research questions about alcohol abuse

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Key Takeaways

• Alcohol is among the most used drugs, plays a large role in many societies and cultures around the world, 1  and greatly impacts public health. 2,3  More people over age 12 in the United States have used alcohol in the past year than any other drug or tobacco product, and alcohol use disorder is the most common type of substance use disorder in the United States. 4
• NIDA works closely with the  National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) , the lead NIH institute supporting and conducting research on the impact of alcohol use on human health and well-being. For information on  alcohol  and  alcohol use disorder , please visit  the NIAAA website .
• Because many people use alcohol while using other drugs, 4  NIDA supports and conducts research on both the biological and social dynamics between alcohol use and the use of other substances.

Looking for Treatment?

Use the  SAMHSA Treatment Locator  or call  1-800-662-HELP (4357) .

NIH Resources

• Find treatment for alcohol use disorder and alcohol addiction (previously called alcoholism) using the NIAAA Alcohol Treatment Navigator .
• Read more about drinking, its health effects , and tips for cutting back on drinking .
• Read more about the latest advances in alcohol addiction research on the NIAAA Director’s Blog .
• Learn more about how NIH Institutes and Centers work together to better understand, treat and prevent addiction through the Collaborative Research on Addiction at NIH (CRAN) initiative.
• Learn more about the scientific meeting “ Opioid Use in the Context of Polysubstance Use: Research Opportunities for Prevention, Treatment, and Sustained Recovery .”

NIDA Resources

• See the latest statistics on alcohol use among young students from NIDA’s Monitoring the Future Survey.

More on this Topic

Addiction often goes hand-in-hand with other mental illnesses. both must be addressed., doctors reluctant to treat addiction most commonly report “lack of institutional support” as barrier, reported drug use among adolescents continued to hold below pre-pandemic levels in 2023, heart medication shows potential as treatment for alcohol use disorder, additional resources.

• Find basic health information on alcohol use disorder from MEDLINEplus , a service of NIH’s National Library of Medicine (NIH).
• Read Alcohol Misuse information from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA).
• Learn more about medical approaches to treating alcohol use disorder from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) in Medication for the Treatment of Alcohol Use Disorder: A Brief Guide .
• Read Alcohol Misuse Prevention: A Conversation for Everyone from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA).
• Sudhinaraset M, Wigglesworth C, Takeuchi DT. Social and Cultural Contexts of Alcohol Use: Influences in a Social-Ecological Framework. Alcohol Res. 2016;38(1):35-45.
• Witkiewitz K, Litten RZ, Leggio L. Advances in the science and treatment of alcohol use disorder. Sci Adv. 2019;5(9):eaax4043. Published 2019 Sep 25. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aax4043
• GBD 2016 Alcohol Collaborators. Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 [published correction appears in Lancet. 2018 Sep 29;392(10153):1116] [published correction appears in Lancet. 2019 Jun 22;393(10190):e44]. Lancet. 2018;392(10152):1015-1035. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2
• Substance Abuse Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Results from the  2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables, SAMHSA . Accessed January 2023.

Understanding alcohol use disorders and their treatment

People with alcohol use disorders drink to excess, endangering both themselves and others. This question-and-answer fact sheet explains alcohol problems and how psychologists can help people recover.

• Substance Use, Abuse, and Addiction

For many people, drinking alcohol is nothing more than a pleasant way to relax. People with alcohol use disorders, however, drink to excess, endangering both themselves and others. This question-and-answer fact sheet explains alcohol problems and how psychologists can help people recover.

When does drinking become a problem?

For most adults, moderate alcohol use — no more than two drinks a day for men and one for women and older people — is relatively harmless. (A "drink" means 1.5 ounces of spirits, 5 ounces of wine, or 12 ounces of beer, all of which contain 0.5 ounces of alcohol.

Moderate use, however, lies at one end of a range that moves through alcohol abuse to alcohol dependence:

Alcohol abuse is a drinking pattern that results in significant and recurrent adverse consequences. Alcohol abusers may fail to fulfill major school, work, or family obligations. They may have drinking-related legal problems, such as repeated arrests for driving while intoxicated. They may have relationship problems related to their drinking.

People with alcoholism — technically known as alcohol dependence — have lost reliable control of their alcohol use. It doesn't matter what kind of alcohol someone drinks or even how much: Alcohol-dependent people are often unable to stop drinking once they start. Alcohol dependence is characterized by tolerance (the need to drink more to achieve the same "high") and withdrawal symptoms if drinking is suddenly stopped. Withdrawal symptoms may include nausea, sweating, restlessness, irritability, tremors, hallucinations and convulsions.

Although severe alcohol problems get the most public attention, even mild to moderate problems cause substantial damage to individuals, their families and the community.

According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) , 6.2 percent of adults in the United States aged 18 and older had alcohol use disorder. 1 For example, a government survey revealed that about one in five individuals aged 12 to 20 were current alcohol users and about two in five young adults, aged 18 to 25, were binge alcohol users and about one in 10 were heavy alcohol users. 2

What causes alcohol-related disorders?

Problem drinking has multiple causes, with genetic, physiological, psychological,and social factors all playing a role. Not every individual is equally affected by each cause. For some alcohol abusers, psychological traits such as impulsiveness, low self-esteem and a need for approval prompt inappropriate drinking. Some individuals drink to cope with or "medicate" emotional problems. Social and environmental factors such as peer pressure and the easy availability of alcohol can play key roles. Poverty and physical or sexual abuse also increase the odds of developing alcohol dependence.

Genetic factors make some people especially vulnerable to alcohol dependence. Contrary to myth, being able to "hold your liquor" means you're probably more at risk — not less — for alcohol problems. Yet a family history of alcohol problems doesn't mean that children will automatically grow up to have the same problems. Nor does the absence of family drinking problems necessarily protect children from developing these problems.

Once people begin drinking excessively, the problem can perpetuate itself. Heavy drinking can cause physiological changes that make more drinking the only way to avoid discomfort. Individuals with alcohol dependence may drink partly to reduce or avoid withdrawal symptoms.

How do alcohol use disorders affect people?

While some research suggests that small amounts of alcohol may have beneficial cardiovascular effects, there is widespread agreement that heavier drinking can lead to health problems.

Short-term effects include memory loss, hangovers, and blackouts. Long-term problems associated with heavy drinking include stomach ailments, heart problems, cancer, brain damage, serious memory loss and liver cirrhosis. Heavy drinkers also markedly increase their chances of dying from automobile accidents, homicide, and suicide. Although men are much more likely than women to develop alcoholism, women's health suffers more, even at lower levels of consumption.

Drinking problems also have a very negative impact on mental health. Alcohol abuse and alcoholism can worsen existing conditions such as depression or induce new problems such as serious memory loss, depression or anxiety.

Alcohol problems don't just hurt the drinker. Spouses and children of heavy drinkers may face family violence; children may suffer physical and sexual abuse and neglect and develop psychological problems. Women who drink during pregnancy run a serious risk of damaging their fetuses. Relatives, friends and strangers can be injured or killed in alcohol-related accidents and assaults.

When should someone seek help?

Individuals often hide their drinking or deny they have a problem. How can you tell if you or someone you know is in trouble? Signs of a possible problem include having friends or relatives express concern, being annoyed when people criticize your drinking, feeling guilty about your drinking and thinking that you should cut down but finding yourself unable to do so, or needing a morning drink to steady your nerves or relieve a hangover.

Some people with drinking problems work hard to resolve them. With the support of family members or friends, these individuals are often able to recover on their own. However, those with alcohol dependence usually can't stop drinking through willpower alone. Many need outside help. They may need medically supervised detoxification to avoid potentially life-threatening withdrawal symptoms, such as seizures. Once people are stabilized, they may need help resolving psychological issues associated with problem drinking.

There are several approaches available for treating alcohol problems. No one approach is best for all individuals.

How can a psychologist help?

Psychologists who are trained and experienced in treating alcohol problems can be helpful in many ways. Before the drinker seeks assistance, a psychologist can guide the family or others in helping to increase the drinker's motivation to change.

A psychologist can begin with the drinker by assessing the types and degrees of problems the drinker has experienced. The results of the assessment can offer initial guidance to the drinker about what treatment to seek and help motivate the problem drinker to get treatment. Individuals with drinking problems improve their chances of recovery by seeking help early.

Using one or more of several types of psychological therapies, psychologists can help people address psychological issues involved in their problem drinking. A number of these therapies, including cognitive-behavioral coping skills treatment and motivational enhancement therapy, were developed by psychologists. Additional therapies include 12-Step facilitation approaches that assist those with drinking problems in using self-help programs such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA).

These therapies can help people boost their motivation to stop drinking, identify circumstances that trigger drinking, learn new methods to cope with high-risk drinking situations, and develop social support systems within their own communities.

All three of these therapies have demonstrated their effectiveness. One analysis  of cognitive-behavioral approaches, for instance, found that 58 percent of patients receiving cognitive-behavioral treatment fared better than those in comparison groups. 3 In another study , motivational interventions reduced how often and how much adolescents drank following alcohol-related emergency room treatment. 4 And an intervention called Making Alcoholics Anonymous Easier significantly increased participants' odds of abstaining from alcohol. 5 Many individuals with alcohol problems suffer from other mental health conditions, such as severe anxiety and depression, at the same time. Psychologists can also diagnose and treat these "co-occurring" psychological conditions. Further, a psychologist may play an important role in coordinating the services a drinker in treatment receives from various health professionals.

Psychologists can also provide marital, family, and group therapies, which often are helpful for repairing interpersonal relationships and for resolving problem drinking over the long term. Family relationships influence drinking behavior, and these relationships often change during an individual's recovery. The psychologist can help the drinker and significant others navigate these complex transitions, help families understand problem drinking and learn how to support family members in recovery, and refer family members to self-help groups such as Al-Anon and Alateen.

Because a person may experience one or more relapses and return to problem drinking, it can be crucial to have a trusted psychologist or other health professional with whom that person can discuss and learn from these events. If the drinker is unable to resolve alcohol problems fully, a psychologist can help with reducing alcohol use and minimizing problems.

Psychologists can also provide referrals to self-help groups. Even after formal treatment ends, many people seek additional support through continued involvement in such groups.

Alcohol-related disorders severely impair functioning and health. But the prospects for successful long-term problem resolution are good for people who seek help from appropriate sources.

The American Psychological Association gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Peter E. Nathan, PhD, John Wallace, PhD, Joan Zweben, PhD, and A. Thomas Horvath, PhD, in developing this fact sheet . 

1 National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (2018). "Alcohol Use Disorder."

2 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2017). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. SMA 17-5044, NSDUH Series H-52). Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/data/

3 Magill, M., & Ray, L.A. (2009). "Cognitive-behavioral treatment with adult alcohol and illicit drug users: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials." Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 70 (4): 516-527.

4 Spirito, A., Sindelar-Manning, H., Colby, S.M., Barnett, N.P., Lewander, W., Rohsenow, D.J., & et al. (2011). "Individual and family motivational interventions for alcohol-positive adolescents treated in an emergency department." Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 165 (3): 269-274.

