economic importance of animals essay

Why Are Animals Important?

With over 2 million species of animals on Earth, the importance of animals cannot be overstated. Without other animals on the planet, humans wouldn’t survive. Animals play a crucial role in various aspects of human life.

Animals help to balance ecosystems and provide significant economic benefits in the agriculture and ecotourism sectors . Animals hold cultural significance and serve as emotional support companions. They also contribute to medical and scientific advancements.

Understanding why animals are important is essential for acknowledging their multifaceted contributions to human society and promoting their protection and preservation.

This article explores the various roles that animals fill, highlighting their significance from ecological, social, economic, and cultural perspectives.

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Balance

Biodiversity and ecosystem balance are key components in the animal world. Animals contribute to the stability of ecosystems by ensuring that resources are allocated and populations don’t get out of hand.

Conservation plays a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem balance and protects different species of plants and animals within their habitats. Genetic diversity is essential for maintaining different habitats and conservation efforts help this.

Each species relies on others to survive through various interactions such as predation, pollination, and symbiosis. The loss or decline of one species can have severe consequences on other organisms within the same habitat.

Economic Benefits and Agriculture

Economic benefits and agriculture are closely intertwined, with the agricultural industry being the lifeblood of economic growth in many countries. Here are three ways animals contribute to economic growth and sustainable farming:

• Livestock production : Animals provide a valuable source of income through meat, milk, eggs, and other animal products. This generates revenue for farmers and creates job opportunities along the supply chain.
• Fertilizer production : Animal waste can be used as natural fertilizer for crops. By recycling nutrients back into the soil, farmers reduce their reliance on synthetic fertilizers, which can be costly and harmful to the environment and other animals.
• Ecological services : Animals such as bees and bats are essential for pollination, leading to increased crop yields. Some animals help control pests by preying on insects that could damage crops.

Reptiles are important for all of these reasons and more. Find out what they are here.

Ecotourism and Cultural Significance

Ecotourism is a form of responsible and sustainable tourism that focuses on experiencing and conserving the natural environment, its wildlife, and the well-being of local communities.

Ecotourism has a significant impact on local economies and conservation efforts. By attracting tourists who are interested in observing wildlife in their natural habitats, ecotourism generates revenue for local communities and promotes the preservation of natural resources.

Ecotourism also visitors to witness traditional practices that have been passed down through generations, showcasing the vital role animals play in cultural heritage.

By participating in ecotourism activities, individuals gain firsthand knowledge about the importance of protecting animal habitats while also contributing to wildlife conservation efforts.

Emotional and Therapeutic Support

Animal-assisted therapy is a form of treatment that utilizes the presence of animals to improve emotional well-being.

Animal-assisted therapy involves using trained animals to provide emotional support and physical assistance to individuals with various health conditions. Interacting with animals has been shown to reduce stress, improve mood, and enhance social interaction . It has been particularly beneficial for individuals with mental health disorders, autism spectrum disorder, or those undergoing rehabilitation .

The act of caring for animals can also instill a sense of purpose and responsibility, helping an individual’s self-esteem and confidence. Animal-assisted therapy plays a vital role in promoting emotional well-being and improving the quality of life for many individuals.

Animals help humans in many ways. Click here to find out more.

Pollination and Seed Dispersal

Pollination and seed dispersal play a crucial role in maintaining the ecological balance of ecosystems. Plant reproduction heavily relies on these processes, and animals are key in this process.

Animals such as bees, butterflies, birds, and bats transfer pollen from the male reproductive organs of one flower to the female reproductive organs of another flower, enabling fertilization and the subsequent production of seeds. This allows for fertilization and the production of seeds.

Bees visit flowers in search of nectar, picking up pollen in the process. As they move from one flower to another, they deposit this pollen onto the stigma of the flowers they visit. This transfer of genetic material provides genetic diversity among plants, which is essential for them to adapt to changing environmental conditions.

Animals also play a remarkable role in the dispersal of seeds, contributing significantly to the spread of plant species. One of the most common methods of seed dispersal involves animals ingesting seeds . Many fruit-bearing plants produce fleshy, enticing fruits to attract animals. Birds, mammals, and even reptiles are drawn to these fruits for their nutritional value.

As these animals consume the fruits, they ingest the seeds contained within. These seeds pass through the digestive tract , as they are often equipped with protective coatings that shield them from digestive enzymes. Once excreted in a new location, these seeds have the opportunity to germinate and grow , benefiting from the nutrients provided by the animal’s waste.

Seeds can also attach to the bodies of animals . Some plants ensure that their seeds can adhere to the fur, feathers, or scales of passing animals. These seeds may be equipped with hooks, barbs, or Velcro-like structures that allow them to hitch a ride on their temporary hosts. As animals move about their habitats, these seeds become dislodged and fall to the ground , often in entirely new locations.

Birds play an important role in seed dispersal. Find out more in this article we wrote.

Environmental Indicator and Conservation

Environmental indicators are valuable tools used in conservation efforts to assess the health and well-being of ecosystems. They provide crucial information about the state of the environment, helping scientists and policymakers make informed decisions regarding habitat restoration and environmental monitoring.

One important role that animals play as environmental indicators is their sensitivity to changes in their surroundings . Some species of birds are highly sensitive to pollution levels in water bodies, making them effective indicators of water quality. Studying animal populations can help identify areas where conservation efforts should be focused.

By monitoring the presence or absence of certain species over time, researchers can gain insights into the health of the ecosystem.

If you want to know more about how fish are environmental indicators, we have written an article here.

Scientific Research and Medical Advancements

Animals have played an indispensable role in expanding our knowledge of science and driving medical advancements. Their contributions have been particularly significant in the development of new drugs and treatments. By employing animals as research models, scientists can investigate the effects of various substances on living organisms long before they are subjected to human trials. This preliminary testing not only enhances the safety of potential treatments but also improves their overall effectiveness.

Animals have proven to be invaluable in advancing our comprehension of diseases and genetics through their participation in biomedical research. Through these studies, scientists have gained critical insights into the mechanisms of diseases, which has paved the way for innovative therapies and medical breakthroughs.

While animal research is a crucial tool in scientific progress, it is essential to conduct such research ethically and with a strong commitment to animal welfare, ensuring that it is both necessary and conducted with the utmost care and respect for the animals involved.

References And Further Reading

The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History by Elizabeth Kolbert

This Pulitzer Prize-winning book explores the ongoing mass extinction event caused by human activities and how it impacts both animal and plant species. It underscores the interconnectedness of all life on Earth.

The Hidden Life of Trees: What They Feel, How They Communicate by Peter Wohlleben

While primarily focused on trees, this book discusses the intricate relationships between trees and animals in forest ecosystems, highlighting the crucial role of animals in seed dispersal and forest regeneration.

The Genius of Birds by Jennifer Ackerman

This book celebrates the intelligence and behavior of birds, demonstrating how they contribute to the natural world’s complexity and why they are essential in various ecosystems.

The Soul of an Octopus: A Surprising Exploration into the Wonder of Consciousness by Sy Montgomery

Focusing on octopuses, this book reveals the fascinating world of marine animals and their contributions to ocean ecosystems, emphasizing their uniqueness and importance in marine environments.

The Bees by Laline Paull

While a fictional work, this novel provides a unique perspective on the importance of bees in pollinating plants and sustaining agricultural systems.

The Soul of the Rhino: A Nepali Adventure with Kings and Elephant Drivers, Billionaires and Bureaucrats, Shamans and Scientists, and the Indian Rhinoceros by Hemanta Mishra

This book offers insights into the world of rhinoceroses and the conservation efforts to protect them, highlighting the significance of charismatic megafauna in conservation.

Bryan Harding is a member of the American Society of Mammalogists and a member of the American Birding Association. Bryan is especially fond of mammals and has studied and worked with them around the world. Bryan serves as owner, writer, and publisher of North American Nature.

Animal Essay

500 Words Essay on Animal

Animals carry a lot of importance in our lives. They offer humans with food and many other things. For instance, we consume meat, eggs, dairy products. Further, we use animals as a pet too. They are of great help to handicaps. Thus, through the animal essay, we will take a look at these creatures and their importance.

Types of Animals

First of all, all kinds of living organisms which are eukaryotes and compose of numerous cells and can sexually reproduce are known as animals. All animals have a unique role to play in maintaining the balance of nature.

A lot of animal species exist in both, land and water. As a result, each of them has a purpose for their existence. The animals divide into specific groups in biology. Amphibians are those which can live on both, land and water.

Reptiles are cold-blooded animals which have scales on their body. Further, mammals are ones which give birth to their offspring in the womb and have mammary glands. Birds are animals whose forelimbs evolve into wings and their body is covered with feather.

They lay eggs to give birth. Fishes have fins and not limbs. They breathe through gills in water. Further, insects are mostly six-legged or more. Thus, these are the kinds of animals present on earth.

Importance of Animals

Animals play an essential role in human life and planet earth. Ever since an early time, humans have been using animals for their benefit. Earlier, they came in use for transportation purposes.

Further, they also come in use for food, hunting and protection. Humans use oxen for farming. Animals also come in use as companions to humans. For instance, dogs come in use to guide the physically challenged people as well as old people.

In research laboratories, animals come in use for drug testing. Rats and rabbits are mostly tested upon. These researches are useful in predicting any future diseases outbreaks. Thus, we can protect us from possible harm.

Astronomers also use animals to do their research. They also come in use for other purposes. Animals have use in various sports like racing, polo and more. In addition, they also have use in other fields.

They also come in use in recreational activities. For instance, there are circuses and then people also come door to door to display the tricks by animals to entertain children. Further, they also come in use for police forces like detection dogs.

Similarly, we also ride on them for a joyride. Horses, elephants, camels and more come in use for this purpose. Thus, they have a lot of importance in our lives.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conclusion of Animal Essay

Thus, animals play an important role on our planet earth and in human lives. Therefore, it is our duty as humans to protect animals for a better future. Otherwise, the human race will not be able to survive without the help of the other animals.

FAQ on Animal Essay

Question 1: Why are animals are important?

Answer 1: All animals play an important role in the ecosystem. Some of them help to bring out the nutrients from the cycle whereas the others help in decomposition, carbon, and nitrogen cycle. In other words, all kinds of animals, insects, and even microorganisms play a role in the ecosystem.

Question 2: How can we protect animals?

Answer 2: We can protect animals by adopting them. Further, one can also volunteer if one does not have the means to help. Moreover, donating to wildlife reserves can help. Most importantly, we must start buying responsibly to avoid companies which harm animals to make their products.

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Essay on Animals

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Animals have been an integral part of our planet’s diverse ecosystem for millions of years. They come in all shapes, sizes, and species, each contributing to the balance and beauty of our natural world. The animal kingdom is a fascinating realm filled with remarkable creatures, each with its unique adaptations, behaviors, and roles in the ecosystem. In this essay, we will delve into the incredible world of animals, exploring their diversity, significance, and the crucial role they play in maintaining the delicate balance of our planet.

Diversity of the Animal Kingdom:

The animal kingdom is incredibly diverse, encompassing a vast array of species, each uniquely adapted to its environment. From the smallest microscopic organisms to the largest mammals, the variety of life in this kingdom is awe-inspiring. Animals can be broadly categorized into several groups:

• Invertebrates: These animals lack a backbone and include creatures like insects, arachnids, mollusks, and crustaceans. They constitute the majority of animal species on Earth, with insects alone accounting for over a million identified species.
• Fish: The aquatic world is teeming with fish, which come in various shapes, sizes, and colors. They play a crucial role in aquatic ecosystems and are a vital food source for many other animals, including humans.
• Amphibians: Amphibians, such as frogs, toads, and salamanders, are known for their ability to live both in water and on land. They are important bioindicators, helping scientists monitor the health of ecosystems.
• Reptiles: Reptiles, like snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles, are characterized by their scaly skin and cold-blooded nature. They have been on Earth for millions of years and have adapted to various environments.
• Birds: Birds are known for their feathers, beaks, and ability to fly. They come in diverse shapes, sizes, and colors and have a profound impact on ecosystems through pollination, seed dispersal, and predation on insects and small animals.
• Mammals : Mammals, including humans, are characterized by features like hair or fur, live birth, and the ability to nurse their young with milk. They exhibit remarkable diversity, from tiny shrews to massive elephants.

The Significance of Animals:

Animals hold immense significance in our lives, the environment, and the world at large. Here are some key reasons why animals matter:

Biodiversity: Animals contribute to the rich tapestry of life on Earth. Their diversity is essential for maintaining healthy ecosystems and ensuring the survival of countless other species.

Ecosystem Services: Animals provide crucial ecosystem services, such as pollination by bees, seed dispersal by birds, and nutrient cycling by decomposers like insects and microbes. These services are vital for maintaining the balance of nature.

Scientific Research: Animals have been instrumental in scientific research, helping us gain insights into genetics, behavior, and physiology. They have been used in medical studies, leading to significant advancements in human healthcare.

Cultural and Aesthetic Value: Animals have cultural and aesthetic value, inspiring art, literature, and folklore throughout human history. They are symbols of identity and heritage for many communities.

Economic Importance: Many industries rely on animals for economic purposes, such as agriculture (livestock and poultry), tourism (wildlife safaris), and the pet trade.

Education and Conservation: Studying animals enhances our understanding of the natural world, leading to better conservation efforts. Zoos, wildlife documentaries, and educational programs teach people about the importance of animal preservation.

