraph about an early racial memory, then to read it aloud as the others listen, thus affirming the uniqueness and value of each voice and creating a communal awareness of the diversity of the group’s experiences (hooks 1994: 84). Her “engaged pedagogy” is thus similar to the “freedom under guidance” implemented in John Dewey’s Laboratory School of Chicago in the late 1890s and early 1900s. It incorporates the dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring that Abrami (2015) found to be most effective in improving critical thinking skills and dispositions.

What is the relationship of critical thinking to problem solving, decision-making, higher-order thinking, creative thinking, and other recognized types of thinking? One’s answer to this question obviously depends on how one defines the terms used in the question. If critical thinking is conceived broadly to cover any careful thinking about any topic for any purpose, then problem solving and decision making will be kinds of critical thinking, if they are done carefully. Historically, ‘critical thinking’ and ‘problem solving’ were two names for the same thing. If critical thinking is conceived more narrowly as consisting solely of appraisal of intellectual products, then it will be disjoint with problem solving and decision making, which are constructive.

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives used the phrase “intellectual abilities and skills” for what had been labeled “critical thinking” by some, “reflective thinking” by Dewey and others, and “problem solving” by still others (Bloom et al. 1956: 38). Thus, the so-called “higher-order thinking skills” at the taxonomy’s top levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation are just critical thinking skills, although they do not come with general criteria for their assessment (Ennis 1981b). The revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) likewise treats critical thinking as cutting across those types of cognitive process that involve more than remembering (Anderson et al. 2001: 269–270). For details, see the Supplement on History .

As to creative thinking, it overlaps with critical thinking (Bailin 1987, 1988). Thinking about the explanation of some phenomenon or event, as in Ferryboat , requires creative imagination in constructing plausible explanatory hypotheses. Likewise, thinking about a policy question, as in Candidate , requires creativity in coming up with options. Conversely, creativity in any field needs to be balanced by critical appraisal of the draft painting or novel or mathematical theory.

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The 7 Common Traits of Highly Effective Critical Thinkers

What are traits that personify effective critical thinkers?

Critical thinking skills are among the most useful and vital for today's learners (and for   everyone ) to build on. Every educator knows how crucial it is to cultivate them in our classrooms and indeed throughout our whole lives. What are the most crucial defining characteristics of effective critical thinkers?

Let's begin our exploration by stating that effective critical thinkers function by way of different thought processes in different circumstances. You have to be able to analyze and test your thinking to improve it (Elder & Paul, 2020).

Figuring out how to make it to work on time when your car breaks down in rush hour traffic requires critical thinking as much as negotiating world peace does. Both scenarios facilitate such skills in far different settings, and with different stakes and outcomes, but they call upon these skills nonetheless.

Critical thinking has long been considered a valuable asset for young people to master, and its necessity is likely to increase as our world becomes more augmented by transformational concepts such as emerging technologies (Willingham, 2019). The question is about what universal traits the effective critical thinkers in each circumstance, and all those in between, would share.

That's the mystery we intend to solve here by offering suggestions of what the most important defining characteristics of critical thinkers would be.

1. Curiosity

Curiosity means being willing to explore the unknown, experience new stimuli, and accept uncertainty (Arnone et al., 2011). Effective critical thinkers are inherently curious about a wide range of topics and generally have broad interests. They tend to have a healthy inquisitiveness about the world and about people, which they temper with common sense and prudence.

For example, as one study states, critical thinkers, "understand that assumptions often contain prejudices, stereotypes, biases, and distortions ... they routinely assess their assumptions, as well as those of others, to determine whether those assumptions are based in sound reasoning and evidence" (Paul & Elder, 2019).

Figuring out how to make it to work on time when your car breaks down in rush hour traffic requires critical thinking as much as negotiating world peace does.

One article seems to support this by suggesting that "instead of taking everything at face value, a curious person will wonder why something is the way it is" (Patel, 2018). Another reinforces that, "being curious is necessary for critical thinkers, leaders, and managers to obtain a deeper knowledge of issues, processes and individuals" (Indeed, 2022).

What does the trait of curiosity mean for learning? Ultimately, being curious translates to, according to one study, an increase in engagement and academic achievement and improved performance in any given profession (Harackiewicz, et al., 2002). Although it is only recently that research has begun to reveal curiosity to be associated with improved learning outcomes, the fact remains that it is still considered a strong learning motivator (Wade & Kidd, 2019).