5 Kaskutas, L.A., Subbaraman, M.S., Witbrodt, J., & Zemore, S.E. (2009). "Effectiveness of Making Alcoholics Anonymous Easier: A group format 12-step facilitation approach." Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 37 (3): 228-239.

Updated Sept. 2018

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Why alcohol-use research is more important than ever

Nih's george koob talks about how addiction changes the brain and the rise in alcohol-related deaths.

Alcohol use disorder is a common but serious condition that affects how the brain functions.

  George Koob, Ph.D.

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) affects roughly 15 million people in the U.S. People with the condition may drink in ways that are compulsive and uncontrollable, leading to serious health issues.

"It's the addiction that everyone knows about, but no one wants to talk about," says George Koob, Ph.D., the director of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA).

As NIAAA celebrates an important milestone this year—its 50th anniversary—the institute's research is more important than ever. Like NIAAA reported earlier this year, alcohol-related health complications and deaths as a result of short-term and long-term alcohol misuse are rising in the U.S.

"Alcohol-related harms are increasing at multiple levels—from emergency department visits and hospitalizations to deaths," Dr. Koob says. He spoke about NIAAA efforts that are working to address this and how people can get help.

What has your own research focused on?

I started my career researching the science of emotion: how the brain processes things like reward and stress. Later, I translated this to alcohol and drug addiction and investigating why some people go from use to misuse to addiction, while others do not.

What are some major breakthroughs NIAAA has made in this area?

We now understand how alcohol affects the brain and why it causes symptoms of AUD . This has far-reaching implications for everything from prevention to treatment. We also understand today that AUD physically changes the brain. This has been critical in treating it as a mental disorder, like you would treat major depressive disorder.

Other breakthroughs have been made in screening and intervention, and in the medications available for treatment. All of this has led to a better understanding of how the body changes when one misuses alcohol and the proactive actions we can take to prevent alcohol misuse.

What is a misconception that people have about AUD?

Many people don't realize how common AUD is. There are seven times more people affected by AUD than opioid use disorder, for example. It doesn't discriminate against who it affects. People also don't realize that AUD is a brain disorder that actually changes how the brain functions. Severe AUD is associated with widespread injury to the brain, though some of the effects might be partially reversible.

What's next for NIAAA?

For five decades, the institute has studied how alcohol affects our health, bringing greater awareness to alcohol-related health issues and providing better options for diagnosis and treatment. Recent research has focused on areas such as the genetics of addiction, links between excessive alcohol use and mental health and other disorders, harm to long-term brain health that can be caused by adolescent alcohol use, and the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure, among others.

"We want everyone from pharmacists and nurses to addiction medicine specialists to know more about alcohol and addiction." - George Koob, Ph.D.

Currently, we are working on a number of initiatives. One is education. We want everyone from pharmacists and nurses to addiction medicine specialists to know more about alcohol and addiction. We're also working on prevention resources for middle school-aged adolescents. Other goals include understanding recovery and what treatments work best for people and why. We're also learning more about alcohol's effects on sleep and pain, and we have ongoing efforts in medication development.

Finally, we're learning more about the impact of alcohol on women and older adults. Women have begun to catch up to men in alcohol consumption and alcohol-related harms. Women are more susceptible to some of the negative effects that alcohol has on the body, from liver disease to certain cancers. Further, more older adults are binge drinking and this places them at greater risk of alcohol-medication interactions, falls, and health problems related to alcohol misuse.

How can someone get help?

If alcohol is negatively affecting you or someone you know, seek help from someone you respect. For example, a primary care doctor or clergy member. There are a number of online resources from NIAAA, like the NIAAA Alcohol Treatment Navigator® , an online resource to help people understand AUD treatment options and search for professionally led, evidence-based alcohol treatment nearby. There's also Rethinking Drinking SM , an interactive website to help individuals assess and change their drinking habits. Also, know that there is hope. Many people recover from AUD and lead vibrant lives.

July 16, 2020

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Comprehensive review identifies three key concepts for recovery from substance use disorders

by Research Society on Alcoholism

Certain concepts have a demonstrated basis for aiding recovery from dangerous alcohol or substance use, according to an analysis of scientific literature since 1990. Self-efficacy (a belief in one's ability to achieve a goal), social support, and managing cravings are among the treatment elements best supported by evidence.

Effective treatment for alcohol use disorder (AUD) and other substance use disorders (SUDs) depends on understanding how human behaviors change and incorporating that knowledge into clinical practice . An ongoing research effort continues to investigate varying treatment approaches and how they relate to recovery outcomes, but those findings have not been well synthesized into a useful format.

For the new review published in Alcohol: Clinical & Experimental Research , researchers from around the U.S. reviewed published studies, identified the treatment elements best supported by data, and evaluated their potential as key factors in behavior change. The researchers drew on existing study design criteria for validating conclusions about treatment elements.

The researchers explored reviews of studies published between 2008 and 2023 involving AUD and SUD treatments and the effects on substance use and related outcomes in adults. Three constructs involved in treatment were the most well-supported by data from 11 studies: self-efficacy, social support, and craving (coping skills, also well-supported, did not suit the current review process).

They then reviewed 48 studies published between 1990 and 2023 that focused on one or more of these three concepts in adults' recovery, and that met rigorous methodology standards. The 48 studies used varied research designs, participant samples, and contexts.

The analyzed studies provided support for self-efficacy, social support, and craving as factors that likely influence people's behaviors in treatment or recovery. The researchers called for these three constructs to be incorporated into AUD and SUD treatment and clinical training.

Such an approach could improve recovery interventions, inform new treatments and clinical training , help clinicians align patients with approaches likely to work for them, and hone community-based recovery programs.

The researchers called for additional research on how these three concepts drive behavior change and for mining existing science to identify other evidence-based approaches. They recommended several directions for future research. These included expanding the examined outcomes to other manifestations of mental and physical health and experimenting with key elements of treatment to generate direct evidence of associations between those constructs and outcomes.

Investigating the roles of context (such as policies, incentives, social norms , and settings) and combinations of influences could improve outcomes across varied real-world situations. Specifying how behavioral change occurs—such as the relevant neurological and biological pathways—is a critical gap that needs to be addressed.