Role of Animals in Ecosystems:

• Animals play vital roles in various ecosystems, ensuring their proper functioning. These roles are interconnected and essential for the health of the environment:
• Pollinators: Bees, butterflies, and birds are key pollinators, facilitating the reproduction of plants by transferring pollen from one flower to another. This process is critical for the production of fruits and vegetables, supporting agriculture and food security.
• Seed Dispersers: Animals like birds, bats, and rodents aid in seed dispersal by consuming fruits and then dispersing the seeds in different locations. This helps plants colonize new areas and maintain genetic diversity.
• Predators and Prey: Predators help control prey populations, preventing overgrazing and ensuring the survival of plant species. The prey, in turn, serve as a food source for predators, forming intricate food webs within ecosystems.
• Decomposers: Scavengers and decomposers, such as vultures, insects, and bacteria, break down dead organic matter, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem. This decomposition process is crucial for soil health and nutrient cycling.
• Ecosystem Engineers: Some animals, like beavers and termites, modify their environments by building dams and nests. These modifications can create new habitats and affect the water flow and nutrient cycling of ecosystems.

Conservation and Animal Welfare:

Despite the critical roles animals play in our world, many species face threats from habitat destruction, pollution, poaching, and climate change. Conservation efforts are essential to protect endangered species and preserve biodiversity. These efforts involve creating and maintaining protected areas, implementing sustainable practices, and raising awareness about the importance of animal conservation.

Animal welfare is another crucial aspect that concerns the ethical treatment of animals in various settings, including agriculture, research, and entertainment. Ethical treatment includes providing animals with adequate living conditions, proper nutrition, and protection from harm.

In conclusion, animals are a fundamental part of our planet’s intricate web of life. Their incredible diversity, significance, and roles in ecosystems make them indispensable to the health and well-being of our world. As responsible stewards of the Earth, it is our duty to protect and conserve these amazing creatures for future generations. By understanding and appreciating the wonders of the animal kingdom, we can better appreciate our interconnectedness with all living beings and work towards a harmonious coexistence with the natural world.

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Essay on Relationship Between Humans and Animals

Students are often asked to write an essay on Relationship Between Humans and Animals in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Relationship Between Humans and Animals

Introduction.

Humans and animals have shared a deep bond since ancient times. This relationship is marked by mutual benefits, companionship, and sometimes, survival.

Companionship

Animals, especially pets, provide emotional support to humans. They bring joy, comfort, and companionship, enriching our lives in many ways.

Mutual Benefits

Both humans and animals benefit from each other. Animals provide food, labor, and transportation, while humans offer care and protection.

In the wild, certain animals help humans by controlling pests or pollinating plants. Similarly, humans help in animal conservation.

250 Words Essay on Relationship Between Humans and Animals

The profound connection.

The relationship between humans and animals stretches back to the dawn of humanity. This bond, shaped by mutual dependence and shared experiences, has evolved over millennia, reflecting the complexities of our social, cultural, and ecological systems.

The Coexistence Paradigm

Humans and animals have coexisted since time immemorial. This coexistence has been driven by various factors, including survival, companionship, and spiritual beliefs. The domestication of animals for agriculture, transportation, and companionship showcases the practical aspects of this relationship. However, the spiritual and symbolic significance of animals in various cultures underscores a deeper, more profound connection.

Ecological Interdependence

The ecological interdependence between humans and animals is critical for the survival of both species. Animals play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance, contributing to biodiversity and the health of ecosystems. Humans, in turn, have a responsibility to ensure the conservation and protection of animal species and their habitats.

Human-Animal Bond

The human-animal bond is a unique and powerful aspect of our relationship with animals. This bond, often characterized by affection and mutual respect, has profound psychological benefits for humans, including stress relief, improved mental health, and enhanced social skills.

The relationship between humans and animals is multifaceted and deeply ingrained in our existence. As we move forward, it is crucial to foster this relationship with respect and empathy, understanding our shared histories, and acknowledging our mutual dependence for a sustainable future.

500 Words Essay on Relationship Between Humans and Animals

The interconnectedness of humans and animals, companionship and emotional bonding.

The bond between humans and animals, especially pets, is a testament to the emotional connection that can exist between different species. Pets offer unconditional love, companionship, and even therapeutic benefits. Studies have shown that pet ownership can reduce stress, improve mental health, and increase overall life satisfaction. This companionship extends beyond pets, as humans often form emotional connections with wild animals, showcasing empathy and compassion for all living beings.

Economic and Nutritional Dependence

Animals play a crucial role in human survival and prosperity. Livestock provides us with food, clothing, and other by-products, while animals like horses and oxen have historically been used for transportation and agricultural work. Even today, in many developing countries, animals are a major source of livelihood. This economic and nutritional dependence on animals underscores the practical aspect of the human-animal relationship.

Spiritual and Symbolic Significance

In many cultures, animals hold spiritual and symbolic significance. They are often revered as deities, used as totems, and featured prominently in folklore and mythology. This spiritual connection with animals speaks to the deeper, more abstract aspects of the human-animal relationship.

The Ethical Dimension

Despite these positive aspects, the human-animal relationship is not without its ethical dilemmas. Issues such as animal rights, cruelty, and the environmental impact of animal agriculture are increasingly coming to the fore. As we advance in our understanding of animal cognition and emotions, it becomes imperative to reevaluate our relationship with animals and strive for a more ethical, compassionate coexistence.

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Article Contents

Introduction, production of animal source foods and economic development: what we know, projected role of animal source foods for economic development, implications for policies and investments, acknowledgments, literature cited.

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Why Is Production of Animal Source Foods Important for Economic Development in Africa and Asia?

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Isabelle Baltenweck, Dolapo Enahoro, Aymen Frija, Shirley Tarawali, Why Is Production of Animal Source Foods Important for Economic Development in Africa and Asia?, Animal Frontiers , Volume 10, Issue 4, October 2020, Pages 22–29, https://doi.org/10.1093/af/vfaa036

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Production of animal source foods contributes to economic development by generating income and employment for livestock keepers and actors along livestock value chains.

In Africa and Asia, their production cannot be analyzed without considering the other functions of livestock: livestock are an asset, a store of wealth for resilience and a factor of production in mixed farms.

Local livestock production increases the availability of animal source foods as a source of proteins and micronutrients, necessary for a healthy population.

Livestock provide a pathway to women empowerment and gender equality, which are important factors for economic development.

Public debates over the economic, health, social, and environmental merits of livestock are growing increasingly acrimonious. On one hand, livestock is said to contribute to income and wealth generation, increase overall farm productivity, be a source of foreign revenues, promote women’s empowerment, and improve nutrition and health, especially for the most vulnerable. On the other hand, livestock is blamed for environmental degradation and condemned as a potential source of zoonotic disease. For its critics, small-scale livestock farming is economically unproductive, a relic to be set aside as informed consumer demand moves toward a mostly plant-based diet (and even, perhaps, plant-based meat). Overconsumption of animal source foods may also contribute to poor health outcomes ( Yang et al., 2016 ). The current COVID-19 crisis is only amplifying these debates. The economic consequences of COVID-19 are likely to increase hunger and poverty in the developing world, even as the pandemic demonstrates how catastrophically unprepared the world is to handle zoonoses.

To get clarity on this debate, we will look at the relationship between animal source foods production and economic development at the household, community, and national levels. For the purposes of this discussion, animal source foods will exclude fish, which has distinct theoretical and data issues. Our focus is on low- and middle-income countries (see https://data.worldbank.org/income-level/low-and-middle-income for a list) in Africa and Asia where small- and middle-scale farmers produce most of the food ( Figure 1 ). It is important to note that production of animal source foods cannot be done without considering animals being part of a broader system. Livestock functions as an asset and is indicative of household and community prestige.

Smallholder livestock household in West Bengal, India (photo credit: ILRI/Susan MacMillan).

The paper is organized into four parts: (1) description of the links between livestock production and economic development at the national level, (2) analyzes the current relationship between livestock production and economic development, (3) details the projections for ASF demand in coming decades, and (4) discusses a pathway for meeting demand and what that means for economic development. This paper concludes by determining how the implications of these analysis can impact policy and economic investment.

The simplest, albeit approximate, way of looking at the relationship between livestock production and economic development is through the contribution of livestock to the agricultural gross domestic product ( GDP ). The contribution of livestock to the agricultural GDP varies greatly across countries ( LD4D, 2018 ) averaging ~25% for low- and middle-income countries compared with nearly 50% for high-income countries. This reflects the fact that richer countries have larger and well-coordinated livestock sectors. Limited data are available for agriculture and livestock in low- and middle-income countries and that which is available is often unreliable ( Pica-Ciamarra et al., 2015 ).

Based on FAOSTAT data, LD4D (2018) summarized FAOSTAT data revealing that, on average, the richer countries generate a higher share of livestock contribution to the total agricultural GDP ( Figure 2 ). This positive relationship supports the argument that livestock contribute to economic growth. Likewise, it may also be concluded that demand for animal source foods is higher in richer countries, leading to a stronger livestock sector.

Contribution of the livestock sector to agricultural GDP.

Source : LD4D (2018) .

That said, there are important differences in terms of species composition as seen in Figure 3 . Cattle populations are larger in high-income countries (expressed on a per capita basis) while both high- and low-income countries have large poultry populations. Differences in economic contribution are not only seen across species, but also within species. This explains the poultry figures as local, more resilient poultry genetics are reared with low inputs, but generate low productivity in low-income countries, compared with highly productive animals in the richer countries.

Average number of cattle, poultry, sheep, and pig per capita and income category.

Sources : authors’ calculations, FAOSTAT (different years). Data on live animals (stocks). http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QA [assessed June 2020].

Several authors note that GDP calculations understate the full monetary contribution of livestock to the economies of low- and middle-income countries. For example, Behnke (2010) explained how livestock play a significant role in reducing poverty in rural Sub-Saharan Africa where livestock keepers create high-value products from their animals. At the farm level in Africa and Asia, livestock production generates income through the sale of milk, eggs, and meat, as well as from the sale of products such as wool, hides, and skins. Besides income generation, livestock is used to accumulate and store wealth and in pastoral communities are often the only major asset ( Abay and Jensen, 2020 ). Small and large animals constitute a “‘walking savings account” used to purchase agricultural inputs, as a means to invest in other income-generating activities, or to pay for expenses; planned (education and weddings) and unplanned (medical bills or funeral costs). Livestock production contributes to the economic development at the household and community level through this income and saving function.

Livestock products are consumed on the farms where they are produced or sold. These animal source foods provide proteins and micronutrients to rural or periurban populations where such products are often unavailable and/or expensive. The availability of these animal source foods from on-farm production or purchased from an outside source play a key role in achieving a balanced diet in low- and middle-income countries and are especially important during the first 1,000 d ( Iannotti, 2018 ; GAIN, 2020 ). By making animal source foods affordable and accessible, local livestock production contributes to a healthy and productive population resulting in almost immediate effects on economic development. The long-term benefits of improved nutrition and well-being of young children include more years of school participation which yields a higher lifetime wage earning, higher adult wages, and increased household assets ( Victora et al., 2008 ). A review of the literature by Halim et al. (2015) suggested that improved maternal and child nutrition interventions (some providing protein rich meals) ultimately resulted in an increase in adult wage income by 46%.

In mixed crop-livestock systems, livestock manure is used to maintain soil fertility and their draft power for ploughing or transport (oxen, buffalos, and horses). In that manner, livestock contribute to whole farm productivity whereby higher crop yields generate more money from a greater quantity of higher quality food. It is evident that animals are key in producing high-quality, high-yielding crops. It is on such mixed farming systems that between 41% and 85% of cereals (maize, rice, sorghum, and millet) are produced in Africa ( Thornton and Herrero, 2015 ).

The economic benefit of the livestock sector reaches beyond the farm by providing employment for individuals associated with the many allied industries throughout the value chain. These allied industries include agricultural inputs and services such as feed, animal health and breeding services, equipment and machinery, and banks and insurance companies that service farmers. In Kenya, the dairy sector employs 3 million people ( https://www.kdb.go.ke/ ) or about 15% of the labor force. These jobs include those in formal settings such as quasi-industrial milk processing plants and abattoirs to jobs purchasing milk from farms and selling it, without processing, to households in small-scale kiosks or on so-called wet, informal markets.

Finally, a point not often recognized is that livestock contribute to economic development through women’s empowerment. Gender equality is widely acknowledged to contribute to economic development. Gender inequality is estimated to be responsible for the loss of 11% of Africa’s total wealth (2014 figure; Wodon and De la Briere, 2018 ), and livestock play an often unrecognized role in the lives of rural women. Given the gender norms prevailing in many low- and middle-income countries, livestock are one of the few assets that women can own and are a key tool for women’s empowerment. Livestock provide a mechanism to improve women’s income, access information, leverage social networks and provide nutritious food to their families.

At the national level, livestock generate important second-level multiplier effects. Gelan et al. (2012) describe the situation in Ethiopia whereby growth in livestock productivity generates a higher increase in income for all factors of production and in particular from labor compared with other (nonlivestock) commodities, leading to economic growth.

While livestock production contributes to economic development, the effect is also true the other way around. Economic development leads to growth of the livestock sector to meet the increased demand for animal source foods. Although that demand can be met through imports, a growing demand is anticipated to generate at least some increases in national production, including in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa where production system changes are considered to be important adaptation strategies in the face of higher demand for animal source foods and increased climate change ( Havlik et al., 2015 ).

It is also important to acknowledge that livestock production can lead to a reduction in economic growth. Livestock are associated with new and emerging zoonoses, which can cause severe economic harm. In addition, they can cause environmental degradation, and may, if animal source foods are overconsumed, cause health problems. A sustainable livestock transformation is possible and is seen by many as a way to re-ignite economies if the trade-offs of livestock intensification are acknowledged.