2. Compassion

As we seek to gift our learners with these indispensable skills, we must not forget that they embrace the emotional and instinctual as much as the intellectual. Effective critical thinkers act as much with their hearts as they do with their minds.

Teaching our learners about accountability, service learning, and the need to demonstrate compassion and empathy go a long way toward cultivating a sense of belonging while simultaneously building their awareness, interaction, and leadership mindsets (Grigoropoulos, 2020).

Although it's not likely thought of as an obvious trait for critical thinkers to have, compassion is nevertheless a vital component of it since critical thinking is not only about facts and data but also about relating to others:

"Without compassion, we would view all information and situations from the viewpoint of cold, heartless scientific facts and data. It would be easy to allow our cynicism to become toxic and to be suspicious of everything we look at. But to be a good critical thinker, we must always take into account the human element. Not everything we do is about detached data and information—it's also about people." (Patel, 2018)

The world is full of enough judgment and segregation, much of it from a lack of a clear understanding of one another's secret history of perseverance through often unimaginable suffering. Each one of us has a story of our own that makes us who we are, as well as personal trials and challenges that have shaped us. Critical thinkers recognize this and compassionately celebrate the uniqueness in everyone and are willing to help us see the best in ourselves and others.

3. Mindfulness

Perhaps the most comprehensive definition of mindfulness is encapsulated within this quote from Sunryu Suzuki's   Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind  (2010):

"When you try to stop your thinking, it means you are bothered by it. Do not be bothered by anything. It appears as if something comes from outside your mind, but actually it is only the waves of your mind, and if you are not bothered by the waves gradually they will become calmer and calmer." (Suzuki, 2010)

To be mindful, then, means to be completely aware of one's thoughts and surroundings in a way that's free from judgment. It is exactly this type of self-regulation that paves the way for one to practice profoundly effective critical thinking, which addresses a range of behaviours, "from minute-to-minute choices to the larger, more significant decisions that can have a substantial impact on whether people meet their goals" (Heydarnejad, et al., 2021).

As we seek to gift our learners with these indispensable skills, we must not forget that they embrace the emotional and instinctual as much as the intellectual.

Opportunities to apply critical thinking skills are all around us every moment. Effective critical thinkers remain tuned into these opportunities by applying the principles of mindfulness. Critical thinkers are always on alert for chances to apply their best thinking habits to any situation and retain the disposition to use critical thinking when appropriate (Hitchcock, 2022). A desire to think critically about even the simplest of issues and tasks indicates a desire for constructive outcomes.

Effective critical thinkers don't take anything at face value, either. They never stop asking questions and enjoy exploring all sides of an issue and the deeper facts hiding within all modes of data. As such, those who think critically also tend to be instinctual problem solvers, which ranks as probably the most important skill we can help our learners build upon (Crocket, et al., 2011).

4. Decisiveness

Many situations that call for critical thinking also call for quick and decisive action. When we think critically, we weigh our options and imagine the outcomes in the moment with speed and clarity and are able to put aside fear when it comes to making decisions.   Critical thinkers are decisive by nature in that they consider all options in making clear, informed decisions (Clarke, et al., 2019). In essence, critical thinkers like to move things forward rather than move backward or procrastinate, because they thrive on progression. They typically buck the status quo by constantly searching for more logical and efficient ways to do things (Altman, 2016).

In addition to this, often choices have to be made even when we don't have all the information we need to make them with confidence. In the book   Blink , Malcolm Gladwell argues that snap judgments can be just as effective or even better than carefully weighed decisions and that each has its time and place depending on the situation (Gladwell, 2006). When facing any kind of challenge, however, often someone has to take the lead and make the hard decisions others shy away from.

Effective critical thinkers realize that, more often than not, it's necessary to take the initiative and make a decision even if it ends up being the wrong one. To them, that's preferable to not making any decision at all.

Honesty is important in any sense, but it is especially important to critical thinking. Moral integrity, ethical consideration and action, and citizenship practices are all hallmarks of effective critical thinkers (Paul, 1999).

It's not a surprise that honesty resides at the core of all these things. We see in such people a strong desire for harmony and fulfilment in the world, and part of attaining this involves pursuing honesty in all endeavours and relationships. 

The practice of honesty in critical thinking also extends to how one looks within oneself to embrace what resides there. It takes into account the processes behind managing our emotions, controlling our impulses, admitting our mistakes, and recognizing any attempts at self-deception (IPL, 2023). Critical thinkers are as equally aware and accepting of themselves as they are of others.

Opportunities to apply critical thinking skills are all around us every moment. Effective critical thinkers remain tuned into these opportunities by applying the principles of mindfulness.