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• Alcohol and the Causes of Student Binge Drinking
• How Alcohol May Affect Human Behaviour
• Drug and Alcohol Use by Student-Athletes
• Drug Abuse and Alcohol-Related Crimes in Adolescents The current paper focuses on the topic of drug abuse and alcohol-related crimes among teenagers, showing that substances remain the most notable factor in juvenile crime.
• Overconsumption of Alcohol by a Customer The paper discusses who should be held accountable for the accidents resulting from overconsumption of alcohol by a customer served at a club, bar, or restaurant.
• Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders and Alcohol Consumption The paper states that fetal alcohol spectrum disorders have severe implications for the well-being and health of individuals in all stages of their lives.
• Effects of Parent-Based Teaching of Alcohol Use The approach significantly impacts the struggle to prevent alcohol abuse but requires being informed on the appropriate mechanisms to employ.
• Alcohol in the Drugs and Behavior Context It is no secret that alcohol and human health are incompatible things. The most significant influence of alcohol falls on the cerebral cortex.
• Alcohol and Drug Foundation’s Public Relations The campaign conducted by Alcohol and Drug Foundation is a vivid example of how the theories and practices of PR can help alter people’s behavior.
• Drugs and Behavior: History of Alcohol in America The ordinary colonial American drank roughly twice as much alcohol in 1770 as it does today—about three and a half gallons annually.
• ”US Wooed Alcohol Industry…” Rabin’s Article The article discusses the issue of conducting scientific research aimed at justifying moderate drinking and its benefits for health.
• Alcohol: The Legal Drinking Age There is no significant harm in making the legal drinking age 18. The punishment that those under 21 individuals face when caught taking alcohol affects their daily lives.
• Socialization and Causes of Alcohol Consumption The process of socialization is indispensable for integrating into society, realizing and understanding self-identity, and finding one’s place in modernity.
• Alcoholism: Medical & Philosophical Dimensions The news article considered in the paper is devoted to the changes on the way to which modern medicine is ethical in its aspirations.
• Parental Alcohol Abuse as a Family Issue Parental alcohol abuse is a serious problem in the community that impacts not only one individual but spreads to different social units.
• Alcohol Use Amongst Hispanic College Apprentices The results showed that less assimilated Hispanic percent of boys in the buffer zone could be at greater risk of alcohol addiction than Hispanic masculine apprentices.
• Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder and Care Planning Tyler has had Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder since he was born while his mum was an alcoholic addict while pregnant.
• Statistical Study of Alcoholism Among Students This research paper investigates the relationship between workday alcohol consumption and several characteristics of students’ social, economic, and academic status.
• Alcohol Addiction and Its Effects on the Body and Specific Organs The more an individual use alcohol to cope with pain and adversity, the more the body adapts to it and becomes dependent on its effects.
• Teen Alcohol Consumption Reduction Plan in Long Island Alcohol consumption in adolescence is associated with a high risk of developing suicidal tendencies, unwanted pregnancy, and drug use.
• The Alcoholics Anonymous Group Meeting Open and closed psychological support groups have at all times been an essential mechanism of maintaining a mentally healthy society.
• The 12-Step Alcoholics Anonymous Meeting’s Purpose and Stories Meetings consist of the opportunity to be heard without condemnation, and to learn from the experience of people who abstain from drinking alcohol for a while.
• COVID-19 Epidemic and Alcohol and Drug Addiction The sudden life changes during the COVID-19 epidemic make it difficult for people who suffer from alcohol and drug dependence to fight their addictions.
• Adolescent Addiction and Behavioral-Based Alcoholism Addiction to substances can be difficult to comprehend because, despite the progressively unfavorable consequences, addicted people take drugs and alcohol obsessively.
• Pandemic’s Impact on Mental Health & Substance and Alcohol Abuse While substance use disorder can impose mental health challenges on those who consume drugs, COVID-19 affects the psychology of all humankind.
• Planned Change Process in Alcohol Addiction A social worker at a high school in a midwestern state should work with four teenagers who were suspended for two weeks for drinking alcoholic beverages at school.
• Alcohol Abuse and Self-Management Program The main self-management program for a high school student with alcohol addiction is to set long-term and intermediate goals, and the development of a reward system.
• Meaning of Alcoholics Anonymous The paper discusses Alcoholics Anonymous. It can be referred to as a fellowship of individuals who have decided to solve their drinking problem.
• Impaired Control, Impulsivity, and Alcohol Self-Administration Impaired control is a significant factor in the association between impulsiveness and alcohol consumption in both non-dependent and dependent drinkers.
• Alcohol Abuse: Causes and Solutions Alcohol abuse remains one of the key healthcare concerns around the globe, not least because addicts do not purely injure their own health.
• Alcoholic Yeast Fermentation and Optimal Conditions This laboratory report examines the dependence of bioethanol production on temperature, pH, stirring, and gas composition.
• Health Professionals’ Perceptions of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder Infants with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) symptoms tend to have psychological or physiological deviations.
• Responsibility and Brand Advertising in the Alcoholic Beverage Market The article indicates that the brand advertisements highlight alcohol consumption as socially acceptable, while media advocacy campaigns focus on the role of manufacturers.
• National Association for Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Counselors This paper will consider the fourth principle of the organization’s ethical code, which reads: “Working in a culturally diverse world.”
• Causes and Consequences of Alcohol and Drug Addiction Drug addiction is a psychological and physical disorder that affects the brain of an individual. It is caused by dependence on drugs, alcohol, and specific behaviors.
• Evaluation Using GAS: Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome Quitting alcoholism is not easy, but it can happen with a well-designed strategy and commitment from both the patient and the interventionist.
• Interaction of the Pharmaceuticals with Alcohol Intake It is important to establish the key value of healthy living based on the interaction with the pharmaceuticals and alcohol intake to avoid developing a dependency on the elements
• The Negative Effects of Drinking Alcohol While Pregnant The paper outlines the domains of child development and the negative effects of alcohol on the fetus, discusses the physical and mental impact of fetal alcohol on an individual.
• Alcoholics Anonymous Organization’s Role and Functions Alcoholics Anonymous unites millions of people. These individuals are alcohol addicts, and they cannot remove this substance from their lives.
• Alcohol Oxidation to Aldehydes and Ketones Alcohol oxidation is vital during the synthesis of organic compounds, only bleach can directly oxidize some alcohols to carboxylic acids, ketones, or aldehydes.
• Drug and Alcohol Addiction Treatment Program Successful addiction treatment is comprised of three aspects, constructing the addiction treatment: body, mind, and soul.
• Alcohol Use Disorder and Borderline Personality Disorder: The Case Study Thomas demonstrates at least four symptoms of alcohol use disorder and probably has borderline personality disorder, which prevents him from building long-term relationships.
• Reflections on Alcoholic Anonymous Meeting Alcoholics Anonymous is a nonprofessional and apolitical community that gathers members having problems with alcohol consumption worldwide and supplies them with mutual aid.
• Alcohol Consumption and the Effects
• Drinking Motives and Alcohol Consumption
• How Does Alcohol Consumption Affect Social Attention
• Drug and Alcohol Use Among Adolescents
• Drinking Culture and Alcohol Consumption
• Alcohol Dependency and Its Effects on the Community
• Alcohol Advertisements and College Student Binge Drinking
• Alcohol and Native American Experience
• Alcohol Consumption and Maturity
• College Students and Alcohol Abuse
• Alcohol and the Central Nervous System
• How Alcohol Abuse Affects Aging People
• Alcohol Availability and Violence
• Alcohol Beverage Advertising Should Be Restricted
• How Alcohol Abuse Has Become Part of the Culture in Many Societies
• How Alcohol Causes Mental and Moral Changes
• Alcohol Consumption and Risky Sexual Behaviors
• Alcohol and the Destruction of Families
• Drugs and Alcohol Mask the Pain
• Alcohol Consumption During Pregnancy and Low Birth Weight
• Education Level and HIV Transmission Among Alcoholics in California This research highlights the objective elements and statistical information regarding the relationship between education level and HIV transmission among alcoholics in California.
• Alcohol and Other Drug Use Among the Aboriginal and Torres Islander People The paper evaluates the patterns of alcohol and other drug usage among the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, and drug-related harms.
• The Effect of Prohibition Alcohol and Drug Use Although Prohibition reduced consumption in the initial period, it does not imply that it realized success; neither did it make the community better.
• Researching of Pregnancy and Alcohol Abuse In order to address the issue of alcohol abuse during pregnancy, the interprofessional team should consider the current trends and recommendations on maternal alcohol consumption
• Alcohol Dependence as a Physical Dependence The paper aims at displaying an aspect of physical alcohol dependence, where alcohol dependence is shown in hardship-related issues in life.
• Substance and Alcohol Misuse among Adolescents Substance and alcohol misuse among adolescents is a considerable bother for the US healthcare system since adolescence is commonly known as a time for experimentation.
• Yeast Alcohol Dehydrogenase Structure Yeast alcohol dehydrogenase refers to a group of enzymes that are found in yeast and have a widespread application in the beer and wine industry where they facilitate the process of fermentation.
• Substance Abuse: Alcohol and Drugs in the Movie “Ray” The movie “Ray” by Taylor Hackford. In “Ray,” the issue of substance abuse helps understand the problems that a person faces when dealing with addiction.
• Alcoholism in Older Adults in America Based on the social, economic, and health problems of alcoholism, it is pertinent to adopt effective ways of minimizing its incidence in society.
• The American Alcohol Problem Studies have shown that, alcohol abuse leads to health complications whereby; the abusers develop digestive, psychological, mental and physical problems.
• Alcohol Addiction: Assessing and Diagnosing the Client This paper considers the case of a 38-year-old welder, who has an alcohol addiction problem: the problem is assessed, diagnosed, and ways in which he can be helped are identified.
• Interpersonal Psychotherapy and Alcohol Addiction Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a highly adaptable approach to treating an array of disorders, and it has been used to address the needs of various patient groups.
• The Problem of Alcohol Addiction in Russia Russia now acknowledges alcohol addiction as a problem. The health impact of alcohol in Russia is most notable in its contribution to mortality through cardiovascular diseases.
• Impact of Alcohol Abuse on Breast Cancer Risk in Women This paper will examine the effects of alcohol abuse on the development of breast cancer in women to uncover its devastating consequences.
• Defining The Harm of Alcoholism Disease The paper aims to provide a report on the disease of alcoholism based on Čuček Trifkovič’s paper, followed by a comparison with three other studies.
• Alcohol Consumption: Negative Impacts This essay cross-examines the outcomes of alcohol consumption. The paper achieves its objective through carrying out research with specific methodology.
• Alcohol Abuse as It Pertains to High Risk Families The main objections of the promotion and prevention program are to ensure reduced substance abuse among young people to protect their health.
• Alcohol and Its Effects on Domestic Violence Alcohol was invented as a beverage drink just like the others, such as soda and juice. Of late, alcohol has been abused because people are consuming it excessively.
• Biopsychologic Model of Alcohol Consumption This work is devoted to alcohol dependence: the possible causes of occurrence, health risks, as well as the most effective methods of treatment are considered.
• Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) are the spectrum of conditions caused by parental alcohol use during pregnancy that affects the world population’s health
• The Effects of Alcohol on Human Body and Mental State “Drinking: A Love Story” is the story about the relationship between a human and alcohol, the transformation of a person as an addict, and their way to sobriety.
• Dealing With Alcohol Abuse in Adolescents This research evaluates how the public can be incorporated in developing effective interventions aimed at dealing with alcohol abuse and binge drinking among youth.
• Alcohol Dependence in Modern Women Alcohol dependence has become a serious problem in modern women. It is explained by changing social roles, numerous responsibilities, and dissatisfaction with life.
• Exposure to Low Levels of Alcohol During Pregnancy There are no solid reasons for the mother to drink alcohol during pregnancy, and, as the safe dose is hard to establish.
• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) Among Pregnant Women Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is a severe disease that has dangerous affects on the fetus and on a born child. The abnormal features of this syndrome accompany a man throughout the life span.
• Paternal Exposure: Alcohol and Offspring Development The experiments related to the influence of fathers’ alcoholism on the development of their children allowed to conclude on the presence of several developmental disorders.
• Developments in Global Tobacco and Alcohol Policy WHO reports that about 8 million people die from smoking every year. Tobacco is a major cause of the emergence and development of multiple complications such as cancer, heart disease.
• Alcohol Negative Effects on Vital Parts of Human Body The paper discusses alcohol abuse. Although alcohol seems harmless to many people, it has a significant negative effect on various vital parts of the human body.
• The Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is a severe disease that has dangerous affects on the fetus and on a born child.
• Hispanic Community: Alcohol & Substance Abuse Among the Female Gender Population This study will focus on alcohol and substance abuse among the female gender population proportion (12-20 years and 25-45 years) in the Hispanic community in California.
• Overcoming Chronic Alcoholism by Patients This work describes the problem of alcoholism, its stages and main symptoms, problems of diagnosis, psychological and physical treatment.
• Article Critique about Alcohol & Society The research efforts of recent years aimed to shed light on the interconnection between alcohol outcomes and socioeconomic factors.
• Alcohol and Depression Article by Churchill and Farrell The selected article for this discussion is “Alcohol and Depression: Evidence From the 2014 Health Survey for England” by Sefa Awaworyi Churchill and Lisa Farrell.
• Drug and Alcohol Abuse in Organizations The purpose of this paper is to analyze the impact of drugs and alcohol on the behavior of the employees and the relationships between business owners and their subordinates.
• Problem Drinking Treatments: A Comparison of Alcoholics Anonymous and Moderation Management This paper will contrast and compare Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Moderation Management (MM) and the programs that they offer.
• Support Services and the Case Review: Drug and Alcohol Addiction The article presents a plan to help a 39-year-old patient living in Palm Beach treat his alcohol and drug addiction.
• College Experience and Alcohol Consumption Alcohol use is related to a high number of health problems in the United States. Current statistics show that more than 80% of college students drank on one or more occasions.
• Alcohol and Drug Abuse in the Workplace Alcohol and drug abuse is one of the major causes of accidents in the workplace. Random alcohol and drug tests would discourage employees of organization from abusing alcohol or drugs.
• The Money Factor in Drug and Alcohol Treatment A vast number of individuals fail to take up drug treatment because they are unable to raise the money that is required to enroll in such a program.
• Formation of the Alcoholics Anonymous Association Alcoholics Anonymous is an association of different people recuperating from alcoholism who come together to contribute their experiences about alcoholism and its effects.
• Banning Alcohol From Mainstream Consumption
• Alcohol-Related Crimes, How Do We Tackle It
• Alcohol Disadvantages Examples
• Alcohol Use for Disease Control and Prevention
• Alcohol and Its Effects on Social Behavior
• Alcohol Benefits and Demerits
• Alcohol Consumption Among First Time Mothers
• Illegal Alcohol Sale and Consumption
• Alcohol and Its Effect on Society
• Alcohol: The World’s Favorite Drug
• Alcohol Abuse Among College Students at University of South Carolina
• How Alcohol Affects the Brain’s Size
• Alcohol Treatment Save Your Life
• Alcohol and Its Effects on Psychological and Physical Levels
• How Alcohol Affects the Internal Organs
• Alcohol Consumption and the Risk of Dementia
• Alcohol and Its Physiological Effects
• Alcohol and Teenagers Alcoholic Beverage
• Why Should Not Reduce Alcohol Not A Concern For Authorities?
• Alcohol Consumption Among College Students
• Global Trends Affecting a Local Drug and Alcohol Rehab Centers Drug abuse is one of the greatest problems affecting the world today. Rehabilitation centers have been the best institutions in transforming the lives of drug addicts.
• Alcoholism: Causes, Symptoms and Negative Effects Alcohol abuse and alcoholism are associated with a broad range of medical, psychiatric, social, legal, occupational, economic, and family problems.
• The Problem of Teenage Alcoholism The problem of drinking alcohol among teens is an epidemic towards which they spend nearly 5.5 billion dollars a year.
• Alcoholic Parents’ Effect on Adult Children While effects of being raised by alcoholics in adult children may vary, fear of failure, desire to control, and developing compulsive behaviors are prevalent characteristics.
• Alcohol Abuse Among Students: Reforming College Drinking A large number of works are devoted to the problem of alcohol abuse among students. One of them is Drinking in College: Rethinking a Social Problem by George Dowdall.
• Alcohol Addiction and Its Adverse Effects on the Victim and Family Alcoholism is known to have numerous adverse effects. Alcoholics have wives, husbands, children and other close relatives who are mindful of their welfare.
• Personal Issues: Marriage, Obesity, and Alcohol Abuse The actions of every person have a particular impact on society and its development, and this impact is sometimes underestimated.
• Anti-Drugs, Alcohol and Tobacco Education Programs Many teachers understand that drugs and alcohol use among students is the major reason why many students do not accomplish their educational goals.
• Human Brain. Alcohol Effects on Frontal Lobe Impairment In this paper, various ways of influence of alcohol abuse on frontal lobe impairments are considered with special emphasis on direct frontal lobe impairments.
• Alcoholism and Its Effects: Beyond the Influence In the book “Beyond the Influence”, Ketcham et al. present their proof that the disease of alcoholism is a physiological disease rather than a psychological disorder.
• Alcoholics’ Rights for Organ Transplantation This essay seeks to answer the question as to whether it makes medical and ethical sense to accept organ transplantation within a family.
• Alcohol Cessation in Pregnancy The problem of alcohol use during pregnancy attracts the attention of different researchers. The paper offers evidence-based concepts for promoting alcohol cessation.
• Applied Ethics: Moral Standards of Alcoholic Parents The work aims to discuss the topic of ethics, the moral values which people are supposed to follow, considering the case of Mary, whose parents are alcoholics.
• The Café Bar’s Employee Relations: Illegal Substance and Alcohol Use The Café Bar is committed to offering and preserving a secure and prolific work atmosphere, liberated from the unfavorable consequences of drugs and alcohol.
• Alcohol Addiction Group Manual The present manual offers key information about the formation of a psychotherapeutic group that is focused on addressing the problem of alcohol addiction.
• The Importance of Religion in Understanding the History of Alcohol Although it emerged in specific ancient civilizations, the alcoholic drink gained a unique religious significance from the Ancient Period to the Middle Ages.
• Genetic Predisposition to Alcohol Dependence and Alcohol-Related Diseases The subject of genetics in alcohol dependence deserves additional research in order to provide accurate results.
• Temperament of Children in Alcoholic Families There are many factors that destabilize family relationships, and one of the most devastating problems is the alcohol addiction of one or both parents.
• Alcohol and Its Major Behavioral Effects Alcohol is most widely known for its effects on behavior, for which reason it is currently used as a legal recreational drug.
• Alcohol Abuse: the Economist Approach To an economist, the problem of alcohol abuse is viewed as an externality in both consumption and production. The value to consumers is greater than the value to society.
• Personality Versus Alcohol This dissertation examines the influences of alcohol on personality through a multidimensional study of numerous studies and experiments performed by scientists around the world.
• Alcohol Abuse’ Treatment Among the Elderly This research focuses on finding the best treatment for the problem of alcohol abuse among the elderly as it may pose serious health problems.
• Drug and Alcohol Abuse Treatment Effectiveness The production and consumption of drugs is a core challenge in the modern world. It is the reason why there is an increased need for treatment of people affected by drug addiction.
• The Treatment of Alcohol Abuse among the Elderly Alcohol abuse among the elderly is an issue that has raised concern among medical practitioners and society in general.
• Alcohol Advertisement and Its Impact on Consumption There is a need for restrictions in alcohol advertisements so that the vulnerable youth can be salvaged from underage drinking that risk interfering with their health and career life.
• “Adolescent Alcoholism and Drug Addiction” by Choate The article “Adolescent alcoholism and drug addiction: The experience of parents” revolves around the issue of drug addiction among teenagers and its effects on their families.
• Alcohol Consumption in Children and Public Health Alcohol has long been a big concern for public health, especially its use by children. It negatively influences many aspects of life: health, education, and social relationships.
• Twelve-Step Programs: Alcoholics Anonymous This paper provides an overview of the most effective Twelve-Step Programs in the USA and a more detailed description of an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting.
• Teratogenic Effects of Alcohol and Smoking The teratogen is an umbrella term for substances that can have adverse effects on an embryo. In the situation, a girl continues drinking alcohol and smoking cigarettes despite being pregnant.
• Alcohol Intervention in the Primary Care Setting The paper will discuss and analyze scholarly research on the topic of alcohol intervention to analyze patient outcomes in the primary care setting.
• Miami-Dade Community Needs: Alcohol and Drug Addiction Miami-Dade is one of the counties in the state of Florida. The health needs of the people living in this county are supported using different initiatives and programs.
• Alcohol Culture World History Alcohol consumption is a rather widespread phenomenon, as the culture of liquor drinking exists in nearly every state of the world.
• Problem of the Alcohol Addiction in Modern Families The increasing cases of alcoholism, also known as addiction, have led to a rising concern and a research on its challenges and remedies.
• Manitoba Mothers and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Singal et al. focuse on a rather important problem of maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy resulted in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in children.
• The Price Role in Alcohol and Cigarettes Consumption This essay is a presentation concerning the facts about price elasticity of demand and the key issues that relate to it. It determine, whether binge drinking is common among college students.
• The Power of Alcohol: Human Inability to Control Demands Alcohol is one of the most dangerous drinks which are available for people. Alcohol has a variety of face, and people cannot even guess how they can be dependent on alcohol.
• Sociology: “Alcoholics Anonymous” by Bill Wilson The book “Alcoholics Anonymous” gives a detailed analysis of the health challenges and decisions made by Bill Wilson. The narrator struggled with alcoholism for many years.
• Substance Abusers Alcoholics – Psychology Alcoholics suffer from a distinct physical yearning to take alcohol past their capability to manage it, irrespective of every law of common sense.
• Sociology: Prevention of Alcohol and Drug Problem Drug prevention program is the process that devotes its efforts towards limiting the use of psychoactive substances and the development of associated problems.
• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome The research study conducted by Mcgee indicated that the tendency towards being passive was more pronounced in children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome than their peers.
• Alcohol Misuse in Teenagers: New Means to Address the Issue Despite the efforts of healthcare specialists, over the past few years, the rates of alcohol consumption in youth have grown impressively.
• Which Drug Is More Effective in the Treatment of Alcohol Withdrawal?
• How Alcohol Affects the Human Body?
• How Does Alcohol Makes You Drunk?
• Should Alcohol and Tobacco Advertisement Be Banned?
• Should the Alcohol Drinking Age Be Decreased?
• Should the Government Attempt to Reduce Current Levels of Alcohol Consumption?
• What Are the Positive and Negative Effects of Alcohol?
• What Effect Does Alcohol Have on a Person’s Health and Life Expectancy?
• Why Shouldn’t Teenagers Drink Alcohol?
• How Does Alcohol Affect the Brain?
• How Does Drugs and Alcohol Affect Teenage Brain Development?
• Why Alcohol Should Not Be Legal?
• How Much Alcohol Is Ok per Day?
• What Happens When You Drink Alcohol Every Day?
• What Is the Healthiest Alcohol?
• What Alcohol Is Considered Heavy Drinking?
• How Long Does Alcohol Stay In Your System?
• What Are the Benefits of Drinking Alcohol?
• What Is the Least Harmful Alcohol to Drink?
• Which Alcohol Is Lowest in Sugar?
• Which Alcohol Is Healthier: Vodka or Whiskey?
• How Much Alcohol Do Alcoholics Drink?
• Does Alcohol Change Your Body Shape?
• Does Alcohol Raise Blood Pressure?
• Does Alcohol Help You Sleep?
• What Are the Steps in Alcohol Production?
• How Is Alcohol Made Industrially?
• Which Material Is Used for Production of Alcohol?
• How Alcohol Is Produced by Fermentation?
• Which Enzymes Are Necessary for Alcohol Production?