Projections of livestock production vary with economic models, but there is a consensus that demand for animal source foods will increase substantially in Africa and Asia in the coming decades ( Valin et al., 2014 ; Zhou and Staatz, 2016 ; Desiere et al., 2018 ). Levels of animal source foods consumption remain relatively low in low- and middle-income countries, and nutritionists agree that increased intake is needed to achieve a balanced diet. In Asia, demand increases will be seen from countries that are yet to reach the peak of what has been termed the livestock revolution; a phenomenon in which demand increases substantially in countries undergoing rapid development ( Delgado et al., 2001 ; ILRI, 2019 ). By contrast, the predicted growth in demand in Africa will be driven largely by population growth. According to projections from IMPACT, a widely used model of global agricultural and food systems ( Robinson et al., 2015 ), by 2050 the demand for meat (beef, sheep, goat, poultry, and pork combined) could reach around 221 million tonnes ( MTs ) in Asia and 58 million MTs in Africa. Compared to 2010, these projections represent a 77% growth in Asia and a 280% growth in Africa.

These estimates assume that the key socioeconomic variables driving food demand change will remain constant over the long term. If economic growth exceeds or comes in under expectations (perhaps because of the effects of COVID-19), demand in both regions could rise or falter ( Figure 4 ). (COVID-19 impacts will likely lead to global economic growth that is slower than the recent trends, in which case the “low economic growth” projections become more relevant.) Under these baseline conditions, by 2050, total meat consumption in Asia will account for nearly half (48%) of the global total while; African meat demand will account for 13%. These regions will also see substantial increases in the demand for other animal source foods such as milk and eggs.

Projections of demand (million metric tons; MT) for animal source foods in Africa and Asia under scenarios of low, medium, and high economic growth from 2010 to 2050. Source : authors using IMPACT model version 3.3 ( Robinson et al., 2015 ).

Additionally, livestock-related interventions, activities supported, and financed by development agencies, governments and/or the private sector to improve people’s well-being through livestock, have an impact on economic development. Three types of interventions have been identified by Staal et al. (2019) . They are summarized in Figure 5 .

Livestock-related interventions and impact on economic development (based on the study by Staal et al., 2019 ).

The question remains: How can livestock production meet the needs of such an increase in demand and what would be the impact on economic growth? A 2019 paper by ILRI and the World Economic Forum distinguished four possible pathways to meet the growing demand for animal source foods in low- and middle-income countries. These pathways are not mutually exclusive. In likelihood, these pathways (or strategies) will co-exist within a country depending on the product.

The first strategy is to support small- and mid-scale livestock keepers to improve their productivity. Innovations in technologies can help. Better feeding practices, improved genetics, greater access to inputs and services, and better coordination along livestock value chains would translate into greater productivity and higher income. Given the links between livestock production and economic growth, harnessing the growing demand for animal source foods by implementing market-friendly policies, and building better infrastructure could not only improve producer income but also promote economic development at the national level. Changes that enable low-resourced producers and other interested parties to participate in well-functioning livestock value chains could contribute to such economic development being more inclusive ( FAO, 2012 ). A simulation of the employment potential of the livestock sector in two countries in Africa found that well-targeted investments could yield annual growth in employment of 10% a year, with especially positive returns for women ( Frija and Enahoro, 2018 ; Frija et al., 2020 ) ( Figure 6 ).

Case study of the employment potential of the livestock sector in Burkina Faso and Tanzania.

The second pathway to meet the increased demand for animal source foods is through the development of industrial-scale livestock production enterprises. Economies of scale can push down production costs and reduce the price of animal source foods. If these large-scale enterprises are integrated with existing livestock enterprises, access to inputs and services may also improve for small- and mid-scale farms. The environmental footprint may be lower as well, due to higher productivity per animal. On the other hand, such production system may displace smaller farms and decrease these farmers’ livelihoods. The net effect on economic development of this second pathway is likely to be positive but not as large as the first pathway. Although a full analysis has not been conducted, the impact of industrialization on family income, employment and women’s empowerment may be nil or negative for some communities.

The third way to increase access to animal source foods is through imports. This pathway can cost jobs on and off livestock farms. Interestingly, an analysis of the dairy sector in West Africa, a region with local production but most of the milk consumed is imported, showed that local milk value chains are growing, generating income and jobs ( Corniaux, 2015 ). Imports are usually more affordable. The cheaper price may result in greater consumption of animal source foods which leads to improved nutrition and ultimately may contribute to higher economic development in the long term.

The last option is to promote alternative proteins. This is a less relevant option in low- and middle-income countries compared with high-income countries, due to availability, costs and cultural preference. In terms of economic growth, these products will generate fewer jobs, compared to those created on farm and along livestock value chains in conventional farming systems.

In summary, the two last pathways provide much lower opportunities for income growth and are unlikely to have significant impacts on economic development.

The relationship between production of animal source foods and economic development in low- and middle-income countries is complex, works both ways, and operates at different levels. In this paper, we focused on the effects of livestock production on economic development. Richer countries tend to have a larger livestock sector, as indicated by the greater contribution of livestock to their agricultural GDP. At community and household levels in Africa and Asia, livestock contribute to income and employment and are a store of wealth in many settings. Livestock production also impacts economic development through women empowerment and by increasing the availability of nutritious foods. On the other hand, production of animal source foods may also slow down economic development through environmental degradation and the potential for increased human mortality and morbidity due to poor food safety and zoonoses. Livestock makes vital contributions to food and nutrition security and gender equality; these contributions are in addition to the critical direct economic impact provided by livestock and animal source foods.

Policymakers and investors in low- and middle-income countries face complex tradeoffs regarding policy and investments decisions necessary to meet the projected increased demand for animal source foods ( Enahoro et al., 2019 ). Countries with an existing livestock sector should consider supporting small- and medium-scale farmers and value chain contributors to take advantage of the various opportunities offered by livestock and become more profitable and market oriented. More externally orientated pathways to increase supply of animal source foods, such as imports, industrialization, and alternative products, would have a lower impact on economic development and growth in general.

The authors thank L. Iannotti and D. Aronson for their contribution to the paper. We also thank all donors and organizations who globally supported ILRI and ICARDA work through their contributions to the CGIAR system and in particular the Livestock CRP.

Conflict of interest statement. None declared.

About the Authors

Isabelle Baltenweck received her MSc and PhD (development economist) from the University of Clermont-Ferrand (France). Working at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and based in Nairobi, she has 20 yr of postdoctoral experience in agricultural systems in Africa, South and South-East Asia, with a focus on livestock value chains. Over the years, she has increasingly sharpened her skills in gender and social equity research. Working at the interface of research and development, her research has a direct relevance to the activities of development practitioners and the private sector.

Dolapo Enahoro received MS (Applied Economics) and PhD (Regional Science) degrees from Cornell University (USA). She works as a Scientist within the Policies, Institutions and Livelihoods program of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and is based in Accra, Ghana. She has more than 9 yr of postdoctoral experience in the development and application of analytical frameworks and methodological tools for foresight analysis of livestock systems. In her research, she has applied quantitative foresight approaches and tools in the areas of animal genetics, nutrition and health, markets and livelihoods, the environment, and agricultural and livestock policy in the developing world.

Aymen Frija holds a PhD in agricultural economics from Ghent University (Belgium) and MSc in Agricultural Economics from SupAgro Montpellier (ENSAM) France. He is specialized in economic modelling with focus on natural resources policies and governance. He is currently working at the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), “Resilient Agricultural Livelihood Systems” program (RALSP). His current research interests include agricultural economic modelling, analysis of farms efficiency and productivity, agricultural water management, institutional performances analysis, and conservation agriculture economics.

Shirley Tarawali is Assistant Director General at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) based in Nairobi, Kenya with responsibilities spanning strategy, communications, and knowledge management as well as institutional management, decision making, and representation. She is also secretary to the ILRI Board of Trustees. Shirley has over 35 yrs’ experience implementing and leading research for development across sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, with a portfolio covering livestock-environment, animal nutrition, and natural resource management. Shirley has authored or co-authored over 50 articles in scientific journal or peer-reviewed publications and contributed in an authorship or editorial capacity to a further 30 plus books and proceedings articles. Shirley holds a PhD in Plant Science from the University of London, UK.

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Essay on Animals 500+ words

Animals, our fellow inhabitants of planet Earth, form a diverse and fascinating part of our natural world. In this essay, we will argue for the importance of animals, highlighting their vital role in ecosystems, their unique qualities, and the need for their protectio

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Balance

Animals are an integral part of Earth’s biodiversity. They come in countless shapes, sizes, and species, each playing a specific role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems. For example, bees pollinate flowers, aiding in plant reproduction and the production of fruits and vegetables that sustain us.

Sources of Scientific Knowledge

Animals have been subjects of study and observation for centuries, providing valuable insights into biology, behavior, and adaptation. Scientists have learned about genetics, communication, and survival strategies through the study of animals, benefiting not only our understanding of nature but also medical and technological advancements.

Companionship and Emotional Bonds

Pets, such as dogs and cats, offer companionship and emotional support to countless individuals. Studies have shown that interaction with animals can reduce stress, anxiety, and loneliness. The unconditional love and loyalty of pets enhance our overall well-being.

Economic and Agricultural Contributions

Animals are essential in agriculture, providing us with meat, milk, eggs, wool, and other products. They also play critical roles in the livelihoods of millions of people worldwide. For instance, cattle support dairy and beef industries, while chickens are primary sources of eggs and poultry.

Conservation and Wildlife Protection

Many animals are endangered or threatened due to habitat loss, poaching, and climate change. Conservation efforts, often led by organizations and experts, aim to protect and preserve these species. The work of conservationists, like those saving the giant panda or African elephant, ensures the survival of Earth’s incredible biodiversity.

The Moral Responsibility of Humans

As the dominant species on Earth, humans bear a moral responsibility to treat animals with kindness and respect. Ethical treatment includes proper care of pets, humane farming practices, and the preservation of wildlife habitats. Ensuring animals’ welfare reflects our own moral values.

A Source of Wonder and Awe

Animals captivate our imaginations with their extraordinary abilities and behaviors. From the intelligence of dolphins to the grace of eagles in flight, the animal kingdom never ceases to inspire awe and wonder. These creatures remind us of the beauty and complexity of the natural world.

Conclusion of Essay on Animals

In conclusion, animals are not merely passive inhabitants of our planet; they are active participants in the intricate web of life. From their crucial roles in ecosystems to the bonds they form with humans, animals enrich our world in countless ways. It is our duty to protect and preserve the magnificent diversity of life on Earth.

As we navigate the challenges of the modern world, let us remember the importance of animals in our lives and the broader ecosystem. Let us support conservation efforts, advocate for ethical treatment, and nurture our curiosity and empathy toward all living beings. In doing so, we honor the invaluable contributions of animals to our planet and ensure a harmonious coexistence for generations to come. Animals, in all their majesty, remind us of our responsibility to protect and cherish the wonders of our shared home, Earth.

Also Check: The Essay on Essay: All you need to know

Why birds matter: from economic ornithology to ecosystem services

• Published: 05 May 2015
• Volume 156 , pages 227–238, ( 2015 )

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• Christopher J. Whelan 1 ,
• Çağan H. Şekercioğlu 2 , 3 &
• Daniel G. Wenny 4  

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Birds are conspicuous in many habitats, occur worldwide, are ecologically diverse, and are better known than other vertebrate groups. Birds devour pests, pollinate flowers, disperse seeds, scavenge carrion, cycle nutrients, and modify the environment in ways that benefit other species. Investigation of these ecosystem functions directly as ecosystem services has grown immensely over the last two decades and the ecological relevance of birds is well established. Birds are also observed, fed, and used as artistic and spiritual inspiration by millions of people around the globe. Yet the economic relevance of birds is not widely appreciated and the economic relevance to human society of birds’ ecological roles is even less understood. Quantifying the services provided by birds is crucial to understand their importance for ecosystems and for the people that benefit from them. In this paper, we briefly review the rise and fall of economic ornithology and call for a new economic ornithology with heightened standards and a holistic focus within the ecosystem services approach. Birds’ ecological roles, and therefore, ecosystem services, are critical to the health of many ecosystems and to human well-being. By understanding and valuing bird services and disservices through careful natural history research, we can better assess the environmental consequences of bird declines and extinctions and communicate these findings to the public and policy makers, thereby increasing public support for the conservation of birds and their habitats.

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Whelan, C.J., Şekercioğlu, Ç.H. & Wenny, D.G. Why birds matter: from economic ornithology to ecosystem services. J Ornithol 156 (Suppl 1), 227–238 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-015-1229-y

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-015-1229-y

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Further reading

Plural valuation of nature matters for environmental sustainability and justice by Berta Martin-Lopez, Social-Ecological Systems Institute, Faculty of Sustainability, Leuphana University of Lüneburg, Germany

Climate change and biodiversity

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Student Essays

Essay on Animals- Importance of Animals in Our Life

Animals are the greater part of life circle on this planet earth. The following essays on Animals talks about their importance, purpose and benefits for us in life. This short essay is very helpful for children and students.

Essay on Animals, Value, Role & Importance of Animals in our Life

Animals are the wonderful creature of Almighty. They serve various purposes in our life. They are the integral part of the ecosystem. They give us food, shelter, clothing and many things. They provide us lots of facilities and pleasure. We should respect them because they are also a kind of living being like us.

Importance of Animals in our Life:

They play an important role in our life. They are the basic part of nature. They create balance in nature. For example, they help in pollination and seed dispersal. They provide us food like milk, meat, eggs etc. They help us to get rid of many diseases. They give us fibre to make cloths. We get many valuable things from them. They are the friend of human being.