6. willingness.

Willingness and flexibility encompass a number of key considerations for the critical thinker. One might argue that the willingness to think critically trumps ability, but perhaps it's best if we clarify the importance of willingness using a simple example.

Suppose you are trying to roll a ball downhill, and there is an object in the ball's path preventing it from fulfilling its trajectory. Would you get behind the ball and try to push it over the object and down the hill, or would you simply remove the obstruction and let the ball continue rolling?

It sounds obvious, but it might surprise you how many times people will choose the harder way to solve the problem. This can be attributed to many things, not the least of which are an unwillingness to be helped, an overwhelming sense of pride, or even a lack of ability to be decisive (Seltzer, 2021).

Willingness as a critical thinker includes but isn't limited to things like the ability to:

• learn from their own personal mistakes and shortcomings
• challenge the status quo when the need arises
• openmindedly embrace other opinions and views that challenge their own
• reconsider and revise their opinions in the wake of new evidence
• listen actively rather than simply wait for their turn to talk
• constantly improve, learn, and excel

7. Creativity

There's no question that effective critical thinkers are also largely creative thinkers. Creativity has unquestionably defined itself as a requisite skill to have in the collaborative modern workforce. What's important to remember is that critical and creative are two separate modes of thinking that complement one another.

As one study asserts:

"Critical thinking supports as well as follows creative thinking because once the focus has been widened by creative thinking, then critical thinking serves to evaluate ideas, which can be accomplished by narrowing the focus again to catalogue ideas and identify the most reasonable ones, or those most likely to succeed."(Forrester, 2008)

Critical thinking in business, marketing, and professional alliances relies heavily on one's ability to be creative. When businesses get creative with products and how they are advertised, they thrive in the global marketplace.

The Path to Critical Thinking

Teaching our learners to be effective critical thinkers doesn’t require countless hours of lesson planning. You don’t need special courses of study or guest speakers to do it for you. All you need are what both you and your learners already have in abundance—curious and open minds, committed hearts, diverse interests and abilities, and a desire to be better than you were yesterday.

Altman, G. (2016).   What the World Needs Now: More Critical Thinking . Retrieved from   https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/what-world-needs-now-more-critical-thinking-george-altman, Feb. 15, 2023.

Arnone, M. P., Small, R. V, Chauncey, S. A., & Mckenna, H. P. (2011).   Curiosity, interest, and engagement in technology-pervasive learning environments: A new research agenda.  Education Tech Research Dev, 181–198.   https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-011-9190-9

Clarke, A., Deneus, M., Etcheverry, J., & Neira, L. (2019).   Vital concepts and strategies to enhance critical thinking during the decision-making process handbook.  Nova Southeastern University.

Crockett L. Jukes I. & Churches A. (2011).   Literacy is not enough: 21st-century fluencies for the digital age . 21st Century Fluency Project ; Corwin.

Elder, L., & Paul, R. (2020).   Critical thinking: Learn the tools the best thinkers use . Foundation for Critical Thinking.

Forrester, J. C. (2008). Thinking creatively; thinking critically.   Asian Social Science ,   4 (5), 100-105.

Gladwell, M. (2005).  Blink: the power of thinking without thinking.  New York: Little, Brown and Co.

Grigoropoulos, J. E. (2020).   How Can Manifesting Leadership Skills Infused with Ethos, Empathy, and Compassion Better Prepare Students to Assume Leadership Roles?   International Journal of Progressive Education, 16(1), 54-66.

Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Tauer, J. M., & Elliot, A. J. (2002).   Predicting success in college: A longitudinal study of achievement goals and ability measures as predictors of interest and performance from freshman year through graduation.  Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(3), 562–575.   https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.3.562

Heydarnejad, Tahereh & Fatemi, Azar & Ghonsooly, Behzad. (2021).   The Relationship between Critical Thinking, Self-regulation, and Teaching Style Preferences among EFL Teachers: A Path Analysis Approach.  7. 98-110. 10.17323/jle.2021.11103. 

Hitchcock, D. (2022).   Critical Thinking.   The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2022 Edition). Retrieved from   https://plato.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/encyclopedia/archinfo.cgi?entry=critical-thinking, Feb. 15, 2023.

Indeed, n.a. (2022).  14 Essential Critical Thinker Characteristics And Traits.   Retrieved from   https://in.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/critical-thinker-characteristics, Feb. 10, 2023.

IPL (n.a.) (2023).   Importance Of Self Awareness In Critical Thinking.  Retrieved from   http://bitly.ws/AiYc, Feb. 15, 2023.