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StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 257 Alcohol Essay Topics & Research Titles for Students. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/alcohol-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "257 Alcohol Essay Topics & Research Titles for Students." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/alcohol-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "257 Alcohol Essay Topics & Research Titles for Students." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/alcohol-essay-topics/.

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Alcohol Use and Related Problems Among College Students and Their Noncollege Peers: The Competing Roles of Personality and Peer Influence *

Although alcohol use and related problems are highly prevalent in emerging adulthood overall, college students drink somewhat more than do their peers who do not attend college. The personal or social influences underlying this difference, however, are not yet well understood. The present study examined whether personality traits (i.e., self-regulation and sensation seeking) and peer influence (i.e., descriptive drinking norms) contributed to student status differences.

At approximately age 22, 4-year college students ( n = 331) and noncollege emerging adults (n = 502) completed web-based surveys, including measures of alcohol use, alcohol-related problems, personality, and social norms.

College students drank only slightly more heavily. This small difference, however, reflected personality suppression. College students were lower in trait-based risk for drinking, and accounting for traits revealed a stronger positive association between attending college and drinking more heavily. Although noncollege emerging adults reported greater descriptive drinking norms for social group members, norms appeared to more strongly influence alcohol use among college students. Finally, despite drinking less, noncollege individuals experienced more alcohol-related problems.

Conclusions:

The association between attending college and drinking heavily may be larger than previously estimated, and it may be masked by biased selection into college as a function of both self-regulation and sensation seeking. Differing patterns of alcohol use, its predictors, and its consequences emerged for the college and noncollege samples, suggesting that differing intervention strategies may best meet the needs of each population.

A lcohol use increases in the transition out of high school ( Baer et al., 1995 ), rising to the highest levels across the life span during emerging adulthood (i.e., ages 18-25; Arnett, 2000 ). Twenty-five percent of graduating high school seniors engage in heavy episodic drinking (defined in this article as four or more drinks in a sitting for females, five or more for males), but that rate increases to 40% following graduation and remains stable through age 24 ( Bachman et al., 1997 ; Johnston et al., 2009a ). Furthermore, alcohol use is also highly clinically problematic during this period. Risk for the onset of alcohol dependence peaks at age 18 years ( Li et al., 2004 ). Moreover, alcohol use disorders are more prevalent among emerging and young adults than among any other age group. Approximately 9% of those ages 18-29 meet the criteria for alcohol dependence, more than twice the overall prevalence rate ( Grant et al., 2004 ). Research examining interplay among the many personal, environmental, and social-role contributors to drinking during this period is therefore crucial to understanding the etiology of problematic alcohol involvement and designing interventions. In the United States, roughly 60% of the population attends college after high school graduation ( Bianchi and Spain, 1996 ; Johnston et al., 2009b ), and the college environment is one potential contributor to elevated drinking rates ( Bachman et al., 1997 ).