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Important domestic Animals in India:

There are many domestic animals in India. The most important are cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey and horse. They provide us food and many other things.

Cows are considered as the most sacred animal in Hinduism. They provide us milk which is very nutritious and healthy for our body. Buffalo is a very important source of meat. Goat provides us with milk and wool. Sheep provide us with wool. Camel is used for transportation in the desert areas. Donkey is used for carrying load. Horse is used for riding and transportation.

We should not exploit them and should protect their rights. We must save them from extinction. We must conserve their habitats. We should provide them food, shelter and water. We should not kill them for fun. Let’s pledge to protect animals and make this world a better place to live.

In conclusion, it is evident that animals play a significant role in our lives and we should do everything possible to protect them. They are an important part of the ecosystem and provide us with numerous benefits. We should not take their importance for granted and should do all we can to preserve them for future generations. Thank you for your time.

Essay on Importance of Animals in Our Life:

Animals play an integral role in our lives and have been essential to human existence for centuries. They are not just mere creatures but important members of our ecosystem. From providing us with food and clothing, to being companions, animals serve various purposes in our daily lives.

One of the primary reasons why animals are important is their contribution to the food chain. Many people rely on them for meat, milk and eggs. For instance, cows provide us with milk which is consumed by billions of people every day. Similarly, animals like chicken and pigs are also major sources of food for humans.

Animals have also been our companions since ancient times. Many households own pets such as dogs or cats that offer friendship and emotional support to their owners. These animals help to reduce stress and anxiety levels in humans. More so, they have been trained for specific purposes such as guiding the visually impaired or detecting seizures in people with epilepsy.

Apart from being a source of food and companionship, animals also play an important role in scientific research. Many medical breakthroughs have been possible due to animal testing. Vaccines, drugs, and other treatments for various diseases have been developed through animal testing, which has significantly improved human health.

Moreover, animals play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of our ecosystem. They help to pollinate plants and disperse seeds, helping in the growth and reproduction of various plant species. Some animals also act as natural pest control for crops, reducing the need for harmful pesticides.

In conclusion, animals are an essential part of our lives and have a significant impact on human existence. From providing us with food and companionship to contributing to scientific research and maintaining the balance of our ecosystem, they play multiple roles in our daily lives. Therefore, it is crucial to protect and preserve the welfare of animals for the betterment of humanity

Essay on Animal Rights:

Animal rights are the fundamental moral and ethical principles that recognize all animals as deserving of basic rights and protections. This means that animals should not be treated as objects for human use, but rather as sentient beings with their own inherent value.

The concept of animal rights has gained much attention in recent years due to the increasing awareness of animal welfare issues. It covers a wide range of topics, including the proper treatment and care of animals, the use of animals for scientific research and entertainment purposes, and the protection of endangered species.

It is important to recognize that animals have their own needs and interests, and it is our responsibility as humans to ensure their well-being. By respecting animal rights, we can create a more compassionate and just society for all beings. So let us all strive towards a world where animal rights are recognized and respected.

Animal rights is not just about protecting individual animals, but also about preserving the natural habitats and ecosystems in which they live. This includes advocating for sustainable practices that do not harm or exploit animals and their environments.

In addition to this, animal rights also encompasses the ethical treatment of farm animals who are often subjected to cruel and inhumane living conditions. By promoting ethical farming practices, we can improve the lives of these animals while also creating a healthier and more sustainable food system.

Furthermore, animal rights extends to the protection of wildlife and their habitats from human activities such as deforestation, poaching, and pollution. These actions not only harm individual animals but also have a negative impact on the delicate balance of our ecosystems.

In conclusion, animal rights is not just a moral and ethical issue, but also an environmental and societal one. By recognizing and respecting the inherent value of all animals, we can work towards creating a more compassionate and sustainable world for both humans and animals alike. Let us continue to advocate for animal rights and strive towards a better future for all beings.

Essay on Love and Care for Animals:

Love and care for animals is an important topic that needs to be addressed in today’s society. Animals are living beings, just like humans, who deserve our love and compassion.

Firstly, it is essential to understand that animals have feelings too. They experience pain and suffering just like we do. Therefore, it is our responsibility to provide them with the necessary love and care to ensure their well-being.

Secondly, having a pet is a significant way of expressing love and care for animals. Pets bring immense joy and happiness to our lives, and in return, we should provide them with proper care and attention. This includes providing them with a balanced diet, regular exercise, and taking care of their health needs.

Moreover, animal shelters are also essential in showing love and care for animals. These shelters provide a safe haven for abandoned, abused, and neglected animals. Volunteering at these shelters or even adopting an animal from there can make a significant difference in their lives.

Furthermore, it is crucial to raise awareness about animal welfare issues and encourage others to show love and care towards animals. This can be done through education, campaigns, and advocating for stricter laws to protect animals from cruelty and abuse.

In conclusion, love and care for animals is not just a moral obligation, but it also benefits society as a whole. Animals play an important role in our ecosystem and contribute to the balance of nature. By showing them love and compassion, we can create a better world for both humans and animals alike

Essay on Animals are Best Friends:

Animals have been a constant companion to humans for centuries. They are not only our companions but also an integral part of our lives. One of the reasons animals are considered as best friends is because they offer unconditional love and loyalty.

Dogs, cats, horses, and many other animals have been domesticated by humans to serve as faithful companions. They provide us with emotional support, companionship, and even protection. They are always there for us, no matter what, and their unconditional love has been proven time and time again.

Animals also have a positive impact on our mental and physical well-being. Studies have shown that spending time with animals can reduce stress, anxiety, and depression. Their presence can bring a sense of calmness and happiness in our lives.

Moreover, animals are also great teachers. They teach us important life lessons such as patience, responsibility, and compassion. Taking care of an animal requires dedication and commitment, which helps in developing a sense of responsibility in individuals.

Animals are also known for their loyal nature. They will always stand by our side, even during the toughest times. This loyalty is not just limited to domesticated animals, but it can also be seen in the wild. Animals have been known to risk their lives for the protection of their families and territories.

In addition, many animal species are on the verge of extinction due to human activities such as deforestation and poaching. It is our responsibility to protect these innocent creatures and preserve their habitats.

In conclusion, animals are much more than just pets. They are our best friends and play a significant role in our lives. From companionship to teaching us important life lessons, they have made a positive impact on humanity.

Essay on Importance of Animals in Environment:

Animals play a crucial role in maintaining balance and harmony in our environment. From providing us with food, clothing, and medicine to regulating the ecosystem and pollinating plants, animals contribute significantly to our daily lives.

One of the primary reasons for protecting animals is their impact on the environment. Animals are an essential part of the food chain, and their absence can lead to imbalances that can have disastrous consequences. For instance, the loss of a single species of pollinators, such as bees, can adversely affect crop production and threaten food security.

Moreover, animals also help in maintaining the health of our environment. For example, many animals feed on invasive plant species, keeping them in check and preventing them from overtaking native plants. Similarly, certain animals, such as vultures, play a vital role in reducing the spread of diseases by scavenging and cleaning up carcasses.

In addition to their ecological importance, animals also provide numerous economic benefits. For instance, livestock production contributes significantly to the economy and provides livelihoods for millions of people worldwide. Similarly, tourism based on wildlife observation generates billions of dollars annually and supports local communities.

Furthermore, animals also hold cultural and spiritual significance for many societies. They are often revered as symbols of strength, intelligence, and wisdom. In some cultures, certain animals are considered sacred and are protected as a result.

In conclusion, the importance of animals in our environment cannot be overstated. From their role in maintaining ecological balance to providing us with essential resources, animals are crucial for our survival and well-being. It is our responsibility to protect and conserve them for future generations to enjoy.

Essay on Animals in Captivity:

Animals in captivity have been a topic of debate for many years. While some argue that it is necessary for conservation and research purposes, others believe it to be cruel and unethical. In this essay, we will discuss the various aspects of animals in captivity and provide our perspective on the matter.

On one hand, keeping animals in captivity can be seen as a way to protect endangered species and prevent them from extinction. Zoos, for example, have been successful in breeding programs for endangered animals such as pandas and tigers. This ensures that these species continue to exist and play their part in maintaining the balance of our ecosystem. Additionally, captivity also provides opportunities for research and study on different animal behaviors and biology.

However, the other side argues that keeping animals in captivity goes against their natural way of living. In the wild, these animals have large territories to roam freely, hunt for food and interact with other species. In captivity, they are confined to small enclosures which can lead to physical and psychological problems such as obesity, depression and even aggression.

Furthermore, many argue that the entertainment aspect of captivity is exploitative and cruel. Animals are often forced to perform tricks and live in unnatural environments for the sake of human entertainment. This can also have negative effects on their well-being.

In conclusion, while captivity may have its benefits in terms of conservation and research, it is important to consider the ethical implications and effect on animal welfare. Therefore, strict regulations and standards should be put in place to ensure that the animals are well-cared for and their needs are met

Essay on Animals for Class 1:

Animals are an essential part of our planet Earth. They come in different shapes, sizes, and colors. They can be found on land, water, and even in the air. The animal kingdom is vast and diverse.

Some animals have two legs like us humans while some have four legs like dogs and cats. Some animals fly like birds while some swim like fish. Each animal has its unique characteristics and plays a vital role in maintaining the balance of nature.

Animals are not just creatures that we see in the zoo or on TV. They are an essential part of our lives as they provide us with food, transportation, companionship, and many other things. We must learn to respect and care for animals because without them, our world would not be the same.

Some animals are endangered, which means that there are very few of them left in the world. It is our responsibility to protect these animals and their habitats so that they can continue to thrive on our planet.

We should also learn to coexist with animals peacefully. This means treating them with kindness and understanding their needs. We must always remember that we share this planet with animals and it is our duty to ensure their well-being.

In conclusion, animals are fascinating creatures that bring beauty and diversity to our world. We must learn to appreciate and protect them for future generations to also be able to experience their wonder.

Essay on Animals also have Feeling:

Animals are often thought of as being less intelligent and less emotional than humans. However, recent studies have shown that animals also have complex emotions and feelings just like humans do. In fact, many scientists argue that animals experience a wide range of emotions including joy, fear, sadness, anger and even love.

One common misconception about animals is that they only feel basic instincts such as hunger, thirst and the need to reproduce. While these instincts do play a crucial role in animal behavior, they are not the only factors that drive their actions. Animals also have more complex emotions that influence their behavior in different situations.

For instance, studies have shown that elephants mourn their dead and even hold funeral-like rituals for their deceased members. This displays an emotional connection and a sense of grief that goes beyond basic survival instincts. Similarly, many animals exhibit signs of fear and anxiety in certain situations such as being separated from their pack or being in danger.

Moreover, animals also form bonds and relationships with each other just like humans do. For example, dolphins have been observed helping injured members of their pod by carrying them to the surface for air. This type of behavior shows compassion and empathy towards their fellow dolphins.

In addition to these emotions, animals have also been shown to feel joy and happiness. Many pet owners can attest to the fact that their furry companions display signs of excitement and contentment when they are being praised or given treats.

Overall, it is important for us as humans to recognize and acknowledge that animals also have complex emotions and feelings just like us. By understanding this, we can develop a deeper appreciation and respect for all creatures on our planet.

So, it is crucial to treat them with kindness and compassion, just as we would want to be treated ourselves. Animals may not communicate in the same way as humans do, but they still deserve love, care and understanding. Let us strive to create a world where all beings can live in harmony and happiness.

>> Related Post:  “ Essay on Caring For Elderly “

Q: What is the animal essay?

A: An animal essay is a written composition that discusses various aspects of animals, including their biology, behavior, conservation, or their significance to human life.

Q: Can you write an essay about animals?

A: Yes, I can certainly help you write an essay about animals. Just provide the topic or specific focus you’d like to cover.

Q: How do you write a paragraph about animals?

A: To write a paragraph about animals, start with a topic sentence, provide supporting details or examples, and conclude by summarizing the main point. You can discuss aspects like habitat, behavior, role in ecosystems, or human interaction with animals.

Q: Why are animals important to our life?

A: Animals are important to our life for various reasons, including their role in ecosystems, food production, scientific research, companionship, and their contributions to biodiversity and environmental balance

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Importance of Animals Essay in English

Importance of animals in human life.

Animals can be of great importance in the human life. First of all, animals provide humans with food for example cows and chicken. Secondly they can be used for protection for example dogs and also to aid the handicapped. Animals like horses and donkeys are used as a means of transportation and for recreation activities like racing. Lastly, animals can be used as companions to humans. They are known as pets and most people value them so much such that they even end up giving them a respectful burial in a pet cemetery after they die. This forms our discussion for today (Hartsdale Pet Cemetery) which is the final resting place for nearly 70,000 pets including dogs, cats, birds, rabbits and even a lion cub (Waldau, 2011).

Animals play a very important role in the human life. From the early days, animals have been very useful to man. They were mainly as transportation means, for food, hunting and protection. The early man also did farming by use of oxen. Animals also give companionship to humans and this is very important in the human life. Animals like dogs can also be used to guide the physically challenged like the blind and also the old. This is because they take very little time to learn unlike other animals. In the resent years, new bleeds have been developed and this has enhanced the relationship between animals like and cats and human beings (Beck and Katche, 1984).

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The bond between animals and humans is becoming tighter and tighter since the two now can correlate in many ways and as the days are passing by, their understanding of each other is becoming easy thus their relationship is becoming easier. It is therefore the duty of humans to protect animals since man cannot do without them. Institutions like animal orphanages, cemeteries; zoos and animal clinics help ensure that animals are taken care of and they should be increased so that we can protect our animals, either wild or tamed, beasts of burden or pets. Associations to fight for animal rights should also be formed and funded to ensure that there is adequacy in nurturing animals (Waldau, 2011).