Patel, D. (2018).   16 Characteristics of Critical Thinkers.  Retrieved from   https://www.entrepreneur.com/living/16-characteristics-of-critical-thinkers/321660, Feb. 10, 2023.

Paul, R. (1999).   Critical thinking, moral integrity, and citizenship: Teaching for the intellectual virtues.  The social worlds of higher education, 128-136.

Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2019).   A guide for educators to critical thinking competency standards: Standards, principles, performance indicators, and outcomes with a critical thinking master rubric . Rowman & Littlefield.

Seltzer, L. (2021).   10 Reasons You Feel You “Always Have to Learn Things the Hard Way”.   Retrieved from   https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/evolution-of-the-self/202106/10-reasons-you-feel-you-always-have-to-learn-things-the-hard-way, Feb. 17, 2023.

Suzuki Shunryū & Dixon T. (2010).   Zen mind, beginner's mind   (40th anniversary). Shambhala.

Wade, S., & Kidd, C. (2019).   The role of prior knowledge and curiosity in learning.  Psychonomic bulletin & review, 26, 1377-1387.

Willingham, D. (2019).   How to teach critical thinking.

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Critical Thinking Definition, Skills, and Examples

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Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable phenomena, and research findings.

Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between useful and less useful details to solve problems or make decisions. These skills are especially helpful at school and in the workplace, where employers prioritize the ability to think critically. Find out why and see how you can demonstrate that you have this ability.

Examples of Critical Thinking

The circumstances that demand critical thinking vary from industry to industry. Some examples include:

• A triage nurse analyzes the cases at hand and decides the order by which the patients should be treated.
• A plumber evaluates the materials that would best suit a particular job.
• An attorney reviews the evidence and devises a strategy to win a case or to decide whether to settle out of court.
• A manager analyzes customer feedback forms and uses this information to develop a customer service training session for employees.

Why Do Employers Value Critical Thinking Skills?

Employers want job candidates who can evaluate a situation using logical thought and offer the best solution.

Someone with critical thinking skills can be trusted to make decisions independently, and will not need constant handholding.

Hiring a critical thinker means that micromanaging won't be required. Critical thinking abilities are among the most sought-after skills in almost every industry and workplace. You can demonstrate critical thinking by using related keywords in your resume and cover letter and during your interview.

How to Demonstrate Critical Thinking in a Job Search

If critical thinking is a key phrase in the job listings you are applying for, be sure to emphasize your critical thinking skills throughout your job search.

Add Keywords to Your Resume

You can use critical thinking keywords (analytical, problem solving, creativity, etc.) in your resume. When describing your work history, include top critical thinking skills that accurately describe you. You can also include them in your resume summary, if you have one.

For example, your summary might read, “Marketing Associate with five years of experience in project management. Skilled in conducting thorough market research and competitor analysis to assess market trends and client needs, and to develop appropriate acquisition tactics.”

Mention Skills in Your Cover Letter

Include these critical thinking skills in your cover letter. In the body of your letter, mention one or two of these skills, and give specific examples of times when you have demonstrated them at work. Think about times when you had to analyze or evaluate materials to solve a problem.

Show the Interviewer Your Skills

You can use these skill words in an interview. Discuss a time when you were faced with a particular problem or challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking to solve it.

Some interviewers will give you a hypothetical scenario or problem, and ask you to use critical thinking skills to solve it. In this case, explain your thought process thoroughly to the interviewer. He or she is typically more focused on how you arrive at your solution rather than the solution itself. The interviewer wants to see you analyze and evaluate (key parts of critical thinking) the given scenario or problem.

Of course, each job will require different skills and experiences, so make sure you read the job description carefully and focus on the skills listed by the employer.

Top Critical Thinking Skills

Keep these in-demand skills in mind as you refine your critical thinking practice —whether for work or school.

Part of critical thinking is the ability to carefully examine something, whether it is a problem, a set of data, or a text. People with analytical skills can examine information, understand what it means, and properly explain to others the implications of that information.

• Asking Thoughtful Questions
• Data Analysis
• Interpretation
• Questioning Evidence
• Recognizing Patterns

Communication

Often, you will need to share your conclusions with your employers or with a group of classmates or colleagues. You need to be able to communicate with others to share your ideas effectively. You might also need to engage in critical thinking in a group. In this case, you will need to work with others and communicate effectively to figure out solutions to complex problems.

• Active Listening
• Collaboration
• Explanation
• Interpersonal
• Presentation
• Verbal Communication
• Written Communication

Critical thinking often involves creativity and innovation. You might need to spot patterns in the information you are looking at or come up with a solution that no one else has thought of before. All of this involves a creative eye that can take a different approach from all other approaches.

• Flexibility
• Conceptualization
• Imagination
• Drawing Connections
• Synthesizing

Open-Mindedness

To think critically, you need to be able to put aside any assumptions or judgments and merely analyze the information you receive. You need to be objective, evaluating ideas without bias.

• Objectivity
• Observation

Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is another critical thinking skill that involves analyzing a problem, generating and implementing a solution, and assessing the success of the plan. Employers don’t simply want employees who can think about information critically. They also need to be able to come up with practical solutions.

• Attention to Detail
• Clarification
• Decision Making
• Groundedness
• Identifying Patterns

More Critical Thinking Skills

• Inductive Reasoning
• Deductive Reasoning
• Noticing Outliers
• Adaptability
• Emotional Intelligence
• Brainstorming
• Optimization
• Restructuring
• Integration
• Strategic Planning
• Project Management
• Ongoing Improvement
• Causal Relationships
• Case Analysis
• Diagnostics
• SWOT Analysis
• Business Intelligence
• Quantitative Data Management
• Qualitative Data Management
• Risk Management
• Scientific Method
• Consumer Behavior

Key Takeaways

• Demonstrate you have critical thinking skills by adding relevant keywords to your resume.
• Mention pertinent critical thinking skills in your cover letter, too, and include an example of a time when you demonstrated them at work.
• Finally, highlight critical thinking skills during your interview. For instance, you might discuss a time when you were faced with a challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking skills to solve it.

University of Louisville. " What is Critical Thinking ."

American Management Association. " AMA Critical Skills Survey: Workers Need Higher Level Skills to Succeed in the 21st Century ."

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• What is Critical Thinking?

The ability to think critically calls for a higher-order thinking than simply the ability to recall information.

Definitions of critical thinking, its elements, and its associated activities fill the educational literature of the past forty years. Critical thinking has been described as an ability to question; to acknowledge and test previously held assumptions; to recognize ambiguity; to examine, interpret, evaluate, reason, and reflect; to make informed judgments and decisions; and to clarify, articulate, and justify positions (Hullfish & Smith, 1961; Ennis, 1962; Ruggiero, 1975; Scriven, 1976; Hallet, 1984; Kitchener, 1986; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Mines et al., 1990; Halpern, 1996; Paul & Elder, 2001; Petress, 2004; Holyoak & Morrison, 2005; among others).

After a careful review of the mountainous body of literature defining critical thinking and its elements, UofL has chosen to adopt the language of Michael Scriven and Richard Paul (2003) as a comprehensive, concise operating definition:

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.

Paul and Scriven go on to suggest that critical thinking is based on: "universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue, assumptions, concepts, empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions, implication and consequences, objections from alternative viewpoints, and frame of reference. Critical thinking - in being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes - is incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking."

This conceptualization of critical thinking has been refined and developed further by Richard Paul and Linder Elder into the Paul-Elder framework of critical thinking. Currently, this approach is one of the most widely published and cited frameworks in the critical thinking literature. According to the Paul-Elder framework, critical thinking is the:

• Analysis of thinking by focusing on the parts or structures of thinking ("the Elements of Thought")
• Evaluation of thinking by focusing on the quality ("the Universal Intellectual Standards")
• Improvement of thinking by using what you have learned ("the Intellectual Traits")

Selection of a Critical Thinking Framework

The University of Louisville chose the Paul-Elder model of Critical Thinking as the approach to guide our efforts in developing and enhancing our critical thinking curriculum. The Paul-Elder framework was selected based on criteria adapted from the characteristics of a good model of critical thinking developed at Surry Community College. The Paul-Elder critical thinking framework is comprehensive, uses discipline-neutral terminology, is applicable to all disciplines, defines specific cognitive skills including metacognition, and offers high quality resources.

Why the selection of a single critical thinking framework?

The use of a single critical thinking framework is an important aspect of institution-wide critical thinking initiatives (Paul and Nosich, 1993; Paul, 2004). According to this view, critical thinking instruction should not be relegated to one or two disciplines or departments with discipline specific language and conceptualizations. Rather, critical thinking instruction should be explicitly infused in all courses so that critical thinking skills can be developed and reinforced in student learning across the curriculum. The use of a common approach with a common language allows for a central organizer and for the development of critical thinking skill sets in all courses.

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