Awareness among researchers and college administrators of the severity of collegiate drinking has increased over the past decade ( Task Force of the National Advisory Council on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2002 ). As a result, alcohol use and its consequences among college students are fairly well described in the literature. Roughly two in five students engage in heavy episodic drinking ( Wechsler et al., 1998 ). Alcohol use among college students resulted in more than 1,800 deaths and 500,000 unintentional injuries in 2005, and increases in mortality rates have outpaced the growth of the student population since 1998 ( Hingson et al., 2009 ).

Although drinking in the noncollege population has been less well studied, this group appears to drink less heavily relative to their college-attending peers. The Monitoring the Future project demonstrated that, despite drinking more during high school, individuals who do not attend college engage in less heavy episodic drinking during emerging adulthood ( Bachman et al., 1997 ; O'Malley and Johnston, 2002 ), and this trend has been replicated in both epidemiological samples ( Dawson et al., 2004 ; Slutske, 2005 ) and smaller scale studies ( White et al., 2006 ). The difference between the college student and noncollege populations appears relatively small; in the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions, the 12-month prevalence of heavy episodic drinking was 42.6% among college students and 38.1% among noncollege individuals ( Dawson et al., 2004 ). Indeed, in several studies, the student-status difference has failed to reach statistical significance ( Lanza and Collins, 2006 ; White et al., 2005 ). Additionally, there are conflicting findings regarding differences in the consequences of alcohol use (e.g., alcohol use disorders; Dawson et al., 2004 ; Slutske, 2005 ), and some evidence actually suggests that college students may experience fewer alcohol-related problems ( White et al., 2005 ). Although college students may drink more relative to their noncollege peers, this difference appears to be relatively small and may be limited to heavy episodic drinking.

Explaining college versus noncollege drinking differences

Although the association between attending college and engaging in heavy episodic drinking may be small, it affects a considerable segment of the population, and little is known about the contributing factors. Because students select (and are selected) into the college environment as a function of pre-college characteristics, one possibility is that personality differences help account for differences in rates of drinking. The available evidence, however, argues against this explanation. Low self-regulation (defined as the capacity for effortful control of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors) and high sensation seeking (defined as preference for novelty and risk) are among the strongest personality predictors of drinking ( Hittner and Swickert, 2006 ; Hustad et al., 2009 ; Quinn and Fromme, 2010 ; Wills and Stoolmiller, 2002 ). However, those higher in self-regulation and lower in sensation seeking may be more likely to select into college. Attending college is likely better suited to the goal orientation typical of those high in self-regulation ( Gollwitzer et al., 2004 ). Indeed, the “Big Five” personality dimension of conscientiousness, which includes self-regulation, is positively associated with years of education ( Borghans et al., 2008 ). Similarly, those low in sensation seeking may be more likely to tolerate or enjoy the lectures and readings expected of college students. Among adolescents, for example, low sensation seekers exhibit more positive attitudes toward academics ( Stephenson et al., 2003 ), and college students appear to be somewhat lower in sensation seeking ( White et al., 2006 ). Thus, college students should be, on average, at less risk for heavier drinking as a function of personality.

If personality risk factors for drinking are lower among college students, one might expect college students to drink less, and yet the reverse appears to be true. In fact, because students select into college based on lower sensation seeking and higher self-regulation, college/noncollege drinking differences might be partially masked by the unequal distribution of trait-based risk among students and their noncollege peers. That is, failing to take into account that noncollege individuals are at greater trait-level risk would result in an underestimation of the true positive association between attending college and drinking more heavily. This pattern of third-variable associations is referred to as statistical suppression ( MacKinnon et al., 2000 ), and it suggests that epidemiological estimates may actually fail to give appropriate weight to any influence of college attendance. Thus, the difference in alcohol use between college students and their noncollege peers may be larger than previously thought. Accounting for personality would permit a more accurate estimation of its magnitude, but, to our knowledge, no study has yet done so.

If individual differences do not explain why college students drink more heavily, student-status differences are likely a product of environmental influences. This explanation is supported by twin studies, which have found more prevalent heavy episodic drinking among college students relative to noncollege co-twins after accounting for genetic sources of similarity ( Slutske et al., 2004 ; Timberlake et al., 2007 ). One potential environmental factor is influence from perceived social norms ( Cialdini et al., 1990 ). Individuals develop beliefs about both the behaviors and the attitudes of their peers regarding alcohol use, and these beliefs—referred to as descriptive and injunctive social norms, respectively—have been heavily studied in college contexts. College students overestimate both descriptive and injunctive norms ( Borsari and Carey, 2003 ), and students who make larger descriptive-norm overestimations drink more heavily ( Baer et al., 1991 ; Neighbors et al., 2006 ; Read et al., 2005 ; Sher and Rutledge, 2007 ; Stappenbeck et al., 2010 ). Although descriptive norms may be among the strongest predictors of college student drinking ( Neighbors et al., 2007 ), less research has examined drinking norms outside the college environment. White and colleagues (2008) demonstrated that descriptive norms predict alcohol use among noncollege emerging adults, but we are aware of no studies testing their contribution to college/ noncollege differences.

We see two possible ways peer-group descriptive norms might influence student-status differences (cf. Luthar, 1993 ; Luthar et al., 2000 ). First, college students might perceive their peers as drinking more. That is, there could be a statistical main effect of college attendance on descriptive norms, which would then serve as a mediator between college status and heavier drinking. Second, given that the bulk of the literature on descriptive norms concerns college students, it is possible that norms are less influential among those who do not attend college. Relative to their peers in college, noncollege individuals attend parties less frequently and spend less time with members of their social group ( Bachman et al., 2002 ). College status could therefore moderate the relation between norms on drinking, with norms less strongly associated with drinking among those not attending college. A weaker influence of norms among noncollege individuals might help explain why college students drink more heavily.

Present study

In the current investigation, we compared rates of drinking among college students and their peers who do not attend college, and we examined the competing roles of personality and social influences in student-status differences. In particular, we tested whether the traits of self-regulation and sensation seeking masked the true magnitude of the association between attending college and drinking more heavily and whether social norms were a contributing factor. Additionally, given conflicting prior findings regarding differences in drinking consequences, we extended our comparisons to include alcohol-related problems. Specifically, this study addressed the following research questions: (a) Do college students drink more heavily relative to those who do not attend college? (b) Is the strength of the association between college attendance and heavier drinking suppressed by students' lower levels of personality risk factors, such as sensation seeking and low self-regulation? (c) Do descriptive drinking norms contribute to college/ noncollege drinking differences? and (d) Do college students experience more negative consequences as a result of their drinking?

Participants and procedures

College sample..

College students were recruited as part of a larger longitudinal study of alcohol use and other behavioral risks during the transition from high school through college. First-time students between ages 17 and 19 in the incoming class of 2004 at a large, public, southwestern university were invited to participate during the summer before college matriculation (N = 6,391; 95% of the incoming class). The 4,832 interested students (76% of those eligible) who met the final inclusion criterion of being unmarried were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: a biannual assessment condition (n = 3,046), a Year 1 and Year 4 assessment condition (n = 976), and a Year 4 assessment-only condition (n = 810).

Repeated assessment throughout the college years may affect reports of alcohol use (i.e., assessment reactivity), which could bias comparisons with nonreactive samples. The collegiate sample for the present study was therefore drawn from the Year 4-only condition. Following randomization, we attempted to maintain contact with these participants via birthday cards, and participants were encouraged to update their contact information via phone, email, or a secure website. Additionally, we received participants' addresses, phone numbers, and email addresses from university records bian-nually. For further information regarding participant recruitment, see Corbin and colleagues (2008) and Hatzenbuehler and colleagues (2008) .

In the fall of 2007, students randomized to the Year 4— only condition for whom we had current contact information were given access to a secure web server on which they were invited to provide informed consent and complete the Year 4 survey. Surveys were collected and stored by DatStat (Seattle, WA). After 3 years, 82% of the incoming class of 2004 at the university remained enrolled, with 4% having graduated and 14% having dropped out (Office of Information Management and Analysis, 2010). This represents relatively low undergraduate attrition relative to other public universities ( Martinez et al., 2008 ). Of the 810 students randomized to the Year 4-only condition in 2004, 421 provided consent and completed at least part of the Year 4 survey. Participants received $40 for completing the survey and were permitted to omit responses to individual items if they did not feel comfortable providing answers.

A subset of participants (79%) completed the measures included in the current study (final n = 331; 41% of the randomized sample). Relative to the n = 470 participants who were not included because of loss of contact, refusal to participate, or missing data, included participants generally did not differ on variables assessed at randomization, including age, ethnicity, high school class size and type (i.e., urban, suburban, or rural), and the frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption (ps > .07). Although 65% of included participants were female, 51% of those not included were female, χ 2 (1) = 16.43, p < .001. The included sample can, therefore, be considered largely representative of the randomized sample. The final college sample (53% White, 18% Asian American, 16% Hispanic or Latino, 6% African American, and 7% multiethnic or other ethnicities) was de-mographically similar to the undergraduate population, and the median reported family income during high school was $85,000 per year. At the Year 4 survey, the mean age was 21.70 years (SD = 0.36), and participants had completed an average of 111.36 course hours (SD = 21.23, range: 32–200).

Noncollege sample.

In the spring of 2008 (i.e., Year 4 of the college study), we began recruiting a comparison sample of high school graduates who were matched to the Year 4–only college sample on demographic variables (i.e., age, gender, and ethnicity) but who had completed five or fewer courses at a 4-year college or university. We additionally excluded any individuals who enrolled at a 4-year college or university in the year immediately following high school graduation. Because recruitment was on a rolling basis and began after the completion of the college assessment, graduates of the high school classes of 2004–2006 were invited to participate. Participants were recruited from cities, towns, and regions from which collegiate participants originated via web and print newspaper advertisements, flyers posted in the community, and web-based announcements. No recruitment information included mention of the college-credit exclusion criteria to encourage honest responding. In response to invitations, 3,139 emerging adults completed a phone or online screening questionnaire. Of those screened, 24% (n = 768) were eligible for participation. Screeners were most likely to be deemed ineligible because they were current or former college students who had reached the college-credit exclusion criterion (66%). They were also excluded because they were no longer needed for matching on ethnicity (22%), geographical region of origin (6%), or gender (0.4%) or because they did not meet the year-of-graduation criterion (5%). Eligible individuals were invited to complete a web-based survey largely identical to that administered to the college sample, for which they were also compensated $40.

Of the eligible volunteers, 595 (78% of those eligible) completed at least part of the survey, 84% of whom completed the measures included in the current investigation (final n = 502; 65% of the eligible sample). At the time of the survey, the noncollege sample (64% female; 53% White, 7% Asian American, 14% Hispanic or Latino, 13% African American, and 13% multiethnic or other ethnicities) was 22.42 years old on average (SD = 0.76). The vast majority (91%) of noncollege participants had not completed any courses at a 4-year college or university (M = 0.32, SD = 1.11, range: 0–5). The median reported family income during high school was $45,000 per year. The full sample, including college students and noncollege participants, comprised N = 833 participants in total.

Self-regulation.