Animals play a vital role in various aspects of human life, contributing to our well-being, economy, and environment.

Here are some key points highlighting their importance:

• Companionship and Emotional Support: Pets like dogs and cats provide companionship, reduce stress, and improve mental health. They can help alleviate feelings of loneliness and anxiety.
• Economic Contributions: Animals are crucial in agriculture, providing meat, milk, eggs, and other products. They also support industries like ecotourism, which relies on wildlife to attract visitors.
• Ecosystem Balance: Animals help maintain ecological balance. Predators control the population of herbivores, which in turn helps preserve plant life. Pollinators like bees are essential for plant reproduction.
• Medical and Scientific Advancements: Animals contribute to medical research, helping scientists understand diseases and develop treatments. They also play a role in testing the safety of new medicines.
• Cultural Significance: Animals hold cultural and spiritual significance in many societies. They appear in art, literature, and folklore, symbolizing various human values and beliefs.
• Service and Assistance: Service animals assist people with disabilities, enhancing their independence and quality of life. They perform tasks such as guiding the visually impaired and alerting individuals to medical emergencies.

Animals are integral to our lives, providing numerous benefits that enhance our physical, emotional, and economic well-being. Their presence enriches our world in countless ways.

Animal Testing

Research laboratories uses animals like rats and rabbits to test drugs before giving them to humans. These researches are very important since they can be used to predict any future disease outbreaks and one can be able to protect themselves. Research involving laboratory animals is necessary to ensure and enhance human and animal health and protection of the environment. They are also used by the astronomers in their research; a dog is sent in a rocket and after analyzing the results, they can predict whether is safe to send a human being. By this, animals have helped in the exploration of the world and other risky surveys and research (Beck and Katche, 1984).

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Here are some counterarguments against the use of animals in research laboratories:

• Ethical Concerns: Many argue that it is inherently cruel and inhumane to subject animals to experiments that can cause pain, suffering, and even death. Animals have the right to live free from unnecessary suffering and exploitation.
• Physiological Differences: The biological differences between humans and animals can lead to inaccurate results. Drugs and treatments that work on animals may not be effective or safe for humans, leading to potential failures in clinical trials.
• Availability of Alternatives: Advances in technology have provided alternative methods for research, such as in vitro testing, computer modeling, and human cell cultures. These methods can reduce or eliminate the need for animal testing.
• High Failure Rate: A significant percentage of drugs that pass animal testing fail in human trials. This high failure rate questions the reliability and necessity of using animals for research.
• Moral Responsibility: Society has a moral responsibility to protect animals from harm. Many believe that the benefits of animal research do not justify the ethical costs, especially when alternatives are available.

These points highlight the ethical, scientific, and practical concerns associated with using animals in research laboratories.

More Examples of Short Essay on Animals

• Animal Rights  Essay Example
• Animal Testing  Paper Sample
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Livestock health and disease economics: a scoping review of selected literature

Alexander kappes.

1 The Lewin Group, Falls Church, VA, United States

2 School of Economic Sciences and Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States

Takesure Tozooneyi

3 Department of Agricultural Economics, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States

Golam Shakil

Ashley f. railey.

4 Department of Sociology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States

K. Marie McIntyre

5 Modelling, Evidence and Policy Group, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom

Dianne E. Mayberry

6 CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Saint Lucia, QLD, Australia

Jonathan Rushton

7 Institution of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom

Dustin L. Pendell

Thomas l. marsh.

Animal diseases in production and subsistence environments have the potential to negatively affect consumers, producers, and economies as a whole. A growing global demand for animal sourced food requires safe and efficient production systems. Understanding the burden of animal disease and the distribution of burden throughout a value chain informs policy that promotes safe consumption and efficient markets, as well as providing more effective pathways for investment. This paper surveys existing knowledge on the burden of animal disease across economic categories of production, prevention and treatment, animal welfare, and trade and regulation. Our scoping review covers 192 papers across peer-reviewed journals and reports published by organizations. We find there exists a gap in knowledge in evaluating what the global burdens of animal diseases are and how these burdens are distributed in value chains. We also point to a need for creating an analytical framework based on established methods that guides future evaluation of animal disease burden, which will provide improved access to information on animal health impacts.

Introduction

Livestock products represent almost half the value of agricultural production worldwide ( 1 ). The production of livestock serves to address consumer demand for animal sourced foods, non-food items (e.g., hides), production inputs (e.g., fertilizer for crops), as well as for other, non-market purposes (e.g., culture). Due to an increasing population and growth in incomes spurred by economic development in rural areas ( 2–4 ), it is estimated that by 2050, global demand for meat and milk products may increase by 63 and 30%, respectively ( 5 , 6 ). Assuming no changes in per capita consumption, the average demand for total animal source foods will increase from 1.4 billion to 2.0 billion tons by 2050 ( 7 ). Within developing countries, livestock milk and meat production has moved from accounting for 31 and 22% of global meat and milk production, respectively, to 63 and 53% of the same respective global production over the time period 1973–2013 ( 8 ). The value of livestock product share in agriculture will continue to increase because of continued growth in demand for animal sourced food products resulting from real income and population growth ( 9–11 ).

Livestock disease externalities negatively impact production and distort values due to domestic and international market shocks resulting in market inefficiencies ( 12 ). Herd health and sustainability of commercialized livestock product markets, as well as their growth to support demand, and smallholder farming systems are threatened by livestock disease outbreaks and occurrences in production ( 1 ). Livestock diseases can also encourage unsustainable and damaging practices. For example, antibiotics to promote growth may be used to increase animal size or address persistent infections, but the overuse of antibiotics may then contribute to adverse societal impacts, such as antimicrobial resistance. Episodic, or unpredictable disease outbreaks similarly reduce animal production but may also have unintended consequences on demand and supply of other market goods. Negative information and publicity tied to a disease outbreak can distort consumer demand in retail markets, while distortions in non-allied markets can lead to shortages or surplus ( 13 ).

Livestock disease and/or its externalities can directly affect the health of human and wildlife populations or be affected by climate change or the environment. This can occur through impacts on local environments surrounding livestock production systems ( 14 , 15 ). For instance, there could be livestock-wildlife disease vector feedback loops ( 16 , 17 ). The expansion of humans into wildlife areas for urban development and/or livestock production provides a greater opportunity for zoonotic interaction between wildlife-livestock vectors. Changes in climatic conditions have also promoted reemergence of zoonotic pathogens ( 18 ) and create production environments with greater burden of livestock disease ( 19 ), calling attention to the livestock-wildlife-climate interaction and pathways of disease and subsequent burden. While we acknowledge that the livestock-wildlife interaction is complex and important, we do not do it full justice in this review, leaving it for future efforts.

The importance of livestock disease in production and its effect on the health of populations and markets is reflected in the need and use of government response and eradication programs, as well as the need and use of trade bans and trade restrictions. Previous research has identified and called attention to cost–benefit analysis of disease response, eradication, and detection programs ( 20 , 21 ), to the impacts of disease on productivity, value, and costs at both production and consumption levels ( 22–24 ), the impacts on trade ( 25 , 26 ), and the externalities and producer decision-making processes associated with disease prevention and treatment ( 27 , 28 ).

In response to these advancements, our primary objective of this paper is to provide a scoping literature review of livestock health and disease economics to better understand the state of knowledge and identify gaps in defining the burden of animal disease. The following research questions were investigated: (1) What is the economic impact/cost of a given disease on production, prevention and treatment, animal welfare, and trade and regulation? (2) How is this burden apportioned among consumers, producers, and the government? (3) How are climate change, zoonosis, and animal welfare affecting the dynamics of animal health systems? By better understanding the current knowledge and finding animal disease knowledge gaps, this will further support the need for a systematic framework for future evaluation of the burden of animal diseases on producers, consumers, markets and trade, and secondary industries.

Our approach revolves around key principles in animal health economics: livestock production, consumer demand, and trade and regulations. This review begins with livestock production and disease externalities, weaving in issues of climate change and zoonosis. Animal disease prevention and treatment is covered next. Considerable space is allocated for animal welfare, including consumer preferences, as it is important and recommended as a gap in the literature by Hennessy and Marsh ( 13 ). Trade and regulation impacts are presented to address global interconnectivity of markets and the role of commerce. We conclude with a discussion of some remaining gaps in existing literature, pressing needs, and opportunities for future research.

We accomplished our objective through a scoping search of peer-reviewed literature across EconLit, AgEcon, and Google Scholar databases focusing on the major terrestrial livestock species (beef and dairy cattle, pigs, poultry, and small ruminants). We do not include time exclusion criteria in order to capture seminal research on animal disease economics but give more attention to current research on the impacts of animal disease. Also included is a search of published reports by relevant organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Health Organization, World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH, founded as OIE), and the World Bank. This review excludes books [e.g., ( 29–33 )]. Our initial search resulted in 184 articles and reports, and then was supplemented with eight articles from the authors. In total, 192 relevant articles were available for review across the economic categories (production, disease prevention and treatment, animal welfare, and trade and regulation; see Figure 1 ). The coverage across categories resulted in 19% for production, 16% for disease prevention and treatment, 30% for animal welfare, and 18% for trade and regulation. Table 1 provides additional details on the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the reviewed literature.

Article selection for the study’s scoping literature review.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria of the reviewed literature.

This section begins with a review of the costs of selected livestock diseases. Next, spillovers of livestock disease to humans and the environment are discussed and it concludes with climate change impacts on production environments and disease transmission within these environments.

A direct economic impact of clinical and subclinical livestock disease conditions is the loss of, or reduced efficiency of, production. Lost production affects food access, wealth, and income. The magnitude of the economic burden will depend on production conditions and market circumstances. If a local farm economy is diversified with alternative income opportunities, it may be more resilient, and the burden reduced. Conversely, if the local economy is dependent on one or a few vulnerable commodities, the economy may be less resilient, and the burden may be more severe and local food security impaired. The consequences of reduced productivity of animals and diseases can have lasting effects on livestock output in several “hidden” ways (such as longer reproduction cycles leading to fewer offspring) which often exceed the losses associated with visible illness ( 34 ). Examples of health problems in livestock include foot disorders (lameness), ketosis, mastitis, and fertility, which may also correspond to transboundary diseases of global importance, including lumpy skin disease, sheeppox, goatpox, and foot-and-mouth disease (FMD).

Foot disorders are reported to be a perennial problem in dairy cattle, due to their high incidence, severity, and duration. The economic consequences of foot disorders are expressed through losses in milk production, prolonged calving intervals, excessive culling, additional veterinarian visit and treatments, and as well as losses in labor for the trimmer and farmer. Evidence of total costs of foot disorders on a Dutch farm with 65 cows were $4,899 per year ($75 per cow), ranging from $3,217 to $7,001 ( 35 ). A study in Spanish dairy cows by Charfeddine and Pérez-Cabal ( 36 ) noted the phenotypic association between the severity of claws disorders and production, fertility, and performance. The authors considered three common claw disorders: dermatitis, sole ulcer, and white line disease and found the presence of sole ulcer or white line disease was associated with reduced milk production mostly in cows in second or later lactations. Further, severe sole ulcer or white line disease resulted in double the milk losses when compared to a mild condition ( 36 ). Cows with dermatitis, sole ulcer, and white line disease resulted in annual costs of $10.8, $50.9, and $43.2 per affected cow, respectively ( 36 ). Milk losses, longer calving intervals, and premature culling contributed to more than half of the additional expenditures ( 36 ). Lameness is a prominent issue in the dairy industry ( 37 ). Adams et al. ( 38 ) estimated the prevalence of lameness in United States herds as 10% in 2014, while previous literature has reported lameness prevalence to reach as high as 55% in northeastern United States herds in 2008 ( 39 ). Lameness, along with mastitis and fertility, are identified by United Kingdom dairy producers as the top three major health concerns in their herds ( 40 ).

The costs of ketosis, both clinical and subclinical, are manifested though lower milk production and reproductive performance, an increased culling of cows and other disorders ( 41 , 42 ). In a study carried out in a typical Dutch dairy context, Steeneveld et al. ( 42 ) noted differences in annual net cash flows of farms in the no ketosis scenario (i.e., no risk) and the base scenario (i.e., 1% probability of clinical ketosis and 11% probability of subclinical ketosis). They report the average herd level costs of ketosis were €3,613 per year for the base scenario and €7,371 per year for the high-risk scenario [i.e., two times the clinical and subclinical ketosis probabilities; ( 42 )].

Poxvirus diseases, mainly Lumpy skin disease, sheeppox, and goatpox, are highly contagious and can potentially cause significant losses to livestock producers through morbidity, mortality, control measures, and reduced trade ( 43 ). Infected livestock may show signs of reduced weight, reduced milk production, depression, lethargy, and fever, and, in severe cases, death. Additionally, Lumpy skin disease reduces hide quality, while sheeppox and goatpox can decrease the production of cashmere and wool. In a study conducted among backyard and transhumance producers in northeast Nigeria, producers sold cattle, sheep, and goats for 47, 58, and 57%, respectively, less than would have been sold if the animal was healthy. Limon et al. ( 43 ) also reported a 65% drop in milk production of clinically affected cows and 35% drop after they recovered. Cattle and sheep and goats lost a median of 10 and 15% of their live weight, respectively. Depending on the impacted species and production system, economic losses at the farm level range from US$10 to US$6,340 ( 43 ).

The impact of FMD has been extensively explored post-outbreak or anecdotally, but poorly characterized in endemic areas ( 44 ). An analysis was conducted to ascertain the impact on 218 lactating cattle during a 29-day FMD outbreak on milk yields. At the herd level, yields decreased from an average of 20 to 13 kg (decline of 35%) per cow per day, with recovery taking place approximately 2 months after the end of the outbreak ( 44 ). In another East African study, a 2008–2018 retrospective analysis of bovine exposure to FMD in endemic regions revealed suppressed milk and reproductive performance ( 45 ). Other considerations between endemic disease and long-term animal productivity include calving intervals and lameness.

Livestock diseases cause losses to production systems through morbidity, mortality, and prevention and control costs. While diseases usually manifest themselves as visible illnesses, they can impact productivity in a plethora of hidden ways including longer production cycles and low population growth.

Effects of climate change on livestock and livestock diseases

Climate change may have substantial effects on the epidemiology of infectious animal diseases ( 46 ) and directly relates to production environments and subsequent impacts. Even though there might be some positive benefits of climate change on animal health, of particular interest to this review are the negative effects which manifest themselves as increased costs to livestock production. These may happen through a number of ways including increase in heat-related diseases and stress, extreme weather events, adaptation of animal production systems to new environments, and emergence or re-emergence of infectious diseases critically dependent on environmental and climatic conditions ( 47 ). These processes act by affecting the biology of the hosts, pathogens, vectors, and/or through creating environmental conditions that increase their development and contact ( 46 ). Ultimately, climate change induced impacts to animal health and well-being directly and indirectly affects livestock value chains and have welfare implications on the society at large.

Environmental temperature affects the host’s physiology, and hence, ability to respond to infection ( 46 ). For most farm animals, temperatures between 10 and 30°C are considered optimal, and higher than optimal temperatures result in reduced feed intake, milk production, reproductive performance, wool production, animal health and welfare ( 48 , 49 ). Some more specific examples include a 3–5% decline in feed intake for goats, pigs, and chickens for each unit increase in temperature above optimal temperatures [National Research Council ( 50 )]. Pigs in particular, are susceptible to heat stress when subjected to excessively high temperatures ( 47 ). In Chinese Taipei, heat stress is considered a major problem in the dairy sector. Heat stress weakens the signs of estrus, prolongs the cycle, and increases fetal death rate ( 47 ).

Temperature and moisture greatly influence the development rates, persistence, and geographical range of pathogens and vectors; hence, the transmission dynamics of vector borne diseases ( 46 ). High temperatures are generally associated with increased metabolic rates in arthropods leading to an increase in their feeding, reproduction, and maturation ( 51 ). Temperature is also an important determinant of key epidemiological factors like infection rates and dissemination patterns of pathogens in the vector. Higher temperatures shorten the incubation period of pathogens by increasing their replication rates in vectors. Temperature and humidity also influence the duration of survival of pathogens which spend part of their life cycle outside the host ( 52 ). Vectors like nematodes, mosquitoes, ticks, and flies, which are responsible for diseases affecting animals like sheep, goats, cattle, and horses, have developmental stages that are influenced by climatic conditions ( 47 ).

Climate change influences the geographical range of vectors, hosts, and pathogens. Evidence for that has been found on, for example, Culicoides imicola which transmits the bluetongue virus ( 53 ). Temperature and moisture frequently impose limits on the geographic range and distribution of vectors and parasites ( 49 ). In East and Southern Africa, for example, vector distribution is often limited by high mortalities during low winter temperatures and slow population recovery rates during warmer seasons. As the globe gets warmer, cooler regions, which were previously inhabitable for certain vectors, may experience increases in populations while warmer regions could remain permissive for vectors if there is also increased precipitation or humidity ( 49 ). Climate change may alter the rate at which parasites develop, resulting in an increase in some instances in the number of generations and a subsequent extension of their temporal and geographic range. The New World screwworm ( Cochliomyia hominivorax ), which is a disease that already affects animals in South America, is one such example of a disease whose geographic and temporal distribution could be changed. The spread of screwworm has been shown to be strongly correlated with amount of precipitation and temperature in Brazil ( 54 ). In some regions of Brazil, there is significant seasonal variation in the prevalence of animals with screwworm larvae, with the summer seeing the highest incidence followed by spring, winter, and autumn ( 54 ).

Climate change is predicted to alter the temporal and geographical distribution of infectious diseases in South America’s endemic regions and their introduction to disease-free areas. This includes vector borne diseases like bluetongue, West Nile fever, vesicular stomatitis, and New World screwworm ( 54 ). Despite there being historical records of bluetongue outbreaks in Europe, the recurrent introductions since 1998 have been startling. Six strains of bluetongue virus have been identified across 12 countries and have been found to occur about 800 km further north than previously reported ( 53 ). The spread into new areas of bluetongue, Culicoides imicola (an indigenous European midges), screwworm, tickborne diseases in Europe, South America, and Africa is mainly attributed to climate change ( 54 ). In Africa, El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has been linked to mosquito-borne and biting midges disease ( 55–59 ). Predictions have also shown that the geographical range of some ticks (e.g., Rhipicephalus Appendiculatus ) will likely change in some parts of Africa ( 46 , 60 ). Outbreaks of bovine ephemeral (1996) and dengue fever (2001) in the Chinese Taipei were found to be linked to episodes of typhoons ( 47 ). Climate induced migration of birds may alter the geographical distribution of diseases such as Highly pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) and West Nile virus ( 47 ).

Climate change is predicted to increase the frequency of droughts and floods in some parts of the world (e.g., South America and Eastern Africa) which could lead to increased movement of pastoral communities with profound effects on vector-host contact rates; hence, the spread of animal diseases ( 46 , 54 ). Such movements can take producers and their animals further from key services and expose them to additional vectors and pathogens ( 46 ). Prolonged drought could also lead to aggregation of livestock production in resource abundant areas (mainly pasture and water) creating conditions conducive for the development of pathogens and vectors and their increased contact with hosts ( 46 ). The rate of contact between livestock and wildlife is also expected to increase in transhumant production systems, exacerbating the risk of spread of diseases across species, and the emergence of novel diseases ( 54 ). For example, droughts (1993–1997) in East Africa forced pastoralists to graze their cattle in wildlife areas, resulting in infections of mild lineage of rinderpest in both cattle and wildlife, devastating certain populations ( 49 , 61 ). Climate-driven agricultural land use changes and biodiversity loss could expose livestock to novel pathogens. Most infectious diseases such as avian influenza, brucellosis, Newcastle disease, rabies, tuberculosis, and parasitic diseases, share wild and domestic susceptible species. Biodiversity loss is likely to lead to the emergence of novel diseases as vectors seek new hosts ( 54 ).

Although much of the previous literature has focused on the negative impacts of livestock and wildlife diseases when discussing climate change, positive benefits have also been mentioned. Moore and Messina ( 62 ) indicate that changing temperatures in different elevations in Kenya can alter vegetation structures, which impacts the soil moisture and temperature. Increases in soil temperatures and reduced soil moisture will have a detrimental impact on tsetse fly larvae and adult flies. In similar articles by McDermott et al. ( 63 ) and Lord et al. ( 64 ), they evaluate areas in Africa that could see a reduction in tsetse fly populations due to increasing temperatures and changing environmental conditions.

Climate change may affect animal health through (1) increasing the frequency and severity of climate events and associated diseases like heat stress, (2) adaptation of livestock systems to new environments, (3) promoting the emergence of novel pathogens, and (4) creating environmental conditions that increase contact among pathogens, vectors, and hosts. A significant number of studies discuss the negative impacts of climate change on animal health, but there are positive impacts as well.

Zoonosis and other spillovers

Zoonoses are an important consideration within production environments. There are relevant diseases of dairy cattle involving pathogens transmissible from cows to humans. Eradication campaigns and the adoption of pasteurization nearly put under control such dairy diseases like brucellosis, tuberculosis, and Q-fever. In recent time, there has been few outbreaks of foodborne diseases due to the illicit consumption of raw milk. The cattle industry is currently confronted with a plethora of important public health issues like bovine spongiform encephalopathy (with variant Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease) and antibiotic use and its associated microbial resistance in humans. Environmental or ecosystem health presents additional indirect links between animals and people ( 65 ). Johne’s disease in cattle and Crohn’s disease in humans have similar pathology and this association is a developing frontier of research by veterinary and human medical practitioners.

The use of antimicrobial drugs applies selective pressure on bacteria, which can result in some bacterial strains developing antimicrobial resistance to certain drugs. There is a concern that microbial resistance could possibly be transferred from animals to people via zoonotic bacteria. More likely is the consumption of nonpathogenic bacteria, which in turn pass resistance to human pathogens ( 66 ). This spillover effect is becoming an increasing concern for human health, animal health, and the environment.

Disease spillover remains an intricate and concerning public health issue. While the advent of pasteurization helped eliminate the bulk of zoonotic concerns, issues pertaining to the association of diseases in animals and humans, and the possibility of microbial resistance transfer from animals to people are of increasing concern.

Animal disease prevention and treatment

The increased focus on livestock production for promoting food security has called greater attention to issues surrounding food safety, moving beyond a primary focus on productivity. While consumption of animal sourced foods provides important micro and macronutrients for physical and cognitive development ( 67 ), there exists a risk of disease transmission during consumption of contaminated foods ( 68 ). Evaluation of the impact of foodborne disease has found it to be comparable to the burden of the “big three” diseases, namely HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis, with children under five bearing 40% of this burden in low-income areas and total burden being measured at 33 million Disability Adjusted Life Years ( 69 ). Poor sanitation and hygiene in both commercial and household production environments increase risks of zoonosis ( 70 , 71 ). Production intensification and urbanization further create environments where human and livestock populations are geographically concentrated and have higher potential for zoonotic transmission ( 1 , 72 ). Underdeveloped areas typically lack resources and infrastructure providing sanitary and hygienic handling of livestock during production ( 68 ), which acts as an additional constraint in meeting sanitary standards for trade market access ( 73 ). Livestock disease prevention and treatment is an important production practice for mitigating negative impacts on both production and human health.

Livestock disease prevention and treatment is costly to producers. Investment in disease mitigation is typically evaluated in profit-maximizing or expenditure-loss frontier frameworks, and more generally, cost and benefit frameworks, which incorporate profits as part of benefits ( 20 , 74–78 ). However, producer-level disease control decision making may not consider larger issues relating to external impacts on human health and other production systems. Absent of any disease control regulation, profit-maximizing conditions reveal that producers are not expected to eradicate all disease and will do so only when individual private benefits exceed individual costs ( 79 ).

Public policy is used to address disease prevention and treatment areas that producers do not find optimal to participate in but can negatively impact parties not immediately associated with production ( 80 ). These areas broadly relate to prevention and provision of services and include systematic vaccination and disease vector control, surveillance, diagnostics, and livestock quarantine measures, drug quality control, food and hygiene inspection, and veterinary research and extension ( 81 ). Public policy also addresses issues relating to overuse of drugs, such as antibiotics, that have production-enhancing effects but carry public health and environmental risks in the form of regulation requiring veterinary oversight for administration ( 82–84 ). Increasing fiscal deficits accounted for partly by public expenditure on disease prevention and treatment, which has been effective in lowering disease incidence, have resulted in a need to reconsider policy design and create incentive for greater private involvement ( 79 ). There is also a need to address the researcher-government relationship and the transfer of information between both parties for promoting effective policy outcomes, particularly in Africa and Asia ( 85 ).

Whether allocated through public expenditures or private markets, vaccines provide efficient means of preventing the occurrence and transmission of animal disease ( 86 ). A smallholder farmer’s decision to vaccinate livestock may not be as simple as evaluating the costs and benefits of vaccination. Adoption of vaccines can be an issue of their willingness to pay, delivery constraints, or personal beliefs and characteristics, as well as issues surrounding access and affordability ( 87 ). Evaluation of vaccination decisions among poultry farmers in Kenya against Newcastle disease found mean flock sizes increased by one bird when vaccinating and using parasiticidal treatment compared to only using parasiticidal treatment ( 88 ). Smallholder farming poultry production contributes significantly to food security, household and village livelihood, and gender equality ( 89 ) as flocks are typically managed by women within the household ( 88 ).

Local collective action supporting livestock production programs also supports vaccination programs ( 90 ). It has been found that social and cultural belief systems can influence vaccine adoption instead of household and individual factors such as income, education, age, and gender ( 91 ). In a sample of low-income Indian farmers, almost half of the sample had knowledge on how vaccines worked as a causal solution to disease, and it is expected that adoption rates improve as knowledge transfer activities take place ( 87 ), which is a consistent result across countries as dissemination of vaccine information is important for adoption ( 92 ). Vaccination decisions are also influenced by information on disease through early rapid-diagnostic testing results of foot and mouth disease, where owning larger herds is positively associated with a greater willingness to pay for early testing for informing vaccination decisions ( 93 ). It has also been found that there exists a higher willingness to pay for vaccines preventing full cattle breakdown from disease than vaccines that reduce the severity of the breakdown as it relates to bovine tuberculosis ( 94 ).

Cost of livestock vaccination is an important barrier to adoption. A veterinary intervention providing East Coast fever vaccination in sub-Saharan Africa found there to be uniform knowledge across socio-economic classes regarding vaccine benefits, but that the proportion of vaccinated cattle in herds is larger for wealthy producers compared to lower-income producers ( 95 ). This same study conducted by Homewood et al. ( 95 ) also found there to be a 50% price premium for vaccinated steers and bulls sold at market, but that cows and replacement heifers were less likely to be vaccinated due to being used for household production purposes.