Participants completed the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS; Tangney et al., 2004 ), a 13-item scale assessing trait self-regulation. Participants responded to items including “I am good at resisting temptation” on a 5-point scale, where 1 = not at all and 5 = very much. The BSCS is associated with behavioral measures of self-regulation and a wide range of theoretically relevant outcomes ( Schmeichel and Zell, 2007 ; Tangney et al., 2004 ). In the current investigation, the BSCS demonstrated good internal consistency (α = .83). See Table 1 for summary statistics for the college and noncollege samples.

Summary statistics for college students and noncollegiate participants

Note: Summary statistics for the four measures comprising the alcohol use composite were computed before log-transformation for analyses.

Sensation seeking.

Participants completed an 11-item measure of sensation seeking from the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire ( Zuckerman et al., 1993 ). Participants endorsed items including “I like doing things just for the thrill of it” on a dichotomous scale, where 0 = false and 1 = true. In the current investigation, the sensation-seeking scale demonstrated good internal consistency (α = .81).

Descriptive norms.

Participants' perceptions of descriptive drinking norms for members of their social group were assessed using a modified version of the Drinking Norms Rating Form (DNRF; Baer et al., 1991 ). Participants separately estimated the number of standard drinks male and female members of their social group (i.e., “the principal group of friends with whom you interacted and spent time”) consumed on each day of a typical week during the past 3 months. Because “typical” peers may often be construed as male in the context of drinking, same-gendered descriptive norms exert greater influence on alcohol use than do gender-neutral norms, particularly for women ( Lewis and Neighbors, 2004 ). Consequently, we calculated the perceived total number of drinks consumed per week by same-gendered social group members on the DNRF.

Alcohol use.

Following recommendations for genomic studies ( Agrawal et al., 2009 ) and research among college students ( Fromme et al., 2008 ), we used a composite approach to the measurement of drinking, with four commonly used measures assessing past-3-month alcohol consumption. First, participants completed the Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ; Collins et al., 1985 ). In a format similar to the DNRF, the DDQ asks participants to report the number of standard drinks (defined as 12 oz. of beer, 5 oz. of wine, or 1 shot of liquor straight or in a mixed drink) they consumed on each day of a typical week. From responses to the DDQ, we calculated the total number of drinks consumed per week. Second, participants reported how frequently they reached the standard definition of heavy episodic drinking (i.e., four or more standard drinks in a sitting for women and five or more for men; Wechsler and Isaac, 1992 ). Third, participants reported the number of times that they became subjectively “drunk (not just a little high) on alcohol” ( Jackson et al., 2001 ; Midanik, 1999 ). Finally, participants reported the maximum number of standard drinks they consumed in a single 24-hour period ( Dawson, 1998 ). Consistent with other samples of emerging adults, responses to these measures were nonnormally distributed: 20%, 37%, 38%, and 14% reported no typical drinking, heavy episodic drinking, subjective intoxication, and maximum drinks, respectively. We log-transformed responses to reduce skew and kurtosis, standardized the transformed scores, and then computed an average of the standardized scores. Internal consistency among the alcohol use measures was excellent (α = .91).

Alcohol-related problems.

We used the Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index to assess the frequency with which participants experienced 23 alcohol-related consequences in the past 3 months ( White and Labouvie, 1989 ). Consequences ranged from “got into fights” and “passed out” to “went to work or school high or drunk.” We summed responses to all items for each participant. This widely used measure of alcohol-related problems has demonstrated reliability and validity across numerous populations, including adolescents ( White and Labouvie, 1989 ), college students ( Simons and Carey, 2006 ), and noncollege emerging adults ( Warner et al., 2007 ; White et al., 2005 ). The Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index demonstrated excellent internal consistency in the current investigation (α = .95). See Table 1 for summary statistics.

Data analytic strategy

Our index of drinking (skewness and kurtosis ≤ |0.77|) was appropriate for use as a dependent variable in linear regression models. Neither descriptive norms (skewness = 2.65, kurtosis = 10.59) nor alcohol-related problems (skewness = 3.55, kurtosis = 19.19), however, met the distributional assumptions of the general linear model. In analyses predicting norms and alcohol-related problems, we used generalized linear models, which allow for the specification of error distributions other than the normal ( Hardin and Hilbe, 2003 ). For these analyses, we specified the negative binomial distribution and log link. Similar to the Poisson distribution, the negative binomial is appropriate for count data (i.e., nonnegative integers) with positive skew. The negative binomial distribution, however, additionally allows for the overdispersion common to alcohol use data ( Neal and Simons, 2007 ). Exponentiated regression coefficients, or incidence rate ratios (IRRs), serve as a standardized effect size (e.g., reflecting the factor difference in frequency of problems). We standardized continuous predictors in generalized linear model analyses to aid interpretation of IRRs.

Demographic analyses

Although noncollege participants were recruited to match the college sample on key demographic variables (i.e., age, gender, and ethnicity), there were several demographic differences between the two groups. Specifically, college students were approximately 8 months younger on average, t (831) = 15.94, p < .001, d = 1.20. College students were also more likely to be Asian American and less likely to be African American, multiethnic, or other ethnicities, χ 2 (4) = 36.52, p < .001. As might be expected given that socioeco-nomic status was not a basis for matching, college students reported growing up in higher income households relative to noncollege emerging adults, t (831) = 11.95, p < .001, d = 0.85. The college and noncollege samples did not differ with respect to gender, χ 2 (1) = 0.15, p = .70. To account for these differences, we controlled for demographics in all subsequent analyses.

College student status and alcohol use

College students drank more than did noncollege participants, as indexed by the alcohol use composite, t (831) = 3.04, p = .002, d= 0.22, although this difference was small in magnitude. College students similarly reported drinking significantly more, after log transformation, on all measures comprising the alcohol use composite except weekly consumption, ds ranging from 0.11 to 0.25. When accounting for demographics, the student-status difference remained small but significant. See Table 2 , Model 1.

Personality suppression.

As expected, college students were higher in self-regulation, t (831) = 2.65, p = .008, d = 0.19, and lower in sensation seeking, t (831) = 4.83, p < .001, d = -0.34. These differences remained significant for both self-regulation (β = .09, p = .03) and sensation seeking (β = -.18, p < .001) when accounting for demographics. Additionally, as shown in Table 2 , Model 2, accounting for demographics, those higher in self-regulation drank less, whereas those higher in sensation seeking drank more. Moreover, when accounting for demographics and traits, the association between attending college and drinking more heavily appeared stronger.

As hypothesized, these relations are consistent with third-variable statistical suppression. That is, the true association between attending college and drinking more heavily may have been masked by the fact that college students were at lower risk for alcohol use as a function of personality. The significance of suppression can be tested using the same methods used to test indirect effects in mediation ( MacKinnon et al., 2000 ). Using Preacher and Hayes' (2008) bias-corrected bootstrapping method to generate standard errors for indirect effects, we confirmed the significance of the overall pattern of suppression (indirect effect = -.11, 95% CI: [-.17, -.05]). Furthermore, both self-regulation (indirect effect = -.03 [-.07, -.004]) and sensation seeking (indirect effect = -.08 [-.12, -.04]) were significant suppressors over and beyond each other. In sum, differences in both traits helped suppress the association between attending college and drinking more heavily. See Figure 1 for differences between college and noncollege participants after accounting for demographics, self-regulation, and sensation seeking.

Mean alcohol use and alcohol-related problems scores for college and noncollege participants, controlling for demographics, personality, and—for alcohol-related problems—alcohol use. Bars represent standard errors. *** p < .001.

Descriptive norms and college student status.

We examined two possible ways in which descriptive drinking norms could contribute to differences between college students and noncollege emerging adults. First, students could perceive their peers as drinking more relative to noncollege emerging adults, which could help explain (i.e., mediate) drinking differences. The first step in testing mediation is to demonstrate that the independent variable (college status) is positively associated with the mediator (norms) (e.g., Baron and Kenny, 1986 ). However, accounting for demographics, alcohol use, and traits, college students reported lower descriptive norms (b = -0.19, IRR = 0.83, p = .04). Given the positive association between norms and drinking (see Table 2 , Model 3), norms could not have mediated the association between attending college and drinking more heavily.

Second, we tested whether descriptive norms conferred greater risk among college students. As shown in Table 2 , Model 3, we found support for this possibility in that college student status moderated the association between descriptive norms and alcohol use. Specifically, descriptive norms were significantly more strongly associated with drinking among college students (β = .47, p < .001) than among noncollege emerging adults (β = .37, p < .001). See Figure 2 .

Association between gender-specific social group descriptive drinking norms and alcohol use among college students and noncollege emerging adults, controlling for demographics and personality

College student status and alcohol-related problems

If college students drink more heavily than do noncollege emerging adults, then we might also expect them to experience more alcohol-related problems. Accounting for demographics, however, we found the reverse association: College students experienced fewer alcohol-related problems. Furthermore, this relation held when controlling for drinking. Specifically, accounting for drinking, college students experienced half as many alcohol-related problems as did noncollege participants. See Table 3 , Model 2.

In the same way that self-regulation and sensation seeking masked the association between attending college and heavier drinking, the same traits may have exaggerated the association between attending college and experiencing fewer alcohol-related problems. Indeed, participants higher in self-regulation reported significantly fewer alcohol-related problems, whereas participants higher in sensation seeking reported greater alcohol-related problems ( Table 3 , Model 3). We are aware of no method of testing indirect effects using the generalized linear model framework, but when we included self-regulation and sensation seeking in the model, the association between student status and alcohol-related problems was reduced by 27% (from b = -0.70 to b = -0.51) but remained significant.

This investigation generated four major conclusions. First, accounting for demographics, college students at this university drank modestly—but significantly—more than did their noncollege peers. This result replicates national findings of a small student-status difference ( Dawson et al., 2004 ). Second, we found that the relatively small magnitude of the student-status difference in drinking rates may partially reflect biased selection into college in terms of personality. Specifically, college students were lower in the risk factors of low self-regulation and high sensation seeking. Consequently, the at-face-value small difference in drinking rates actually belied a significantly larger divergence, which became apparent after accounting for suppression by the two traits. This third-variable suppression suggests that previous findings on differences in rates of drinking between college students and their noncollege peers have likely underestimated any possible effect of attending college. In the current study, college status explained approximately 1% of the variance in alcohol use, suggesting that the association was modest in size but meaningful ( Cohen, 1988 ).

Third, although college students perceived members of their social group as drinking less than did noncollege participants, these perceptions were more strongly associated with drinking among students. Previous research has clearly identified norms as a correlate of drinking among college students ( Borsari and Carey, 2003 ; Neighbors et al., 2007 ), but less evidence is available for their role in other populations. This study is among the first to suggest that descriptive social group norms may be less influential among noncollege individuals. Moreover, this finding provides a potential explanation for why noncollege individuals drink less. If alcohol use among noncollege emerging adults is more independent of perceived peer drinking, they may feel less compelled to meet overestimated norms, which could help limit their drinking. That is, if two individuals—one a student and the other not—have similar levels of perceived norms, the nonstudent may be less strongly impelled to drink.