On the global level, vaccination and vaccine delivery, control of livestock movement, surveillance and diagnostic testing, and systematic culling procedures contributes to the costs of transboundary disease ( 96 ), with other indirect costs including foregone revenue and secondary-industry impacts. Indirect costs of FMD prevention, control, and treatment are borne by the public and private sectors. It is estimated that 2.4 billion doses of FMD vaccines are administered annually worldwide, with a cost per vaccine between USD $0.4–3, resulting in partial indirect control costs of approximately USD $94–705 billion. Indirect cost of control also results when trade takes place between FMD-free areas. When Indonesia was an FMD-free area, it was importing large quantities of livestock from FMD-free areas. The higher price Indonesia pays is considered a risk reduction cost of not importing the FMD virus ( 96 ). Control costs required to become and stay FMD-free are significant, but benefit the aggregate economy. In Zimbabwe during 2003, it was estimated that for every Z$ 1 disinvestment in FMD control resulted in losses of Z$ 5 in terms of FMD impact on production and trade ( 97 ). In 2007, Zimbabwe was no longer able to export to the EU, foregoing historical annual trade revenues of USD $50 million ( 98 ). Control measures also have potential impact on secondary industries, where for example, the UK suffered a USD $4–5 billion loss in tourism revenue during their FMD outbreak in 2001 ( 99 ).

There is a need for accurate, cost-effective diagnostic tests for early detection of diseases in livestock ( 93 , 100 ). The potential for negative livestock disease impacts on global markets increases when early detection resources are not sufficient or not available. Currently, laboratory tests for early detection of diseases are costly and time-consuming. Tools that can predict diseases incidences, including the exact livestock populations, guide diagnostics, offer treatment options, and predict the likely impacts are necessary. Novel biosensors provide significant benefits in monitoring animal health through the analysis of the animal’s environment. They are useful for early disease detection and isolation and also for monitoring of reproductive cycles ( 100 ). Nanobiosensors also lower production costs by enabling multiplexing of the bioassays on-site, thereby eliminating the need for the transportation of biological samples to laboratories.

Extant literature mentions significant advances in detection technology. Biosensors for the detection of some key diseases of economic importance have been developed. Some of these include biosensors for the diagnosis of the BHV-1 (Bovine Herpes Virus-1) viral protein, the major viral pathogen of bovine respiratory disease, FMD virus, and for the detection of the H7 and H78 strains of avian influenza ( 101–104 ). Neitzel et al. ( 105 ) have developed an indirect on-line sensor system based on the automated California Mastitis Test in milk.

Failures in disease prevention must also be recognized. For example, digital dermatitis went from being largely unknown to endemic status in most dairy herds in North America ( 66 ). Additionally, salmonellosis, leukosis, and calf diarrhea are examples in which little progress has been made, or where prevention has even regressed. The prevalence of most common diseases of economic importance has remained unchanged despite improvements in humans’ animal husbandry skills ( 66 ).

Disease prevention and control in livestock is key for mitigating negative effects on production and human health. Since diseases present themselves as negative externalities, public policy is used in disease spaces that producers may not find optimal. To date, vaccination provides efficient means of mitigating disease occurrence and transmission, and its adoption across the globe is influenced by a plethora of economic and socio-cultural factors.

Animal welfare

Farm animal welfare (FAW) is receiving greater media and empirical attention, especially in the developed world, particularly the European Union (EU) and the United States (U.S.) ( 106–111 ). Important to highlight at this juncture is that while FAW is no longer a peripheral issue, it also not the main determinant of food purchase behavior, particularly in the United States ( 110 ). Building from the Brambell Report, and the resultant growth of ethology, there has been a surge in public awareness of FAW issues and an associated increase in animal welfare research and teaching activities ( 112 ). Goddard et al. ( 113 ), Stott et al. ( 114 ), Toma et al. ( 115 ), and Vosough et al. ( 116 ) have contributed to research spanning consumer perception of animal welfare and disease eradication across Europe. The recent European experience with animal epidemics such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy, FMD and avian influenza, and the subsequent culling of animals has also added to the growing FAW debate ( 117 ). In 2002, WOAH members voted to create international standards for animal welfare, with the initial guidelines adopted in 2005 ( 118 , 119 ).

While the main FAW concerns differ across livestock species, production systems, and geography, they range from the more general like narrowly confined husbandry systems rampant in poultry, pigs, and cattle to the rather difficult and costly to implement like stopping the separation of calves from cows. Table 2 presents some of the main livestock welfare issues.

Common livestock welfare issues.

Adapted from ( 112 ).

Whether it is responding to market signals or legal instruments, the main rationale for producers to respond to FAW concerns is maintaining the social license to produce ( 110 ). Husbandry methods that cause pain are constantly being reviewed and banned, not only for the welfare of animals, but also for economic reasons that healthy, happy animals perform better ( 122 ). While FAW changes in Europe were largely through a legislative approach, food retailers and food producer groups have been the leading drivers in the United States ( 112 ).

A plethora of measures have been put in place in both the EU and the United States to regulate farm animal husbandry activities and ensure that FAW considerations are part of the livestock production equation. In the United Kingdom, the Agricultural Act of 1968 provided the first legal basis for farm animal protection, leading to more explicit laws including the banning of gestation stalls in 1999 ( 119 ). Notable similar laws to ban stalls were also enacted in Sweden (1988), New Zealand (2015), Florida (effective 2008), and California (effective 2015). In 2007, Smithfield, the largest pork producer in the United States, announced they were transitioning away from gestation stalls to group housing on all its premises, including its contract growers ( 112 ). In 2021, Smithfield was sued by the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) for misleading customers. HSUS claims Smithfield did not eliminate gestation stalls, but simply reduced the amount of time sows spend locked in the cages ( 123 ). Gestation stalls are commonly used in piggeries to increase production efficiency and improve welfare by preventing mixing of animals; thus, limiting disease spread and fighting. However, animal welfare proponents are mostly critical of the system’s effect on limiting the animal from exhibiting natural behaviors like moving around ( 124 ).

Dairy and beef production in the developed world has been commonly associated with husbandry methods warranting public FAW concerns. In recent years in the United States, undercover videos have periodically been released of poor cattle conditions and abuse on dairy farms, which focuses public attention on dairy cattle welfare issues ( 125 ). Yielding to public scrutiny and legislative pressure, certain practices have been earmarked to be phased out or banned due to associated undesirable animal welfare impacts. For instance, as of January 1, 2010, tail docking was banned in California, USA’s largest milk producing state ( 125 ). Farmers Assuring Responsible Management, a voluntary program of United States dairy farm organizations was created to champion cattle welfare issues, and in 2015, the National Milk Producers Federation announced a nation-wide end to tail docking effective December 31, 2016 ( 125 ). In addition to this producer program, various animal welfare-related groups have created their own programs that have certification and labeling for marketing purposes (e.g., Humane Farm Animal Care). Tail docking is now a rarity in the United States. Tail docking was once perceived to lower the risk of zoonotic disease leptospirosis although this belief is now defunct ( 126 ), and neither did studies establish the purported effect of docking on udder infection or mastitis ( 127–132 ).

Dehorning and disbudding are characteristics of intensive cattle production. Dehorning is aimed at limiting injuries from animals and economizing on space requirements ( 133 ). Due to public FAW outcry, there is shift toward reducing the pain associated with the process. A study in Alberta, Canada revealed that while dehorning and branding remains common in cattle ranching, ranchers and farmers are slowly moving toward practices that induce less pain, mainly through the use of caustic paste for disbudding ( 122 , 133 ). Potential also exists for gene-editing technology to produced polled cattle, although uncertainty remains on consumers perceptions for gene-edited food products. Genetic dehorning eliminates the need for a painful dehorning, a process resented by animal welfare activists ( 134 ).

Separation of cows from calves soon after parturition, and the separate housing of calves during the milk-feeding period are common practices in the dairy industry ( 135 ). Abrupt weaning is still a persistent and common practice and those who practice it claims that it reduces emotional distress for the animals and promotes calf health. However, advocates of FAW argues it is a stressful process that affects the calves physical and physiological development ( 132 , 135 ). A recent study conducted in Canada reveals that some producers are adopting weaning methods with low stress [e.g., fence-line weaning and two-stage weaning; ( 135 )].

Zero grazing is increasingly becoming contentious in countries where total confinement of animals has become a norm ( 132 ). In 1998, Sweden enacted a law essentially putting an end to zero grazing of dairy cows ( 119 ). Access to pasture is valued by some people because it also offers enough space and fresh air to animals. In the United States, about 39% of dairy farms use tie stalls, and the majority of lactating cows are kept in total confinement ( 136 ). Some of the reasons hampering availing pasture to dairy cattle include difficulties in incorporating pasture into modern farms, pasture shortages, low veld quality, and fears of lower milk production from pasture access ( 132 ).

Significant strides have been made as far as poultry FAW issues are concerned. There has been a widespread ban on the on the use of conventional battery cages for hens notably in Sweden (1998), EU (2012), New Zealand (2022), and California (2015) ( 119 ). In the United States, the United Egg Producers (UEP) is one of the first groups to be at the forefront of sweeping changes related to poultry husbandry in response to public poultry welfare concerns. Mainly, an increase in cage space, to 67–87 in. 2 per hen from the current industry standard of 48–54 in. 2 per hen, which was implemented over a seven-year span by producers to buffer economic impacts. These guidelines also include standards for lighting, air quality, beak trimming, handling, and on-farm euthanasia. Additionally, in 2006, food withdrawal to induce molting in hens was banned, followed by inclusion of cage-free production standards by 2008 ( 112 ). To implement these guidelines, a third party auditing program was developed and allowed qualifying producers to display a logo on their egg cartons showing that they are UEP certified.

In emerging and developing countries, the issue of FAW is also gaining momentum due to global export requirements as well as domestic concerns from the burgeoning middle class ( 106 , 137 ). This momentum will likely be augmented by international corporations in the food business that define global supply chain requirements and ultimately shape livestock production practices and consumption in these countries ( 106 , 138 ). However, there are still several factors that can potentially slow down changes aimed at improving husbandry practices in both emerging and developing countries. In emerging countries like Brazil, in the quest to meet domestic and export market meat demand, there has been a deliberate transition toward the adoption of the very intensive husbandry practices that are at the center of FAW outcries in the developed world. These controversial husbandry practices place them in an especially vulnerable position, and it’s a matter of time that they too attract similar scrutiny ( 119 ).

Given the prevalence of food insecurity and poverty in developing countries, this means that FAW receives low priority. Limited access to animal handling technologies, the relative absence of societal pressures for improved welfare, and substandard handling facilities contribute to its low priority ( 139 ). For cattle production, the dominant communal production systems mean that cattle are reared for several purposes (i.e., meat, milk, draft, and traditional ceremonies). In these systems, nutritional deficiencies are commonplace due to deteriorating rangelands, especially in winter or dry seasons. In addition, most developing countries have dysfunctional or non-existent animal health systems ( 139 ).

Important to note is that any FAW investment or adjustment comes at a cost ( 110 ). Paramount to the sustainability of efforts to address FAW issues therefore is the existence of a willingness to pay (WTP) for such improvements from consumers, or at least some form of subsidies. There has been an increase over the past two decades in the number of citizens and consumers with deep regard for FAW and professed their unwillingness to buy products that did not meet their FAW concerns ( 140 ). Consumers associate FAW not only with higher human health benefits but also consider food produced under FAW friendly conditions to be of higher quality, tastier, more hygienic, safer, acceptable, true to type, eco-friendly, and traditional ( 141–145 ).

A meta-analysis conducted using 23 WTP studies mostly from the OECD countries revealed that WTP for improved FAW is on average approximately 15% above base price, and comparatively higher than that of the United States ( 106 ). Results of surveys conducted in Europe show an increase from 34 to 57% between 2006 and 2015 of the proportion of citizens who assign some importance to the protection of farmed animals ( 140 ). Various studies have reported a similar trend world-wide; EU ( 146–149 ), United States ( 125 , 150–152 ), Canada ( 153 , 154 ), Latin America ( 137 , 155–157 ), Asia ( 158 ), and Australia ( 159 ). Given that there is a correlation between income levels and demand for FAW, this issue is likely to continue being of interest for the unforeseeable future as more and more countries emerge from poverty ( 160 ).

In some policy circles, individuals argue that FAW is overrated and just a fashionable cause ( 106 ). Older, wealthier, and female consumers tend to be more concerned with FAW when purchasing food ( 110 ). Firstly, duality exists between ordinary citizens and consumers (i.e., not all consumer concerns are reflected in their purchase behavior). Empirical studies reveal mismatch between the results of self-reported public concerns about FAW and the WTP for products that comply with FAW standards, the attitude-behavior gap ( 106 , 140 , 161 ). Effective demand for FAW is only reflected in the food choices and purchases of consumers while citizens only partake in activism, political processes, and formation of public opinion in which their stated desire for FAW change is victim to social desirability bias [i.e., respondents give answers to questions that they believe will make them look good to others; ( 110 , 162 )].

In Germany, over two-thirds of consumers expressed disdain with existing FAW unfriendly husbandry practices ( 107 ), but rather paradoxically is the small niche of organic meat (2% market share) ( 163 ). A small proportion of United States consumers care a great deal about FAW to the extent that it influences their food purchase behavior ( 110 ). Lister et al. ( 164 ) revealed low importance of FAW among United States consumers across several foods: ground beef (5.2%), beefsteak (4.6%), chicken breast (4.1%), and milk products (4.8%). Conversely, the relative importance of price was consistently around 20%, demonstrating that price remains by far the most important drive of purchase behavior among United States consumers ( 110 ).

Besides price, FAW is confounded by other factors like food safety which take precedence over all others when it is present or perceived ( 110 ). Harper and Henson ( 165 ) reported that in the UK, Ireland, France, Germany, and Italy consumers prioritize food safety, health, and quality over FAW concerns. Consumers considered FAW as an indicator of other attributes associated with human health and safety ( 166 ). FAW is therefore more likely to be valued by consumers when it is part of a broader basket of private values.

The other challenge with the market of FAW is its public good characteristics which creates a positive consumption externality, and a consequent free-rider incentive. As far as FAW is concerned, there is non-excludability and non-rivalry in consumption ( 106 , 163 ). Market demand for FAW does not truly reflect preferences. The burden of the externality is borne only by a segment of consumers ( 167 ). The free-rider incentive can be lessened by a perceived increase in the private value (e.g., nutrition and taste). We explore the implications of consumer preference below.

Consumer preferences

Willingness to pay (WTP) for improved health management inputs captures producer demand for these improvements but can also be applied to consumer demand for animal products. Increasingly, consumer preferences for characteristics beyond disease or quality, such as for animal welfare, may also be tied to demand, especially in Europe and the United States ( 106–111 ). While animal welfare is not a fringe issue, it also is not a main driver of food demand, particularly in the United States ( 110 ), and instead helps with issue framing to indirectly affect demand ( 112 ).

Willingness to pay for health inputs has been extensively explored in animal health economics. For endemic diseases, WTP captures potential markets for vaccine manufacturers or potential for public investment. FMD WTP has been explored in Africa and shown to be a potentially cost-effective approach whereby producer WTP either aligns or is above the price point to offer the vaccine. In these cases, when consumer demand is higher than market value, the excess in consumer demand (consumer surplus) often can translate into widespread adoption. During the last vaccination campaign, a WTP study of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) vaccine in Kenya found that WTP ranged from 17 to 67% higher than the costs incurred by government ($0.86 USD per head of cattle). However, producers appeared to be sensitive to total costs whereby producers with many cattle had lower WTP values. A study to assess WTP for a bovine tuberculosis cattle vaccine in England and Wales similarly found that WTP values were substantially higher than the expected cost of a vaccine ( 94 ). Demand for improved animal health is not limited to bovines or large investments. A WTP study for Newcastle disease vaccines found that on-farm income would likely be sufficient to cover vaccination costs and that low-income households valued the vaccines more ( 168 ).

WTP studies and those assessing uptake of animal health inputs may also be applied to exotic and zoonotic diseases as they often incorporate the risk of disease incidence into the evaluation. In the same study that evaluated WTP for FMD vaccines in an endemic region of East Africa ( 169 ), the study found that WTP was influenced by disease risk perceptions, such that a more spatially and temporally immediate outbreak may be met with a higher WTP for prevention and control. Kairu-Wanyoike et al. ( 170 ) found in Kenya that the WTP for a contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) vaccine was constrained by access to information on disease risk. An exploration of vaccine uptake for Newcastle disease in Tanzania similarly found that access to professional-level information (potentially through veterinarians) was associated with increased uptake ( 171 ).

Farm animal welfare issues have been gaining momentum mainly in the developed world where they are primarily driven by legislature, food producers, and food retailers. Though FAW is not a fringe issue, price remains the key determinant of food demand. FAW is also gaining relevance in low and middle-income countries mainly due to global supply chain requirements defined by large food corporations. Its prioritization is hampered by food insecurity, poverty, and the need to meet domestic and export demand. There exists a gap between high public FAW sentiments and relatively low levels of FAW willingness to pay.

Trade and regulation

Within this section we explore the implications of livestock disease on global markets. We first explore the risks of transboundary livestock disease on trade and then turn to the impacts of regulatory measures, and subsequent market outcomes, on producers and consumers within respective import and export markets.

Access to and participation in efficient trade markets will increase incomes and decrease unemployment in comparison to existing levels without trade. The availability of pasture area per head of rural population in underdeveloped areas provides a comparative advantage for livestock production and export ( 172 ). Considering efficient and safe markets, areas with less-efficient production will have incentive to import livestock products from areas with a production advantage.

Trade is promoted through investment in infrastructure and supply chain organization in areas with growth in commercial enterprise and areas dependent on smallholder farming systems for livestock products. Both infrastructure and organization act as compliments for establishing and sustaining trade markets ( 173 ), with public and private sector involvement and partnership remaining equally important ( 174 ).

Average public investment from OECD countries in agriculture within sub-Saharan Africa has increased by 87.5% from USD $0.08 billion to USD $0.15 billion over the period 1980–2012 ( 175 ). While accurate and comprehensive data on private investment in developing areas is not readily available and/or accessible, an analysis of foreign direct investment in agribusiness has shown low but slowly increasing levels of investment in areas typically focused on value-added processes ( 176 ). Public programs targeting increased private investment for agricultural development, such as the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program, show the importance of private sector funding and the public-private relationship.

Trade has the potential to increase the risk of zoonotic disease and foodborne related illnesses. Compliance with regulatory safety standards and inspections, as well as public and private certification of livestock and livestock products mitigate risks of disease and illness transmission. Market inefficiencies arise when trade embargoes, which ban all export goods from one country or region, or tariffs, which decrease consumption of goods by making them more costly, are enacted in response to a livestock disease outbreak in an exporting country, or in response to a country’s failure to adhere to established safety standards and inspections.

Transboundary diseases occur alongside trade and can threaten the continuity of international trade. The FAO defines transboundary animal diseases as those that are highly contagious and easily transmissible across borders and that have negative impacts on socioeconomic and public health outcomes, ultimately placing risks on trade ( 34 ). Economic impacts of transboundary diseases include public and private costs of outbreak, as well as individual costs of disease prevention, control, and total loss. Wider market impacts due to shifts in consumer preference during an outbreak, or trade bans and restrictions in response to an outbreak, include changes in consumer and producer surplus, which can be thought of as a measurement of benefit gained from market participation, as well as costs imposed on secondary industries as a result of market impacts. Food security and nutrition in developing areas is also negatively affected by transboundary disease when substitution across animal-sourced foods is not possible. Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) can be used as a public health measurement of the burden of infectious disease in humans through loss in life years due to poor health, disability, and death ( 177 ) that may occur in transboundary disease incidents. Infectious disease accounts for 30% of global DALYs ( 18 ), with an estimated 60% of infectious diseases being zoonotic ( 178 ). While any value chain is subject to the negative impacts of transboundary disease, smallholder farming systems have greater vulnerability ( 179 ). The World Organization for Animal Health lists notifiable transboundary diseases, among them are FMD, rinderpest, African and Classical swine fever (ASF and CSF, respectively), CBPP, and RVF. Prevention, monitoring, and effective response to FMD and African and classical swine fever carries high importance as they are three of the most detrimental diseases to producer livelihood and international trade outcomes ( 180 ).

Foot and mouth disease is highly contagious in cattle and other cloven-hoofed animals, and spreads through populations during movement of infected animals and products. Access to trade markets is restricted to countries and regions free of FMD. As an example, in 1996 Uruguay was recognized as being free of FMD and gained access to valuable trading markets. Uruguay filled export quotas to the United States and received higher world prices than domestic prices, resulting in additional annual revenues estimated at USD $20 million ( 181 ). Access to Pacific Rim trade markets was estimated to provide an additional USD $90 million annually. As restriction from trade is an indirect cost of transboundary disease, Uruguay’s total additional revenue gained contributes to the full costs of FMD. Cost–benefit analysis of FMD eradication in Bolivia and Thailand found that benefits exceeded costs only if eradication allowed participation in trade markets ( 34 ). It is estimated that Latin America experienced a 4.1% decrease in meat exports attributed to their FMD outbreak in 2001 ( 182 ). During trade restrictions, export production increases domestic supply, resulting in lower domestic prices and consumers benefit from these lower prices under the assumption that products are safe and marketable, and meat substitution is not made. However, it is important to consider a country’s depopulation strategy and domestic demand elasticity when measuring welfare changes between consumers and producers. Given inelastic demand for domestic beef, if depopulation reduces excess supply enough, producer surplus increases while consumer surplus decreases during an outbreak ( 183 ). During an evaluation of the Australia’s livestock export industry, increased domestic supply of livestock products due to trade restrictions resulted in a greater-than USD $1.5 billion industry loss during a hypothetical FMD outbreak. A simulated study of a FMD outbreak in the United States found that total livestock industry losses occurred over 16 quarters until recovery, totaling between USD $2.8–4.1 billion due to impacts on trade, domestic supply, and demand ( 184 ). In another study simulating an FMD outbreak in the United States, producer sector welfare, defined as the change in producer surplus for non-quarantined livestock and the loss in sales revenue for livestock quarantined and slaughtered, declined by USD $1.4–1.8 million ( 185 ). In general, it is estimated that market prices for major beef importing and exporting countries among FMD-free areas will be up to 50% greater than domestic prices received in FMD areas ( 186 ). Other FMD case studies include control and vaccination strategies across the United Kingdom and South Vietnam ( 187 , 188 ). Optimal disease response strategies minimize socioeconomic disruptions at the local and national levels and are weighed against impacts of loss in export trade, its associated value, and market restriction ( 189 ).

In the Knight-Jones and Rushton ( 96 ) review of FMD impacts, general findings across simulations and data analysis point toward FMD control programs generating positive returns to an economy; FMD-free areas suffering a 0.2–0.6% loss in GDP during a new outbreak, with Taiwan experiencing a 0.28% loss in GDP across multiple sectors during their 1997 outbreak ( 190 ); and that there exists an absence of studies exploring the full economic impacts of FMD in endemic areas with focus on indirect impacts at national levels.

African swine fever was recorded in China for the first time in 2018. It is estimated that 150–200 million pigs were infected by 2019, approximately 30% of the Chinese pig population, with disease impacts causing almost 100% mortality as there is currently no vaccine. In a simulated reduction of 9–34% of global swine production due to the Chinese outbreak, global pork prices were estimated to increase by 17 to 85% ( 191 ), having global economic impacts on consumer and producer surplus, and nutrition substitutions. In a simulated study of an ASF outbreak in Iowa, United States, which is a predominant swine production area, the outbreak would result in the loss of international markets to United States pork, with a decrease of domestic live hog prices by 40–50% due to supply surplus. The outbreak is estimated to have industry losses of USD $50 billion across all years of the outbreak due to trade restrictions and domestic price reductions ( 192 ).

Classical swine fever control mainly stems from vaccination and variable stamping-out strategies in Central and Eastern Europe countries, with most of the countries having legislation prohibiting swine imports from infected areas ( 193 ). Trade and industry costs of the 1997 outbreak of CSF in the Netherlands resulted in a 24% reduction in net cash-flow throughout densely populated livestock areas ( 194 ), and a EUR 636 million reduction in net welfare, which measures the collection of consumer, producer, and government welfare ( 195 ). Although the United States has been CSF free since 1976, a study evaluated a hypothetical CSF outbreak in the United States and estimated that full export market recovery does not occur until 14 quarters after the initial outbreak with expected total industry losses between USD $2.6–4.1 billion ( 196 ).

While trade offers opportunities for countries to exploit comparative advantages, it has the potential to increase the risk of zoonotic disease and foodborne-related illnesses. Trade facilitates the movement of animal diseases across borders which can threaten the continuity of international trade. Effective prevention and monitoring of FMD, ASF, and CSF in global livestock production systems, as well as all transboundary diseases, helps mitigate risks of trade bans and restrictions, and its subsequent effect on livelihoods, associated industries, and national/regional economies. It is important for private and public stakeholders to consider costs related to virus control, disease spread, prevention and zoning, as well as costs related to market and price shocks in the affected livestock sector and across associated sectors ( 197–199 ). Benefits to society from access to and participation in trade, and from efficient domestic markets, validate the cost of disease prevention and eradication ( 184 ).

The impact of animal disease and health on markets and livelihoods is complex and is heterogeneous from region to region across the world. This review has identified selected, current knowledge surrounding the impacts of and attention to animal disease across production, disease prevention and treatment, animal welfare, and trade and regulation. The design of this study provides a broad review of some main topics within the animal health economic literature that complements other recent reviews. We recognize that this broad overview does not dive deep into mechanisms or behavioral issues for and implications of animal health in global and regional markets, as well as not fully addressing livestock-wildlife interactions, topics in diversity, equity, and inclusion, nor zoonotic diseases, which can be considered limitations of the study yet to be explored. We encourage the reader to use this review as a guide to investigate topic gaps further.

The impact of animal disease on food security and human health has focused attention on merging economics with epidemiology. Policy is not only informed by effects on supply, market price, and trade, but also informed by human health impacts. Due to the heterogeneous nature of livestock and livestock product value chains in both developed and underdeveloped areas, there exists a gap in knowledge on the distribution of animal disease burden within value chains and its effect on the wider economy. Obtaining accurate and appropriate data and institutional information is needed to assess impacts of animal disease burden segmented across all participants and economies that make up value chains. Assessing the global burden of animal disease requires a multidisciplinary approach between information, population and production systems, economic and epidemiological analysis, as well as animal health ontology and human health impacts. Work that can address the burden of animal disease would provide improved access to knowledge on the immediate and wider impacts of animal disease on industries and economies. Evaluating how animal disease burden is distributed across the value chain and its impact on the value chain and economy better informs policy and allows targeted investment from private and public organizations ( 13 , 200 ).

Author contributions

JR, KM, DP, and TM conceived the study. AK and TT carried out the literature review and drafted the preliminary manuscript. All the authors participated in reviewing, editing, reading, and approving the final draft.

This research is performed in the framework of the Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) programme which is led by the University of Liverpool and the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) https://animalhealthmetrics.org/ . This research is supported through the Grant Agreement Investment ID INV-005366 with the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The handling editor BH declared a past co-authorship with the author JR and declared a shared research network [Network for Ecohealth and One Health, NEOH–European chapter of Ecohealth International association] with the author KM.

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