We speculate that social role differences may help explain why social group norms may be less influential among noncollege individuals. College students often live with members of their social group (e.g., in dorms, other shared housing), and they may select into housing partially on the basis of drinking ( Fromme et al., 2008 ). In the absence of full-time employment or family responsibilities (e.g., child or elder care), students may additionally have ample time to spend with their social group. In contrast, noncollege individuals are more likely on average to spend time in contexts other than with their primary social group ( Bachman et al., 2002 ), such as in occupational or family settings. As a result, social-group drinking norms may be less salient for noncollege emerging adults' alcohol use. Recent evidence suggests that drinking norms vary in influence as a function of the proximity of the reference group ( Larimer et al., 2009 ). Further research is needed to determine whether the salience of norms also varies as a function of social roles.

Finally, despite drinking more on average, students experienced fewer alcohol-related problems, even after accounting for personality. This finding replicates previous longitudinal findings ( White et al., 2005 ). Several studies have tested for student-status differences on other measures of the consequences of drinking, such as alcohol use disorders ( Dawson et al., 2004 ; Slutske, 2005 ). These studies have generally found inconsistent results, suggesting that noncollege individuals are primarily distinguished in that they are more likely to experience the smaller-scale-but-still-negative consequences captured by measures of alcohol-related problems (e.g., fights with friends, hangovers, missed work). We concur with White and colleagues (2005) that these differences likely reflect the differing responsibilities of college students and those who do not attend college. Indeed, the same drinking behavior, such as heavy episodic drinking on a Thursday night, would have remarkably different consequences depending on whether the drinker was a student with no Friday classes or a noncollege individual with childcare responsibilities and/or a 9-to-5 job.

The conclusions we have drawn from this investigation should be understood with an appreciation of its strengths and limitations. Strengths included our approach to the measurement of alcohol use, which captures drinking without exclusively relying on limited measures of heavy episodic drinking ( Agrawal et al., 2009 ; Midanik, 1999 ), and our inclusion of both social and personality correlates of drinking. The principal limitation of this study was its cross-sectional design. Without randomization or prospective evidence, we cannot establish the causal influence of traits and drinking norms on differences between college students and their noncollege peers. This concern is particularly noteworthy regarding drinking norms, which have demonstrated trans-actional relations with drinking over time ( Neighbors et al., 2006 ). Future research should prospectively test the effects of environmental selection and socialization on drinking and its consequences as emerging adults depart high school and adopt new social roles across the adult life span ( Park et al., 2009 ).

This investigation sampled college students at only one university. These students were demographically diverse and likely had heterogeneous motives for attending the university. Importantly, however, the social environment varies across universities, and it is possible that personality influences the types of schools into which students matriculate (e.g., urban vs. suburban vs. rural, academic vs. social reputation, strong vs. weak athletic reputation). Although we are aware of little research in this area, given the strong association between academic achievement and self-regulation ( Duckworth and Seligman, 2005 ), it is likely that selection into universities with elite academic reputations is even more biased on this trait than was demonstrated in our sample. Other traits may influence selection as well, with more extroverted students, for example, preferentially selecting into schools with social reputations. Thus, although self-regulation and sensation seeking may distinguish students from noncollege emerging adults, these traits or others may further differentiate students across universities.

Additionally, despite screening 3,166 emerging adults for the noncollege sample, our college and noncollege groups were not perfectly matched on age and ethnicity. It proved especially difficult to recruit noncollege Asian Americans from similar geographical regions of origin, likely reflecting the fact that Asian Americans are nearly twice as likely as other U.S. residents to earn a bachelor's degree ( U.S. Census Bureau, 2009 ). Noncollege participants were also from lower income families, which may not have been surprising given that we made no attempt to match on socioeconomic status. Fortunately, however, our large, diverse sample enabled us to account for demographics in all analyses, raising our confidence that differences between the groups were a product of the personality and environmental effects of interest. We cannot, however, rule out the possibility that unmeasured third-variable confounds (e.g., neighborhood alcohol availability, IQ, other personality traits) may underlie associations found here. A replication of our results using techniques to account for a broader range of covariates is therefore needed. Proximity score matching, for example, would strengthen conclusions drawn from samples in which a wide array of potential confounds were assessed.

Finally, this and many other investigations of student-status drinking differences have compared students with those who do not attend college but have excluded those who leave college early or who attend college intermittently. By age 25, 20% of emerging adults in the United States have attended a 4-year college without earning a bachelor's degree ( U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2008 ), and—highlighting the influence of the college environment on alcohol use—drinking rates during the college years appear to be somewhat lower among students who will complete fewer years of college ( Bachman et al., 2008 ). Further research is needed to identify whether the same personal and social factors identified here play a role among those who attend but do not complete college.

Implications

Taken together, the current findings illustrate the differing patterns of alcohol involvement among college students and noncollege emerging adults, and they suggest that we consider tailoring intervention strategies to environments. Despite selection by students with more protective levels of self-regulation and sensation seeking, the college environment may contribute to heavier drinking, perhaps partly as a consequence of the strong influence of social drinking norms. Intervention programs targeting normative overes-timations to reduce drinking appear well matched to the needs of college students (see Larimer and Cronce, 2007 , for a review). In contrast, despite drinking less, noncollege emerging adults may be less able to avoid potentially harmful consequences. Prevention or treatment programs based on the principles of harm reduction may best suit that population. Although rapidly expanding, efforts to develop and implement interventions for college students run the risk of neglecting those who do not attend college. Future empirical and clinical work would do well to consider the differing challenges facing each population.

Summary of linear regression models predicting alcohol use

Summary of generalized linear models predicting alcohol-related problems

Notes: Generalized linear models using negative binomial reference distribution and log link. IRR = incidence rate ratio.

* This research was supported by National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Grants R01-AA013967 and T32-AA07471 and the Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research

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Alcohol's Effects on Health

Research-based information on drinking and its impact.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA)

Treatment for alcohol problems: finding and getting help.

This guide is written for individuals—and their family and friends—who are looking for options to address alcohol problems. It is intended as a resource to understand what treatment choices are available and what to consider when selecting among them.  For more information, please visit the NIAAA Alcohol Treatment Navigator®, an online tool that helps individuals find the right treatment for them—and near them. The Navigator offers a step-by-step process to finding a highly qualified professional treatment provider. Learn more at  alcoholtreatment.niaaa.nih.gov .

When Is It Time for Treatment?

Alcohol-related problems—which result from drinking too much, too fast, or too often—are among the most significant public health issues in the United States.

Many people struggle with controlling their drinking at some point in their lives. Millions of adults in the United States have alcohol use disorder (AUD),  and approximately 1 in 10 children live in a home with a parent who has AUD.

Does Treatment Work?

The good news is that no matter how severe the problem may seem, most people with AUD can benefit from some form of treatment. Many others substantially reduce their drinking and report fewer alcohol-related problems.

A Note About Stigma

Signs of an alcohol problem.

AUD is characterized by an impaired ability to stop or control alcohol use despite adverse social, occupational, or health consequences. Health care providers diagnose AUD when a person has two or more of the symptoms listed below. AUD can be mild (the presence of two to three symptoms), moderate (the presence of four to five symptoms), or severe (the presence of six or more symptoms).

In the past year, have you:

Had times when you ended up drinking  more, or longer  than you intended?

More than once wanted to  cut down or stop drinking , or tried to, but couldn’t?

Spent a  lot of time  drinking, being sick from drinking, or getting over other aftereffects?

Wanted a drink so badly you couldn't think of anything else?

Found that drinking—or being sick from drinking—often  interfered with taking care  of your  home or family ? Or caused  job  troubles? Or  school  problems?

Continued to drink even though it was causing  trouble  with your  family or   friends ?

Given up or cut back on activities  you found important, interesting, or pleasurable so you could drink?

More than once gotten into situations while or after drinking that  increased your chances of getting hurt  (such as driving, swimming, using machinery, walking in a dangerous area, or engaging in unsafe sexual behavior)?

Continued to drink even though it was making you feel  depressed or anxious  or adding to  another health problem ? Or after having had an alcohol-related  memory blackout ?

Needed to  drink much more  than you once did to  get the effect  you want? Or found that your  usual number  of drinks had  much less effect  than before?

Found that when the effects of alcohol were wearing off, you  had withdrawal symptoms , such as trouble sleeping, shakiness, restlessness, nausea, sweating, a racing heart, dysphoria (feeling uneasy or unhappy), malaise (general sense of being unwell), feeling low, or a seizure? Or sensed things that were not there?

If you have any of these symptoms, alcohol may already be a cause for concern. The more symptoms you have, the more urgent the need for change. A health care provider can look at the number, pattern, and severity of symptoms to see whether AUD is present and help you decide the best course of action.

Options for Treatment

When asked how alcohol problems are treated, people commonly think of 12-step programs or 28-day inpatient treatment centers but may have difficulty naming other options. In fact, there are many treatment options available thanks to significant advances in medical and behavioral research over the past decades.

Ultimately, there is no one-size-fits-all solution, and what may work for one person may not be a good fit for someone else. Simply understanding the different options can be an important first step.

Types of Treatment

Behavioral treatments.

Behavioral treatments are aimed at changing drinking behavior through counseling. They are led by health care providers and supported by studies showing that these treatments can be beneficial.

Medications

Three medications are currently approved in the United States to help people stop or reduce their drinking and prevent a return to drinking. These medications are prescribed by a primary care provider or other health care provider and may be used alone or in combination with counseling.

Mutual-Support Groups

Alcoholics Anonymous® (also known as "AA") and other 12-step programs provide peer support for people quitting or cutting back on their drinking. Combined with treatment led by health care providers, mutual-support groups can offer a valuable added layer of support.

The evidence suggests that the free and flexible assistance provided by mutual-support groups can help people make and sustain beneficial changes and, thus, promote recovery.

Starting with a Primary Care Provider

For anyone thinking about treatment, talking to a primary care provider is an important first step—they can be a good source for treatment referrals and medications. A primary care provider can also:

Evaluate a person’s drinking pattern 

Help craft a treatment plan

Evaluate overall health

Assess whether medications for AUD may be appropriate

Types of Health Care Providers

Many health care providers can play a role in treatment. Below is a list of some of the providers who are typically involved in alcohol treatment and the type of care they may offer.

Treatments Led by Health Care Providers

Professionally led treatments include behavioral treatments and medications.

Also known as "alcohol counseling," behavioral treatments involve working with a health care provider to identify and help change the behaviors that lead to alcohol problems.

Behavioral treatments share certain features, which can include:

Developing the skills needed to stop or reduce drinking

Helping to build a strong social support system

Working to set reachable goals

Coping with or avoiding the triggers that might cause a return to drinking

Types of Behavioral Treatments

Cognitive–behavioral therapy  can take place one-on-one with a therapist or in small groups. This form of therapy is focused on identifying the feelings and situations (called “cues”) that contribute to heavy drinking and managing stress that can lead to a return to drinking. The goal is to change the thought processes that lead to alcohol misuse and to develop the skills necessary to cope with everyday situations that might trigger alcohol misuse.

Motivational enhancement  is conducted over a short period of time to build and strengthen motivation to change drinking behavior. The therapy focuses on identifying the pros and cons of seeking treatment, forming a plan for making changes in one’s drinking, building confidence, and developing the skills needed to stick to the plan.

Contingency management approaches  incorporate tangible rewards for achieving specific, measurable treatment goals. They reinforce positive behaviors, such as abstaining or regularly attending treatment sessions.

Couples and family counseling  incorporates spouses and other family members in the treatment process and can play an important role in repairing and improving family relationships. Studies show that strong family support through family therapy increases the chances of maintaining abstinence (not drinking) compared with people going to individual counseling.

Brief Interventions  are short, one-on-one or small-group counseling sessions that are time limited. The counselor provides information about the individual’s drinking pattern and potential risks. After the individual receives personalized feedback, the counselor will work with them to set goals and provide ideas for helping to make a change.

12-step facilitation therapy is an engagement strategy used in counseling sessions to increase an individual's active involvement in 12-step-based mutual-support groups.

Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions increase awareness and acceptance of present-moment experiences. Mindfulness-based skill-building strategies promote flexible, rather than autopilot, responses to triggers that can prompt drinking.

Some people are surprised to learn that there are medications on the market approved to treat AUD. The newer types of these medications work by offsetting changes in the brain caused by AUD.

All approved medications are nonaddictive and can be used alone or in combination with other forms of treatment. Learn more about these approved medications in "What Medications Are Available for Alcohol Use Disorder?"  

Ultimately, choosing to get treatment may be more important than the approach used as long as the approach avoids heavy confrontation and incorporates empathy, motivational support, and a focus on changing drinking behavior.

What Medications Are Available for Alcohol Use Disorder?

Certain medications have been shown to effectively help people stop or reduce their drinking and avoid a return to drinking.

Current Medications

Currently, there are three medications approved for AUD in the United States, and they are an effective and important aid in the treatment of people with this condition.

Naltrexone  is available as a pill or injection and helps reduce the urge to drink.

Acamprosate  is a pill that decreases the negative symptoms that are sometimes felt during abstinence from alcohol, making abstinence easier to maintain.

Disulfiram  is a pill that discourages drinking by causing unpleasant symptoms when alcohol is consumed.

Given the diverse biological processes that contribute to AUD, new medications are needed to provide a broader spectrum of treatment options.

Just like any other medical condition, people with substance use disorders deserve to have a range of treatment options available to them. Scientists are working to develop a larger menu of pharmaceutical treatments that could be tailored to individual needs. 

Personalized Medicine

Ideally, health care providers will one day be able to identify which AUD treatment is most effective for each person. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) is supporting research to identify genetic, behavioral, and other factors that can predict how well someone will respond to a particular treatment. These advances could optimize how treatment decisions are made in the future.

“Isn’t taking medications just trading one addiction for another?”

Tips for selecting treatment.

Overall, gather as much information as you can about a program or provider before making a decision on treatment. If you know someone who has firsthand knowledge of a program, it may help to ask about their personal experience.

The search for alcohol treatment can feel overwhelming. The three-step road map outlined in the NIAAA Alcohol Treatment Navigator offers expert guidance to focus and support your efforts. Learn how to find higher quality, science-backed alcohol treatment to raise your changes for success.

Cost may be a factor when selecting a treatment approach.  Evaluate the coverage in your health insurance plan to determine how much of the costs your insurance will cover and how much you will have to pay. Ask different programs if they offer sliding-scale fees—some programs may offer lower prices or payment plans for individuals without health insurance.

Here are some questions you can ask that may help guide your choice:

What kind of treatment does the program or provider offer?  It is important to gauge whether the facility provides all the currently available, evidence-based methods or relies on one approach. You may want to learn if the program or provider offers medication and whether mental health issues are addressed together with alcohol treatment.

Is treatment tailored to the individual?  Matching the right therapy to the individual is important to its success. No single treatment will benefit everyone. It may also be helpful to determine whether the treatment will be adapted to meet changing needs as they arise.

What is expected of the person with AUD?  You will want to understand what will be asked of you in order to decide what treatment best suits your needs.

Is treatment success measured?  You may be able to better compare your options by assessing whether and how the program or provider measures success.

How does the program or provider handle a return to drinking?  Setbacks can be common, so you will want to know how they are addressed. For more information on a return to drinking, see  An Ongoing Process .

When seeking professional help, it is important that you feel respected and understood and that you trust the person, group, or organization to help you. However, remember that relationships with health care providers can take time to develop.

Additional Considerations

Treatment Setting

In addition to choosing the type of treatment that is best for you, you will also have to decide on the setting for that treatment. Evidence-based AUD treatment settings come in many forms, including:

• Outpatient —regular office, virtual, or telehealth visits for counseling, medication support, or both
• Intensive outpatient or partial hospitalization —coordinated outpatient care for complex needs
• Residential —a low- or high-intensity program in a 24-hour treatment setting
• Intensive inpatient —medically directed 24-hour services; may manage withdrawal

Your provider may also be able to suggest an online self-guided program. Such e-health tools have been shown to help people overcome alcohol problems. Your health care provider can help you evaluate the pros and cons of each treatment setting.

An Ongoing Process

Overcoming AUD is an ongoing process—one that can include setbacks.

The Importance of Persistence

Because AUD is a chronic, relapsing disorder, persistence is key. It is rare that someone would go to treatment once and then never drink again. More often, people try to quit or cut back over time, experience recurrences, learn from them, and then continue on their recovery journey. For many, continued follow-up with a treatment provider is critical for overcoming alcohol problems. The provider can help adjust the treatment plan and aid long-term recovery.

Setbacks Are Part of the Process

Setbacks are common among people who overcome alcohol problems. People with drinking problems are most likely to return to drinking during periods of stress or when exposed to people or places associated with past drinking.

Just as some people with diabetes or asthma may have flare-ups of their disease, a return to drinking can be seen as a temporary setback to full recovery and not as a failure. Seeking professional help can prevent a return to drinking—behavioral therapies can help people develop skills to avoid and overcome triggers, such as stress, that might lead to drinking. Most people benefit from regular checkups with a treatment provider. Medications can also deter drinking during times when individuals may be at greater risk for a return to drinking (e.g., divorce, death of a family member).

Mental Health Issues and Alcohol Use Disorder

A number of health conditions can often go hand in hand with AUD. Common mental health conditions that co-occur with AUD are depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, trauma- and stress-related disorders, other substance use disorders, and sleep disorders. Studies show that people who have AUD are more likely to suffer from major depression or anxiety over their lifetime. When addressing drinking problems, it’s important to also seek treatment for any accompanying medical and mental health issues.

Advice for Friends and Family Members

Caring for a person who has problems with alcohol can be very stressful. It is important that as you try to help your loved one, you also find a way to take care of yourself. It may help to seek support from others, including friends, family, community, and support groups. If you are developing your own symptoms of depression or anxiety, think about seeking professional help for yourself. Remember that your loved one is ultimately responsible for managing their own illness.

However, your participation can make a big difference.  Based on clinical experience, many health care providers believe that support from friends and family members is important in overcoming alcohol problems. But friends and family may feel unsure about how best to provide the support needed. The groups for family and friends listed in the "Resources" section may be a good starting point.

Remember that changing long-standing patterns is hard, takes time, and requires repeated efforts.  We usually experience setbacks along the way, learn from them, and then keep going. AUD is no different. Try to be patient with your loved one. Overcoming this disorder is not easy or quick.

Keep paying attention to your loved one when they are doing better or simply making an effort.  Too often we are so angry or discouraged that we take it for granted when things are going better. A word of appreciation or acknowledgment of a success can go a long way.

Professional Help

Your health care provider.  Primary care and mental health providers can provide effective AUD treatment by combining new medications with brief counseling visits.

To aid health care providers with young people who have alcohol problems, NIAAA has developed the guide Alcohol Screening and Brief Intervention for Youth: A Practitioner’s Guide. Visit  niaaa.nih.gov/health-professionals-communities  to learn more.

Specialists in alcohol-related treatment. Contact your primary care provider, health insurance plan, local health department, or employee assistance program for information about specialty treatment.

Professional Associations of Medical and Nonmedical Addiction Specialists

American Academy of Addiction Psychiatry 401–524–3076

American Psychological Association 1–800–374–2721 (Ask for your state’s referral number to find psychologists with addiction specialties.)

American Society of Addiction Medicine 301–656–3920 (Ask for the phone number of your state’s chapter.)

Treatment Finders

NIAAA Alcohol Treatment Navigator®— How to Find Quality Alcohol Treatment

SAMHSA's Behavioral Health Treatment Services Locator 1–800–662–HELP (4357)

Alcoholics Anonymous® (AA) — app for iOS and Android smartphones 212–870–3400 

LifeRing   800–811–4142

SMART Recovery®   440–951–5357

Women for Sobriety   215–536–8026

Groups for Family and Friends

Adult Children of Alcoholics ®  & Dysfunctional Families World Service Organization 310–534–1815

Al-Anon Family Groups 1–888–425–2666 for meetings

SMART Recovery Family & Friends 440–951–5357

Information Resources

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism 301–443–3860

National Institute on Drug Abuse 301–443–6441

National Institute of Mental Health   1–866–615–6464

Substance Abuse and Mental Health  Services Administration's National Helpline 800–662–HELP (4357)

Online-Only Resources

If you have internet access, you may wish to visit the following websites:

NIAAA Alcohol Treatment Navigator ® (Three-step road map to evidence-based treatment)

NIAAA Facts About Teen Drinking

National Association of Social Workers (Search for social workers with addiction specialties.)

Moderation Management ™ (Mutual-support group)

Secular AA   (Mutual-support group)

E-Health Alcohol Treatment Tools*

Below are samples of e-health tools developed with NIAAA funding. Each of these fee-based tools has a research base that shows its potential to help people cut down or quit drinking.

A-CHESS —A mobile tool to prevent a return to drinking; available from some specialty treatment providers and programs.

CBT4CBT —A self-guided, web-based cognitive-behavioral therapy program that teaches skills to help people stop or reduce drinking; health professionals can provide a prescription.

CheckUp & Choices —A digital self-help program to guide people in deciding whether to change their drinking habits and developing skills to make a change.

*NIAAA has included several potentially useful resources developed with NIAAA funding or based on evidence-based principles derived from NIH-funded research. As a federal agency, however, NIAAA cannot endorse any particular commercial product or service.

988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline | Call or Text 988

For TTY Users: Use your preferred relay service or dial 711, then 988.

If you’re thinking about suicide, are worried about a friend or loved one, or would like emotional support, the Lifeline network is available 24/7 across the United States. Services are also available in Spanish.

Research shows that most people who have alcohol problems are able to reduce their drinking or quit entirely.

There are many roads to getting better. What is important is finding yours.

Understanding the available treatment options—from behavioral therapies and medications to mutual-support groups—is the first step. The important thing is to remain engaged in whatever method you choose.

Ultimately, receiving treatment can improve your chances of success.

niaaa.nih.gov

An official website of the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism