research philosophy case study

Research Philosophy & Paradigms

Positivism, Interpretivism & Pragmatism, Explained Simply

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewer: Eunice Rautenbach (DTech) | June 2023

Research philosophy is one of those things that students tend to either gloss over or become utterly confused by when undertaking formal academic research for the first time. And understandably so – it’s all rather fluffy and conceptual. However, understanding the philosophical underpinnings of your research is genuinely important as it directly impacts how you develop your research methodology.

In this post, we’ll explain what research philosophy is , what the main research paradigms  are and how these play out in the real world, using loads of practical examples . To keep this all as digestible as possible, we are admittedly going to simplify things somewhat and we’re not going to dive into the finer details such as ontology, epistemology and axiology (we’ll save those brain benders for another post!). Nevertheless, this post should set you up with a solid foundational understanding of what research philosophy and research paradigms are, and what they mean for your project.

Overview: Research Philosophy

• What is a research philosophy or paradigm ?
• Positivism 101
• Interpretivism 101
• Pragmatism 101
• Choosing your research philosophy

What is a research philosophy or paradigm?

Research philosophy and research paradigm are terms that tend to be used pretty loosely, even interchangeably. Broadly speaking, they both refer to the set of beliefs, assumptions, and principles that underlie the way you approach your study (whether that’s a dissertation, thesis or any other sort of academic research project).

For example, one philosophical assumption could be that there is an external reality that exists independent of our perceptions (i.e., an objective reality), whereas an alternative assumption could be that reality is constructed by the observer (i.e., a subjective reality). Naturally, these assumptions have quite an impact on how you approach your study (more on this later…).

The research philosophy and research paradigm also encapsulate the nature of the knowledge that you seek to obtain by undertaking your study. In other words, your philosophy reflects what sort of knowledge and insight you believe you can realistically gain by undertaking your research project. For example, you might expect to find a concrete, absolute type of answer to your research question , or you might anticipate that things will turn out to be more nuanced and less directly calculable and measurable . Put another way, it’s about whether you expect “hard”, clean answers or softer, more opaque ones.

So, what’s the difference between research philosophy and paradigm?

Well, it depends on who you ask. Different textbooks will present slightly different definitions, with some saying that philosophy is about the researcher themselves while the paradigm is about the approach to the study . Others will use the two terms interchangeably. And others will say that the research philosophy is the top-level category and paradigms are the pre-packaged combinations of philosophical assumptions and expectations.

To keep things simple in this video, we’ll avoid getting tangled up in the terminology and rather focus on the shared focus of both these terms – that is that they both describe (or at least involve) the set of beliefs, assumptions, and principles that underlie the way you approach your study .

Importantly, your research philosophy and/or paradigm form the foundation of your study . More specifically, they will have a direct influence on your research methodology , including your research design , the data collection and analysis techniques you adopt, and of course, how you interpret your results. So, it’s important to understand the philosophy that underlies your research to ensure that the rest of your methodological decisions are well-aligned .

So, what are the options?

We’ll be straight with you – research philosophy is a rabbit hole (as with anything philosophy-related) and, as a result, there are many different approaches (or paradigms) you can take, each with its own perspective on the nature of reality and knowledge . To keep things simple though, we’ll focus on the “big three”, namely positivism , interpretivism and pragmatism . Understanding these three is a solid starting point and, in many cases, will be all you need.

Paradigm 1: Positivism

When you think positivism, think hard sciences – physics, biology, astronomy, etc. Simply put, positivism is rooted in the belief that knowledge can be obtained through objective observations and measurements . In other words, the positivist philosophy assumes that answers can be found by carefully measuring and analysing data, particularly numerical data .

As a research paradigm, positivism typically manifests in methodologies that make use of quantitative data , and oftentimes (but not always) adopt experimental or quasi-experimental research designs. Quite often, the focus is on causal relationships – in other words, understanding which variables affect other variables, in what way and to what extent. As a result, studies with a positivist research philosophy typically aim for objectivity, generalisability and replicability of findings.

Let’s look at an example of positivism to make things a little more tangible.

Assume you wanted to investigate the relationship between a particular dietary supplement and weight loss. In this case, you could design a randomised controlled trial (RCT) where you assign participants to either a control group (who do not receive the supplement) or an intervention group (who do receive the supplement). With this design in place, you could measure each participant’s weight before and after the study and then use various quantitative analysis methods to assess whether there’s a statistically significant difference in weight loss between the two groups. By doing so, you could infer a causal relationship between the dietary supplement and weight loss, based on objective measurements and rigorous experimental design.

As you can see in this example, the underlying assumptions and beliefs revolve around the viewpoint that knowledge and insight can be obtained through carefully controlling the environment, manipulating variables and analysing the resulting numerical data . Therefore, this sort of study would adopt a positivistic research philosophy. This is quite common for studies within the hard sciences – so much so that research philosophy is often just assumed to be positivistic and there’s no discussion of it within the methodology section of a dissertation or thesis.

Paradigm 2: Interpretivism

 If you can imagine a spectrum of research paradigms, interpretivism would sit more or less on the opposite side of the spectrum from positivism. Essentially, interpretivism takes the position that reality is socially constructed . In other words, that reality is subjective , and is constructed by the observer through their experience of it , rather than being independent of the observer (which, if you recall, is what positivism assumes).

The interpretivist paradigm typically underlies studies where the research aims involve attempting to understand the meanings and interpretations that people assign to their experiences. An interpretivistic philosophy also typically manifests in the adoption of a qualitative methodology , relying on data collection methods such as interviews , observations , and textual analysis . These types of studies commonly explore complex social phenomena and individual perspectives, which are naturally more subjective and nuanced.

Let’s look at an example of the interpretivist approach in action:

Assume that you’re interested in understanding the experiences of individuals suffering from chronic pain. In this case, you might conduct in-depth interviews with a group of participants and ask open-ended questions about their pain, its impact on their lives, coping strategies, and their overall experience and perceptions of living with pain. You would then transcribe those interviews and analyse the transcripts, using thematic analysis to identify recurring themes and patterns. Based on that analysis, you’d be able to better understand the experiences of these individuals, thereby satisfying your original research aim.

As you can see in this example, the underlying assumptions and beliefs revolve around the viewpoint that insight can be obtained through engaging in conversation with and exploring the subjective experiences of people (as opposed to collecting numerical data and trying to measure and calculate it). Therefore, this sort of study would adopt an interpretivistic research philosophy. Ultimately, if you’re looking to understand people’s lived experiences , you have to operate on the assumption that knowledge can be generated by exploring people’s viewpoints, as subjective as they may be.

Paradigm 3: Pragmatism

Now that we’ve looked at the two opposing ends of the research philosophy spectrum – positivism and interpretivism, you can probably see that both of the positions have their merits , and that they both function as tools for different jobs . More specifically, they lend themselves to different types of research aims, objectives and research questions . But what happens when your study doesn’t fall into a clear-cut category and involves exploring both “hard” and “soft” phenomena? Enter pragmatism…

As the name suggests, pragmatism takes a more practical and flexible approach, focusing on the usefulness and applicability of research findings , rather than an all-or-nothing, mutually exclusive philosophical position. This allows you, as the researcher, to explore research aims that cross philosophical boundaries, using different perspectives for different aspects of the study .

With a pragmatic research paradigm, both quantitative and qualitative methods can play a part, depending on the research questions and the context of the study. This often manifests in studies that adopt a mixed-method approach , utilising a combination of different data types and analysis methods. Ultimately, the pragmatist adopts a problem-solving mindset , seeking practical ways to achieve diverse research aims.

Let’s look at an example of pragmatism in action:

Imagine that you want to investigate the effectiveness of a new teaching method in improving student learning outcomes. In this case, you might adopt a mixed-methods approach, which makes use of both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis techniques. One part of your project could involve comparing standardised test results from an intervention group (students that received the new teaching method) and a control group (students that received the traditional teaching method). Additionally, you might conduct in-person interviews with a smaller group of students from both groups, to gather qualitative data on their perceptions and preferences regarding the respective teaching methods.

As you can see in this example, the pragmatist’s approach can incorporate both quantitative and qualitative data . This allows the researcher to develop a more holistic, comprehensive understanding of the teaching method’s efficacy and practical implications , with a synthesis of both types of data . Naturally, this type of insight is incredibly valuable in this case, as it’s essential to understand not just the impact of the teaching method on test results, but also on the students themselves!

Wrapping Up: Philosophies & Paradigms

Now that we’ve unpacked the “big three” research philosophies or paradigms – positivism, interpretivism and pragmatism, hopefully, you can see that research philosophy underlies all of the methodological decisions you’ll make in your study. In many ways, it’s less a case of you choosing your research philosophy and more a case of it choosing you (or at least, being revealed to you), based on the nature of your research aims and research questions .

• Research philosophies and paradigms encapsulate the set of beliefs, assumptions, and principles that guide the way you, as the researcher, approach your study and develop your methodology.
• Positivism is rooted in the belief that reality is independent of the observer, and consequently, that knowledge can be obtained through objective observations and measurements.
• Interpretivism takes the (opposing) position that reality is subjectively constructed by the observer through their experience of it, rather than being an independent thing.
• Pragmatism attempts to find a middle ground, focusing on the usefulness and applicability of research findings, rather than an all-or-nothing, mutually exclusive philosophical position.

If you’d like to learn more about research philosophy, research paradigms and research methodology more generally, be sure to check out the rest of the Grad Coach blog . Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help with your research, consider our private coaching service , where we guide you through each stage of the research journey, step by step.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

21 Comments

was very useful for me, I had no idea what a philosophy is, and what type of philosophy of my study. thank you

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Hey, at last i have gained insight on which philosophy to use as i had little understanding on their applicability to my current research. Thanks

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The explanation is very efficacy to those who were still not understanding the research philosophy.

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An interpretive approach to case study research: underlying philosophy and its implications for fieldwork

Research output : Contribution to conference › Paper › peer-review

• case studies
• interpretivism
• interpretivist methodology
• qualitative research
• qualitative methodology
• qualitative
• qualitative study

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• Philosophy Arts and Humanities 100%
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• Interpretive approach Arts and Humanities 100%
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• Business Service Economics, Econometrics and Finance 100%
• Research Design Economics, Econometrics and Finance 100%
• Case Research Economics, Econometrics and Finance 100%

T1 - An interpretive approach to case study research

T2 - Manchester Methods Exchanges Conference

AU - Kwiatkowski, Wojciech

PY - 2017/5/10

Y1 - 2017/5/10

N2 - Drawing on Cunliffe's (2011) framework of metatheoretical assumptions and research methodologies employed in organisational and management studies, the paper reviews extant literature on case study research and distinguishes between its two forms - a positivist inclined conventional approach (e.g. Eisenhardt, 1989; Gerring, 2004; Yin, 2009) and an interpretivist-inspired alternative approach (e.g. Flyvberg, 2006; Stake, 1995; Thomas, 2010, 2011). In comparison with past publications, the paper does not devote much attention to discussing the latter variety as a critique of the former. Instead it offers a detailed exploration of how the philosophical underpinnings of the interpretivist approach affect the practice of doing case study research. Interpretivist case study research is defined as a reflexive endeavour emphasising experiential knowledge extrapolated from research participants' accounts for the purpose of generating rich, holistic analyses rather than generalisable theoretical constructs. The paper then makes a much needed contribution to case study literature by offering comprehensive guidance on collecting interview, documentary and observational data during fieldwork, data analysis and writing-up of case reports in a manner consistent with the underlying philosophy of interpretivist case study research. Examples from the author's on-going multiple-case research project on the delivery of knowledge-intensive business services, which utilises interview and documentary data, are invoked and discussed to demonstrate how these guidelines can inform research design.

AB - Drawing on Cunliffe's (2011) framework of metatheoretical assumptions and research methodologies employed in organisational and management studies, the paper reviews extant literature on case study research and distinguishes between its two forms - a positivist inclined conventional approach (e.g. Eisenhardt, 1989; Gerring, 2004; Yin, 2009) and an interpretivist-inspired alternative approach (e.g. Flyvberg, 2006; Stake, 1995; Thomas, 2010, 2011). In comparison with past publications, the paper does not devote much attention to discussing the latter variety as a critique of the former. Instead it offers a detailed exploration of how the philosophical underpinnings of the interpretivist approach affect the practice of doing case study research. Interpretivist case study research is defined as a reflexive endeavour emphasising experiential knowledge extrapolated from research participants' accounts for the purpose of generating rich, holistic analyses rather than generalisable theoretical constructs. The paper then makes a much needed contribution to case study literature by offering comprehensive guidance on collecting interview, documentary and observational data during fieldwork, data analysis and writing-up of case reports in a manner consistent with the underlying philosophy of interpretivist case study research. Examples from the author's on-going multiple-case research project on the delivery of knowledge-intensive business services, which utilises interview and documentary data, are invoked and discussed to demonstrate how these guidelines can inform research design.

KW - case studies

KW - case study

KW - interpretivism

KW - interpretivist methodology

KW - qualitative research

KW - qualitative methodology

KW - qualitative

KW - qualitative study

UR - http://www.methodsnorthwest.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/MNW-Conference-Programme-2017-FINAL.pdf

UR - http://blogs.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/humsresearchers/2017/03/30/2736/

Y2 - 10 May 2017

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Research Philosophy and Case Studies

2014, Research Methods for Business Management: A Guide to writing your dissertation.

Research philosophy tends to send, for no apparent reason, dissertation students into a mild panic. This does not need to be the case, all you are doing is explaining the foundations for your study and explaining to your reader this basis for your knowledge claims. In this book we are dealing with the human world: the social sciences. To help explain why a grasp of research philosophy is necessary to adequately present research findings that can be supported and defended, here is a scenario for you to consider how an understanding of the researcher’s perspective on a problem space can influence the results of a study.

Related Papers

Erasmus Journal for Philosophy and Economics

Attilia Ruzzene

Edgar Ojeda

Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 219-245

Bent Flyvbjerg

This article examines five common misunderstandings about case-study research: (a) theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge; (b) one cannot generalize from a single case, therefore, the single-case study cannot contribute to scientific development; (c) the case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building; (d) the case study contains a bias toward verification; and (e) it is often difficult to summarize specific case studies. This article explains and corrects these misunderstandings one by one and concludes with the Kuhnian insight that a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and a discipline without exemplars is an ineffective one. Social science may be strengthened by the execution of a greater number of good case studies.

Veritas: The Academic Journal of St Clements Education Group

Mohamed A Eno , abderrazak dammak

Case studies have been subjected to both positive attributes and negative criticisms. Accordingly, there has been a growing academic discussion and debate about the usability of the case study with regard to its reliability. It has been accused of being a less rigorous, undependable, and ungeneralizable research method. The condemnation has led scholars and professionals among the researcher community to raise viewpoints that represent different schools of thought. Each school demonstrated its perception regarding the debate, of course with some concern. Whereas a section of researchers or scholars encourages the method as a useful approach, the other emphasizes its argument based on, among other things, what they call ‘lack of reliability’ of the case study, particularly external validity – whether a study carried out in the approach could indeed be generalized.

Khullar Junior

Although case study methods remain a controversial approach to data collection, they are widely recognised in many social science studies especially when in-depth explanations of a social behaviour are sought after. This article, therefore, discusses several aspects of case studies as a research method. These include the design and categories of case studies and how their robustness can be achieved. It also explores on the advantages and disadvantages of case study as a research method.

David E Gray

abderrazak dammak

Yana Spasova

The case study is a research method which generally falls into the broader category of qualitative research. It is largely employed by an array of social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, education and health studies and Science and Technology Studies (STS). Even though the subjects of research, or ‘cases’, may differ between disciplines, there are certain strengths, weaknesses and limitations to case studies that can be summarised to provide a general overview of the method. In my essay, I will explore the characteristics of the case study and link them to examples of the previously documented cases. I will focus mainly on the fields of anthropology and STS as two disciplines that have made case studies their main research tool. In doing so I aim to demonstrate the ways that case studies can be a useful tool in a social scientist’s arsenal.

David Arellano-Gault

The Journal of Agricultural Sciences - Sri Lanka

rohitha rosairo

We receive a large number of manuscripts for possible publication in this journal. In reviewing them, we find that the bulk of them are from the area of crop sciences, livestock production and allied fields that have used experiments as the research strategy. The minority that falls in to the areas of agribusiness, agricultural economics and extension have used survey strategy. There is a lack of utilizing other research strategies in current research. Research has to be commenced with a clear direction and a clearly identified study process. These are primarily provided by its research strategy (Wedawatta, 2011). There are numerous strategies that a researcher can adopt to achieve the objectives of a particular research study. Some common research strategies are; experiment, survey, archival analysis, ethnography, action research, narrative inquiry, and the case study. This paper explains what a case study is and outlines the components of a case study. The Nature of a Case Study Yin (2003) defines case study as 'an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident'. A phenomenon and context are not always distinguishable in real-life situations. Therefore, a case study uses a large number of variables of interest than data points; and essentially relies on multiple sources of evidence for data triangulation. A historical viewpoint on case study strategy is presented in Tellis (1997). According to Yin (2003), case studies can be exploratory, explanatory or descriptive. Research in social sciences deals with interactions between institutions and human behaviour. These can be best studied in real-life settings and contexts. Sometimes an inquiry may be undertaken on an individual organization with a limited or a narrow population. These suggest qualitative investigations which are assessments of attitudes, opinions and behaviour (Kothari and Garg, 2018). These qualitative investigations are characteristic with the case study strategy. Whilst often been identified as interpretivist, case studies can also be used in positivistic research (Saunders et al. 2012).

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Research Philosophy

Research philosophy is a vast topic and here we will not be discussing this topic in great details. Research philosophy is associated with assumption, knowledge and nature of the study. It deals with the specific way of developing knowledge. This matter needs to be addressed because researchers may have different assumptions about the nature of truth and knowledge and philosophy helps us to understand their assumptions.

In business and economics dissertations at Bachelor’s level, you are not expected to discuss research philosophy in a great level of depth, and about one page in methodology chapter devoted to research philosophy usually suffices. For a business dissertation at Master’s level, on the other hand, you may need to provide more discussion of the philosophy of your study. But even there, about two pages of discussions are usually accepted as sufficient by supervisors.

Discussion of research philosophy in your dissertation should include the following:

• You need to specify the research philosophy of your study. Your research philosophy can be pragmatism , positivism , realism or interpretivism as discussed below in more details.
• The reasons behind philosophical classifications of the study need to be provided.
• You need to discuss the implications of your research philosophy on the research strategy in general and the choice of primary data collection methods in particular.

The Essence of Research Philosophy

Research philosophy deals with the source, nature and development of knowledge [1] . In simple terms, research philosophy is belief about the ways in which data about a phenomenon should be collected, analysed and used.

Although the idea of knowledge creation may appear to be profound, you are engaged in knowledge creation as part of completing your dissertation. You will collect secondary and primary data and engage in data analysis to answer the research question and this answer marks the creation of new knowledge.

In respect to business and economics philosophy has the following important three functions [2] :

• Demystifying : Exposing, criticising and explaining the unsustainable assumptions, inconsistencies and confusions these may contain.
• Informing : Helping researchers to understand where they stand in the wider field of knowledge-producing activities, and helping to make them aware of potentialities they might explore.
• Method-facilitating : Dissecting and better understanding the methods which economists or, more generally, scientists do, or could, use, and thereby to refine the methods on offer and/or to clarify their conditions of usage.

In essence, addressing research philosophy in your dissertation involves being aware and formulating your beliefs and assumptions.  As illustrated in figure below, the identification of research philosophy is positioned at the outer layer of the ‘research onion’. Accordingly it is the first topic to be clarified in research methodology chapter of your dissertation.

Research philosophy in the ‘research onion’ [2]

Each stage of the research process is based on assumptions about the sources and the nature of knowledge. Research philosophy will reflect the author’s important assumptions and these assumptions serve as base for the research strategy. Generally, research philosophy has many branches related to a wide range of disciplines. Within the scope of business studies in particular there are four main research philosophies:

• Interpretivism (Interpretivist)

The Choice of Research Philosophy

The choice of a specific research philosophy is impacted by practical implications. There are important philosophical differences between studies that focus on facts and numbers such as an analysis of the impact of foreign direct investment on the level of GDP growth and qualitative studies such as an analysis of leadership style on employee motivation in organizations.

The choice between positivist and interpretivist research philosophies or between quantitative and qualitative research methods has traditionally represented a major point of debate. However, the latest developments in the practice of conducting studies have increased the popularity of pragmatism and realism philosophies as well.

Moreover, as it is illustrated in table below, there are popular data collection methods associated with each research philosophy.

 Research philosophies and data collection methods [3]

My e-book,  The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance contains discussions of theory and application of research philosophy. The e-book also explains all stages of the  research process  starting from the  selection of the research area  to writing personal reflection. Important elements of dissertations such as  research philosophy ,  research approach ,  research design ,  methods of data collection  and  data analysis  are explained in this e-book in simple words.

John Dudovskiy

[1] Bajpai, N. (2011) “Business Research Methods” Pearson Education India

[2] Tsung, E.W.K. (2016) “The Philosophy of Management Research” Routledge

[3] Table adapted from Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) “Research Methods for Business Students” 6 th  edition, Pearson Education Limited

Interpretivism Paradigm & Research Philosophy

Charlotte Nickerson

Research Assistant at Harvard University

Undergraduate at Harvard University

Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

The interpretivist paradigm is a research approach in sociology that focuses on understanding the subjective meanings and experiences of individuals within their social context.

Key Takeaways

• Interpretivism is an approach to social science that asserts that understanding the beliefs, motivations, and reasoning of individuals in a social situation is essential to decoding the meaning of the data that can be collected around a phenomenon.
• There are numerous interpretivist approaches to sociology, three of the most influential of which are hermeneutics, phenomenology and ethnomethodology, and symbolic interactionism.
• Sociologists who have adopted an interpretivists approach include Weber, Garfinkle, Bulmer, Goffman, Cooley, Mead, and Husser.
• Interpretivists use both qualitative and quantitative research methods. However, they believe that there is no one “right path” to knowledge, thus rejecting the idea that there is one methodology that will consistently get at the “truth” of a phenomenon.
• Interpretivist approaches to research differ from positivist ones in their emphasis on qualitative data and focus on context.

The Interpretivist Paradigm

Interpretivism uses qualitative research methods that focus on individuals” beliefs, motivations, and reasoning over quantitative data to gain understanding of social interactions.

Interpretivists assume that access to reality happens through social constructions such as language, consciousness, shared meanings, and instruments (Myers, 2008).

What is a Paradigm?

A paradigm is a set of ideas and beliefs which provide a framework or model which research can follow. A paradigm defines existing knowledge, the nature of the problem(s) to be investigated, appropriate methods of investigation, and the way data should be analyzed and interpreted.

The interpretivist paradigm developed as a critique of positivism in the social sciences

Interpretivism has its roots in idealistic philosophy. The umbrella term has also been used to group together schools of thought ranging from social constructivism to phenomenology and hermeneutics: approaches that reject the view that meaning exists in the world independently of people”s consciousness and interpretation.

Because meaning exists through the lens of people, interpretivist approaches to social science consider it important for researchers to appreciate the differences between people, and seek to understand how these differences inform how people find meaning.

The Interpretivist Assumptions

The interpretive approach is based on the following assumptions:

Human life can only be understood from within

According to interpretivism, individuals have consciousness. This means that they are not merely coerced puppets that react to social forces in the way that positivists mean. This has the result that people in a society are intricate and complex.

Different people in a society experience and understand the same “objective” reality in different ways, and have individual reasons for their actions (Alharahshel & Pius, 2020; Bhattacherjee, 2012).

This more sense-based approach of interpretivism to research has roots in anthropology, sociology, psychology, linguistics, and semiotics, and has been used since the early 19th century, long before the development of positivist sociology.

The social world does not “exist” independently of human knowledge

Interpretivists do not deny that there is an external reality. However, they do not accept that there is an independently knowable reality.

Contrary to positivist approaches to sociology, interpretivists assert that all research is influenced and shaped by the pre-existing theories and worldviews of the researchers.

Terms, procedures, and data used in research have meaning because a group of academics have agreed that these things have meaning. This makes research a socially constructed activity, which means phenomena is created by society and not naturally occurring. It will vary from culture to culture.

Consequently, the reality that research tells us is also socially constructed (Alharahshel & Pius, 2020).

Research should be based on qualitative methods

Interpretivists also use a broad range of qualitative methods . They also accept reflective discussions of how researchers do research, considering these to be prized sources of knowledge and understanding.

This is in contrast to post positivists, who generally consider their reflections and personal stories of researchers to be unacceptable as research because they are neither scientific nor objective (Smith, 1993).

The term interpretive research is often used synonymously with qualitative research , but the two concepts are different. Interpretive research is a research paradigm, or set of common beliefs and agreements shared between scientists about how problems should be understood and addressed (Kuhn, 1970).

Because interpretivists see social reality as embedded within and impossible to abstract from their social settings, they attempt to make “sense” of reality rather than testing hypotheses.

Research should be based on a grounded theory

There can be causal explanation in sociology but there is no need for a hypothesis before starting research. By stating an hypothesis at the start of the study Glaser and Strauss argue that researchers run the risk of imposing their own views on the data rather than those of the actors being researched.

Instead, there should be a grounded theory which means allowing ideas to emerge as the data is collected which can later be used to produce a testable hypothesis.

Research Design

Interpretivists believe that there is no particular right or correct path to knowledge, and no special method that automatically leads to intellectual progress (Smith, 1993). This means that interpretivists are antifoundationalists.

Interpretivists, however, accept that there are standards that guide research. However, they believe that these standards cannot be universal. Instead, interpretivists believe that research standards are the products of a particular group or culture

Interpretivists do not always abandon standards such as the rules of the scientific method; they simply accept that whatever standards are used are subjective, and potentially able to fail, rather than objective and universal (Smith, 1993).

Qualitative Methods

Qualitative data is virtually any type of information that can be observed and recorded, not numerical, and can be in the form of written or verbal communication.

Interpretivists can collect qualitative data using a variety of techniques. The most frequent of these is interviews. These can manifest in many forms, such as face-to-face, over the telephone, or f ocus groups . Another technique for interpretivist data collection is observation.

Observation can include direct observation, a technique common to case research where the researcher is a neutral and passive external observer and is not involved in the phenomena that they are studying.

Interpretivists can also use documentation as a data collecting technique, collecting external and internal documents , such as memos, emails, annual reports, financial statements, newspaper articles, websites, and so on, to cast further insight into a phenomenon of interest or to corroborate other forms of evidence (Smith, 1993).

Case Research

Case research is an intensive, longitudinal study of a phenomenon at least one research site that intends to derive detailed, contextualized inferences and understand the dynamics that underlie the phenomenon that is being studied.

In this research design, the case researcher is a neutral observer, rather than an active participant. In the end, drawing meaningful inferences from case research largely depends on the observational skills and integrative abilities of the research (Schwartz-Shea & Yanow, 2013).

Action Research

Action research, meanwhile, is a qualitative albeit positivist research design aimed at testing, rather than building theories.

Action research designs interaction, assuming that complex social phenomena are best understood by introducing changes, interventions, or “Actions” into the phenomena being studied and observing the outcomes of such actions on that phenomena.

Usually, the researcher in this method is a consultant or organizational member embedded into a social context who initiates an action in response to a social problem, and examines how their action influences the phenomenon while also learning and generating insights about the relationship between the action and the phenomenon.

Some examples of actions may include organizational changes, such as through introducing people or technology, initiated with the goal of improving an organization”s performance or profitability as a business.

The researcher”s choice of actions may be based on theory which explains why and how certain actions could bring forth desired social changes (Schwartz-Shea & Yanow, 2013).

Interpretivist Sociological Perspectives

There are three major interpretivist approaches to sociology (Williams, 2000):

Hermeneutics , which refers to the philosophy of interpretation and understanding. Often, Hermeneutics focuses on influential, ancient texts, such as scripture.

Phenomenology and Ethnomethodology , which is a philosophical tradition that seeks to understand the world through directly experiencing the phenomena within it. Ethnomethodology , which has a phenomenological foundation, is the study of how people make sense of and navigate their everyday world through norms and rituals.

Symbolic interaction , which accepts symbols as culturally derived social objects that have shared meanings. These symbols provide a means to construct reality.

Hermeneutics

Originally, the term hermeneutics referred exclusively to the study of sacred texts such as the Talmud or the Bible.

Hermeneuticists originally used various methods to get at the meaning of these texts, such as through studying the meaning of terms and phrases from the document in other writings from the same era, the social and political context in which the passage was written, and the way the concepts discussed are used in other parts of the document (Williams, 2000).

Gradually, however, hermeneutics expanded beyond this original meaning to include understanding human action in context.

There are many variations on hermeneutics; however, Smith (1991) concluded that they all share two characteristics in common:

An emphasis on the importance of language in understanding, because language can both limit and make possible what people can say,

An emphasis on the context, particularly the historical one, as a frame for understanding, because human behavior and ideas must be understood in context, rather than in isolation.

Hermeneutics has several different subcategories, including validation, critical, and philosophical. The first of these, validation, is based on post positivism and assumes that hermeneutics can be a scientific way to find the truth.

Critical hermeneutics is focused on critical theory, and aims to highlight the historical conditions that lead to oppression.

Finally, philosophical hermeneutics aims to develop understanding and rejects the idea that there is a certain research method that will uncover the truth without fail (Smith, 1991).

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a type of social action theory that focuses on studying people’s perceptions of the world.

Understanding different perspectives often call for different methods of research and different ways of reporting results. Research methods that attempt to examine the subjective perceptions of the person being studied are often called phenomenological research methods.

Interpretivists generally tend to use qualitative methods such as case studies and ethnography, writing reports that are rich in detail in order to depict the context needed for understanding.

Ethnography

Ethnography, a research method derived largely from anthropology, emphasizes studying a phenomenon within the context of its culture.

In practice, an ethnographic researcher must immerse themself into a social culture over an extended period of time and engage, observe, and record the daily life of the culture being studied and its social participants within their natural setting.

In addition, ethnographic researchers must take extensive field notes and narrate their experience in descriptive detail so that readers can experience the same culture as the researcher.

This gives the researcher two roles: relying on their unique knowledge and engagement to generate insights, and convincing the scientific community that this behavior applies across different situations (Schwandt, 1994).

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism starts which the assumptions that humans inhabit a symbolic world, in which symbols, such as language, have a shared meaning.

The social world is therefore constructed by the meaning that individual attach to events and phenomena and these are transmitted across generations through language.

A central concept of symbolic interactionism is the Self , which allows individuals to calculate the effects of their actions.

Interpretivist Research Designs

Interpretivists can collect qualitative data using a variety of techniques. The most frequent of these are interviews. These can manifest in many forms, such as face-to-face, over the telephone, or in focus groups.

Another technique for interpretivist data collection is observation. Observation can include direct observation, a technique common to case research where the researcher is a neutral and passive external observer and is not involved in the phenomena that they are studying.

Thirdly, interpretivists can use documentation as a data collecting technique, collecting external and internal documents, such as memos, emails, annual reports, financial statements, newspaper articles, websites, and so on — to cast further insight into a phenomenon of interest or to corroborate other forms of evidence (Smith, 1993).

Some examples of actions may include organizational changes, such as through introducing people or technology, initiated with the goal of improving an organization’s performance or profitability as a business.

Examples of Interpretive Research

Decision making in businesses.

Although interpretive research tends to rely heavily on qualitative data, quantitative data can add more precision and create a clearer understanding of the phenomenon being studied than qualitative data.

For example, Eisenhardt (1989) conducted an interpretive study of decision-making in high-velocity firms.

Eisenhardt collected numerical data on how long it took each firm to make certain strategic decisions (ranging from 1.5 months to 18 months), how many decision alternatives were considered for each decision, and surveyed her respondents to capture their perceptions of organizational conflict.

This numerical data helped Eisenhardt to clearly distinguish high-speed decision making firms from low-speed decision makers without relying on respondents” subjective perceptions.

This differentiation then allowed Eisenhardt to examine the number of decision alternatives considered by and the extent of conflict in high-speed and low-speed firms.

Eisenhardt”s study is one example of how interpretivist researchers can use a mixture of quantitative and qualitative data to study their phenomena of interest.

Teaching and Technology

Waxman and Huang (1996) conducted an interpretivist study on the relationship between computers and teaching strategies.

While positivists and post positivists may use the data from that study to make a general statement about the relationship between computers and teaching strategies, interpretivists would argue that the context of the study could alter this general conclusion entirely.

For example, Waxman and Huang (1996) mention in their paper that the school district where the data were collected had provided training for teachers that emphasized the use of “constructivist” approaches to teaching and learning.

This training may mean that the study would have generated different results in a school district where teachers were provided extensive training on a different teaching method.

Interpretivists are concerned about how data are situated, and how this context can affect the data.

Interpretivism vs. Positivism

Whereas positivism looks for universals based on data, interpretivism looks for an understanding of a particular context, because this context is critical to interpreting the data gathered.

Generally, interpretivist research is prepared to sacrifice reliability and representativeness for greater validity while positivism requires research to be valid, reliable, and representative.

While a positivist may use largely quantitative research methods, official statistics, social surveys, questionnaires, and structured interviews to conduct research, interpretivists may rely on qualitative methods, such as personal documents , participant observation, and unstructured interviews (Alharahshel & Pius, 2020; Bhattacherjee, 2012).

Interprevists and positivists also differ in how they see the relationship between the society and the individual. Positivists believe that society shapes the individual, and that society consists of “social facts” that exercise coercive control over individuals.

This means that people”s actions can generally be explained by the social norms that they have been exposed to through socialization, social class, gender, and ethnic background.

Many positivist researchers view interpretive research as erroneous and biased, given the subjective nature of qualitative data collection and the process of interpretation used in such research.

However, the failure of many positivist techniques to generate insights has resulted in a resurgence of interest in interpretive research since the 1970s, now informed with exacting methods and criteria to ensure the reliability and validity of interpretive inferences (Bhattacherjee, 2012).

Alharahsheh, H. H., & Pius, A. (2020). A review of key paradigms: Positivism VS interpretivism . Global Academic Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2 (3), 39-43.

Bhattacherjee, A. (2012). Social science research: Principles, methods, and practices . University of South Florida.

Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Making fast strategic decisions in high-velocity environments. Academy of Management Journal, 32 (3), 543-576.

Goldkuhl, G. (2012). Pragmatism vs interpretivism in qualitative information systems research .  European journal of information systems, 21 (2), 135-146.

Kuhn, T. S. (1970). Criticism and the growth of knowledge: Volume 4: Proceedings of the International Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science , London, 1965 (Vol. 4). Cambridge University Press.

Myers, M. D. (2008). Qualitative Research in Business & Management . SAGE Publications.

Schwandt, T. A. (1994). Constructivist, interpretivist approaches to human inquiry. Handbook of qualitative research, 1 (1994), 118-137.

Schwartz-Shea, P., & Yanow, D. (2013). Interpretive research design: Concepts and processes . Routledge.

Smith, D. G. (1991). Hermeneutic inquiry: The hermeneutic imagination and the pedagogic text. Forms of curriculum inquiry , 3.

Smith, J. K. (1993). After the demise of empiricism: The problem of judging social and education inquiry .

Waxman, H. C., & Huang, S. Y. L. (1996). Classroom instruction differences by level of technology use in middle school mathematics. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 14 (2), 157-169.

Walsham, G. (1995). The emergence of interpretivism in IS research .  Information systems research, 6 (4), 376-394.

Williams, M. (2000). Interpretivism and generalisation. Sociology, 34 (2), 209-224.

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22 Case Study Research: In-Depth Understanding in Context

Helen Simons, School of Education, University of Southampton

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This chapter explores case study as a major approach to research and evaluation. After first noting various contexts in which case studies are commonly used, the chapter focuses on case study research directly Strengths and potential problematic issues are outlined and then key phases of the process. The chapter emphasizes how important it is to design the case, to collect and interpret data in ways that highlight the qualitative, to have an ethical practice that values multiple perspectives and political interests, and to report creatively to facilitate use in policy making and practice. Finally, it explores how to generalize from the single case. Concluding questions center on the need to think more imaginatively about design and the range of methods and forms of reporting requiredto persuade audiences to value qualitative ways of knowing in case study research.

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A Guide to Field Philosophy

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Philosophers increasingly engage in practical work with other disciplines and the world at large. This volume draws together the lessons learned from this work—including philosophers’ contributions to scientific research projects, consultations on matters of policy, and expertise provided to government agencies and non-profits—on how to effectively practice philosophy. Its 22 case studies are organized into five sections:

I Collaboration and Communication

II Policymaking and the Public Sphere

III Fieldwork in the Academy

IV Fieldwork in the Professions

V Changing Philosophical Practice

Together, these essays provide a practical, how-to guide for doing philosophy in the field—how to find problems that can benefit from philosophical contributions, effectively collaborate with other professionals and community members, make fieldwork a positive part of a philosophical career, and anticipate and negotiate the sorts of unanticipated problems that crop up in direct public engagement.

Key features:

• Gives specific advice on how to integrate philosophy with outside groups.
• Offers examples from working with the public and private sectors, community organizations, and academic groups.
• Provides lessons learned, often summarized at the end of chapters, for how to practice philosophy in the field.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 | 14  pages, digging, sowing, building, part i | 65  pages, collaboration and communication, chapter 2 | 18  pages, embedding ethics in neural engineering, chapter 3 | 13  pages, chapter 4 | 18  pages, philosophical dialogue as field philosophy, chapter 5 | 14  pages, part ii | 79  pages, policymaking and the public sphere, chapter 6 | 12  pages, learning to collaborate in development policy, chapter 7 | 16  pages, philosophy in the ipcc, chapter 8 | 16  pages, philosophy and science policy, chapter 9 | 16  pages, philosophical boundary work for wildlife conservation, chapter 10 | 17  pages, values-informed decision support, part iii | 79  pages, fieldwork in the academy, chapter 11 | 15  pages, university leadership as philosophical fieldwork, chapter 12 | 15  pages, we are always already engaged, chapter 13 | 16  pages, promoting ethics in stem and society, chapter 14 | 13  pages, a philosopher’s field guide to talking with engineers, chapter 15 | 18  pages, ecotourism with a hand-lens, part iv | 57  pages, fieldwork in the professions, chapter 16 | 15  pages, balancing theoretical autonomy and practical engagement1, chapter 17 | 13  pages, the cutting edge, chapter 18 | 14  pages, advocating for human trafficking victims, chapter 19 | 13  pages, field philosophy in an actual field, part v | 70  pages, changing philosophical practice, chapter 20 | 17  pages, grassroots philosophy and going against the grain, chapter 21 | 13  pages, philosophy and addiction, chapter 22 | 18  pages, formal epistemology in a tropical savanna, chapter 23 | 14  pages, learning from a fracking fracas, chapter 24 | 6  pages, the future of field philosophy.

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Library Guides

Dissertations 4: methodology: introduction & philosophy.

• Introduction & Philosophy
• Methodology

Introduction

The methodology introduction is a paragraph that describes both the design of the study and the organization of the chapter. This prepares the reader for what is to follow and provides a framework within which to incorporate the materials. 

This paragraph says to the reader, “This is the methodology chapter, this is how it is organized, and this is the type of design I used.” 

In this introduction, you can also state:  

The objectives of your research and/or 

The research question or hypothesis to be tested 

Research Philosophy

Carrying out your own research for your dissertation means that you are engaging in the creation of knowledge. Research philosophy is an aspect of this. It is belief about the way studies should be conducted, how data should be collected and how it is then analysed and used.  At its deepest level, it includes considerations of what is (ontology), like, is there an objective truth or is it everything subjective, and how to know (epistemology), like, can we know the truth, and how can we get to know it.

Writing about your research philosophy, therefore, involves reflecting on your assumptions and beliefs about data collection to develop, analyse, challenge and evaluate them.  

If you need to have a research philosophy section in your dissertation, the handout attached below provides some guidance.  

• Research Philosophies Offers descriptions of different research philosophies
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• Published: 08 August 2024

Comprehensive study on the efficiency of vertical bifacial photovoltaic systems: a UK case study

• Ghadeer Badran 1 &
• Mahmoud Dhimish 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  18380 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Photovoltaics
• Renewable energy
• Solar energy

This paper presents the first comprehensive study of a groundbreaking Vertically Mounted Bifacial Photovoltaic (VBPV) system, marking a significant innovation in solar energy technology. The VBPV system, characterized by its vertical orientation and the use of high-efficiency Heterojunction cells, introduces a novel concept diverging from traditional solar panel installations. Our empirical research, conducted over a full year at the University of York, UK, offers an inaugural assessment of this pioneering technology. The study reveals that the VBPV system significantly outperforms both a vertically mounted monofacial PV (VMPV) system and a conventional tilted monofacial PV (TMPV) system in energy output. Key findings include a daily power output increase of 7.12% and 10.12% over the VMPV system and an impressive 26.91% and 22.88% enhancement over the TMPV system during early morning and late afternoon hours, respectively. Seasonal analysis shows average power gains of 11.42% in spring, 8.13% in summer, 10.94% in autumn, and 12.45% in winter compared to the VMPV system. Against the TMPV system, these gains are even more substantial, peaking at 24.52% in winter. These results underscore the VBPV system's exceptional efficiency in harnessing solar energy across varied environmental conditions, establishing it as a promising and sustainable solution in solar energy technology.

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Introduction.

Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology has become a cornerstone of the renewable energy revolution, offering a clean, sustainable solution to the world's growing energy demands 1 . At its core, solar PV harnesses the sun's energy, converting it directly into electricity through semiconducting materials. This technology has traditionally been dominated by monofacial PV modules 2 , which collect sunlight from a single surface facing the sun. However, as the need for more efficient and cost-effective energy solutions intensifies, the evolution of solar PV has given rise to the bifacial module 3 , 4 —a novel approach to solar energy capture that promises to redefine the efficiency standards of solar energy systems.

Bifacial PV modules, as shown in Fig.  1 , are designed to capture sunlight on both their front and rear surfaces, utilizing direct sunlight and the light that reaches the rear surface through ground reflection and diffuse albedo 5 , 6 . Despite relying on silicon cells with the same spectral response as monofacial PV modules, the dual-sided design of bifacial modules allows them to significantly enhance energy yield by absorbing reflected and diffused light from surrounding surfaces 7 . This design is particularly beneficial in environments with high ground reflectivity or engineered ground covers to increase reflectivity 8 .

Illustration of bifacial PV system operation. The arrows indicate the different pathways of sunlight: yellow arrows represent direct sunlight hitting the front surface and the ground, orange arrows indicate the sunlight reflected from the ground hitting the rear surface, and red arrows depict the diffuse sunlight captured by both the front and rear surfaces 11 .

The evolution of bifacial PV modules represents more than just an incremental improvement in solar technology; it signifies a paradigm shift in how solar energy is harvested. Unlike traditional monofacial systems 9 that are limited by their unidirectional light capture, bifacial systems exploit the full spectrum of solar irradiance. This is achieved through a combination of advanced cell technology and innovative panel designs, which optimize light absorption from multiple angles 10 . The result is a marked increase in energy production per unit area, a critical factor in maximizing the efficiency of solar installations.

Moreover, the integration of bifacial PV technology aligns seamlessly with the global push towards sustainable development. By enhancing the power output of solar installations without the need for additional land, bifacial PV systems contribute to a more efficient use of resources. This efficiency is not confined to optimal conditions; bifacial modules demonstrate resilience in a variety of environmental settings 11 , 12 , including regions with lower solar irradiance and urban landscapes 13 where space and light conditions are constrained.

The significance of bifacial PV modules extends beyond their operational advantages. Their deployment has profound implications for energy policy, economic planning, and environmental strategy. By offering a more versatile and powerful solution for solar energy generation, bifacial PV systems can accelerate the transition to renewable energy sources, reduce dependency on fossil fuels, and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

In the realm of bifacial PV technology, various configurations have been explored to maximize the efficiency and adaptability of solar energy systems. These include vertical, tilted, and other innovative arrangements, each with its unique operational characteristics and applications. Vertical bifacial PV systems: These systems involve panels mounted in a vertical orientation. The key advantage of vertical bifacial PV is its ability to capture sunlight effectively throughout the day, from both sides of the panel 14 . This configuration is particularly beneficial in higher latitudes where the sun is lower in the sky 15 . Vertical systems are also less prone to accumulating dirt and debris, reducing maintenance requirements. Current research indicates that vertical bifacial systems can achieve significant energy gains in urban environments, where space is limited, and in regions with considerable diffuse light 16 .

Tilted bifacial PV Systems: Tilted systems are more traditional, where panels are installed at an angle to maximize exposure to direct sunlight. Bifacial panels in this configuration can capture reflected light from the ground or any reflective surface below. The optimal tilt angle is a subject of ongoing research, with studies 17 , 18 , 19 suggesting that slight adjustments in the tilt can lead to substantial increases in energy capture, particularly in areas with high ground albedo. And finally, tracking bifacial PV systems: These are dynamic systems where panels can adjust their orientation to follow the sun’s path 20 . This tracking capability, combined with bifacial technology, maximizes solar energy capture throughout the day. Research 21 , 22 shows that tracking bifacial systems offer the highest yield, especially in regions with high direct sunlight, making them a promising solution for large-scale solar farms.

Each of these configurations brings unique advantages and challenges, shaping the current research and development in the field of bifacial PV technology. Studies are continually underway to optimize the design, installation, and operational parameters of these systems. This includes investigating factors like the optimal distance between rows of panels 23 to prevent shading, the effect of different surfaces 24 and materials on light reflection, and the integration of smart technologies for performance monitoring and optimization. Furthermore, the performance of bifacial PV systems is significantly influenced by shading and the reflective properties of surrounding surfaces. Shading can reduce the overall efficiency by blocking sunlight from reaching both the front and rear surfaces of the panels. Detailed models of shading and illumination, such as those reported by 25 and 26 , provide comprehensive insights into these effects. In 25 the authors demonstrated that partial shading could lead to substantial reductions in energy output, especially in high-density installations. Further work by 26 explored the impacts of various surface materials and albedo on bifacial PV performance, showing that engineered surfaces with higher reflectivity can enhance energy yield by increasing the diffuse light captured by the rear surface of the panels. These models underscore the importance of considering shading and surface properties in the design and deployment of bifacial PV systems to optimize their performance.

The evolution of bifacial PV modules represents more than just an incremental improvement in solar technology; it signifies a paradigm shift in how solar energy is harvested. Unlike traditional monofacial systems that are limited by their unidirectional light capture, bifacial systems exploit the full spectrum of solar irradiance. This is achieved through a combination of advanced cell technology and innovative panel designs, which optimize light absorption from multiple angles. While Heterojunction (HJT) cells are a prominent technology used in bifacial modules, other technologies such as n-type 27 , Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell (PERC) 28 , Passivated Emitter Rear Totally Diffused (PERT) 29 , Passivated Emitter Rear Locally Diffused (PERL) 30 , and Interdigitated Back Contact (IBC) 30 solar cells are also suitable for bifacial applications, demonstrating widely successful results. These technologies collectively contribute to the marked increase in energy production per unit area 31 , a critical factor in maximizing the efficiency of solar installations.

This study introduces the first-ever exploration and publication on the vertically mounted bifacial photovoltaic (VBPV) system, a groundbreaking advancement in solar energy technology. This prototype's uniqueness stems from its vertical orientation and the use of high-efficiency Heterojunction (HJT) cells, a significant departure from traditional solar panel setups. Our research is pioneering in its empirical approach, offering the initial real-world evaluation of the VBPV system's performance across various environmental conditions over an entire year. This includes a comparative analysis with conventional monofacial systems, providing new insights into the practical efficiencies and benefits of bifacial technology. Additionally, the study navigates the complexities of modelling such an innovative system, addressing the challenges in accurately predicting performance and highlighting the need for advanced simulation techniques.

Materials and methods

New vertical pv bifacial concept design.

This study presents a pioneering exploration and evaluation of the vertically mounted bifacial photovoltaic system, focusing on its unique design and operational characteristics. The VBPV system utilizes high-efficiency HJT cells and is mounted in a vertical orientation, which significantly differs from traditional solar panel setups 32 , 33 . The experimental setup involved the installation of the VBPV system on the rooftop of the Physics Tower at the University of York (Fig.  2 a). The system comprises 36 series-connected PV units with a maximum output power of 1.5 kW under standard test conditions (STC) of 1000 W/m 2 irradiance and 25 °C ambient temperature. The location of the system was selected to maximize exposure to sunlight while also taking advantage of the reflective properties of the surrounding environment. The ground surface material beneath and around the PV modules is white gravel, known for its high albedo. This choice of material enhances the diffuse reflection, thereby increasing the amount of light captured by the rear side of the bifacial panels and boosting the overall energy yield. This setup ensures that the system benefits from both direct and reflected sunlight, optimizing its performance across various environmental conditions.

The new VBPV system examined in this work. ( a ) The system is located on the rooftop of the Physics Tower at the University of York, UK. The ground surface material is white gravel, chosen to enhance the albedo effect and increase the diffuse reflection captured by the rear side of the bifacial panels, ( b ) CFD simulation of the VBPV system under examination in this work, indicating the system has negligible lift forces at extreme wind speeds of 27.2 m/s.

The distance between each row of modules is 50 cm. This spacing was determined based on extensive simulations by Over Easy Solar AS, Norway, to optimize the balance between minimizing shading and maximizing ground reflection. This decision, while not arbitrary, aligns with findings from other research indicating that the optimal distance is a function of module height and should be carefully considered for each specific installation 34 , 35 , 36 . In addition to the nominal power output, the system's performance characteristics include a temperature coefficient of −0.29%/°C and a conversion efficiency of 22.5%, which are critical for understanding the operational efficiency and resilience of the VBPV system under varying environmental conditions.

The performance of the VBPV system was continuously monitored over a full annual cycle, from February 2023 to December 2023, and compared against a vertically mounted monocrystalline silicon monofacial PV (VMPV) system and a traditional tilted monofacial PV (TMPV) system. Data was recorded using a 3-kW inverter integrated with the university's grid, allowing for real-time tracking and analysis of energy production. This comprehensive empirical approach provides valuable insights into the practical efficiencies and benefits of bifacial technology, highlighting the superior performance of the VBPV system under varied environmental conditions.

The VBPV system was subjected to a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation to assess its aerodynamic stability. The simulation was conducted using ANSYS Fluent, employing a k-ε turbulence model to accurately capture the airflow dynamics around the panels. The boundary conditions included an inlet wind speed of up to 27 m/s, representing extreme weather conditions that the system might encounter. The panels were modeled with a surface roughness corresponding to the actual material properties, and the spacing between panels was set at 50 cm, as per the physical setup.

The CFD simulation results, shown in Fig.  2 b, reveal that the VBPV system maintains minimal lift forces even at high wind speeds of up to 27 m/s. This indicates exceptional aerodynamic stability, which is crucial for ensuring the durability and safety of the installation in adverse weather conditions. In comparison, traditional tilted PV systems have been documented to experience higher lift forces under similar wind conditions due to their inclined surfaces which can act like airfoils.

Data comparison and analysis

The innovative VBPV system under study is strategically positioned on the rooftop of the Physics Tower at the University of York, UK. It has been meticulously oriented towards the south to optimize solar gain. This system is seamlessly integrated with a 3-kW inverter, which facilitates the direct feed of generated electricity into the university's grid. The performance data of the system is meticulously monitored and recorded through the inverter's online platform, ensuring real-time tracking and analysis of energy production.

The installation of the VBPV system was completed in December 2022, with its official commissioning taking place in January 2023. As such, the performance data presented and analyzed in this work encompasses a comprehensive annual cycle, ranging from February 2023 to the end of December 2023. This dataset provides a robust foundation for assessing the system’s efficiency and energy output across various seasonal conditions.

To establish a baseline for comparison and underscore the VBPV system's performance, we juxtaposed its data against that of a vertically mounted monocrystalline silicon monofacial PV (VMPV) system situated adjacent to it, with the same PV capacity of 1.5 kW. This parallel analysis illuminates the advantages of bifacial technology in a like-for-like vertical setup. Furthermore, to extend the comparative analysis, we scrutinized the VBPV system's output relative to that of a traditional tiled 1.5 kW polycrystalline silicon monofacial PV system (TMPV). The latter is installed at the customary 45-degree angle prevalent in UK solar installations, thus representing the conventional approach to solar energy generation in the region; all PV configurations examined in this work are presented in Fig.  3 .

Comparison of Three Examined Photovoltaic (PV) System Configurations.

The power gain between two PV systems, such as the VBPV compared to VMPV or TMPV, is calculated using (1).

where \(Power\; Output_{VBPV}\) is the electrical power output of the VBPV, and \( Power \;Output_{Reference\; System}\) is the electrical power output of the reference system, which can be either VMPV or TMPV.

Vertical bifacial PV vs vertical monofacial PV

In the evaluation of PV systems performance, a comparative analysis was conducted between the VBPV system and the VMPV system. The results, illustrated in Fig.  4 a, b, present a compelling narrative on the efficacy of bifacial technology in solar energy capture throughout the day. Figure  4 a delineates the power output patterns of both systems over a 24-h period. Notably, the VBPV system exhibited a pronounced increase in power generation during the early morning hours, from 5:30 to 9:00 AM, where a bifacial gain of 1.64 kWh was recorded. This trend was not an isolated incident; a similar surge was observed in the late afternoon window from 5:00 to 8:30 PM, with an additional gain of 1.39 kWh. Collectively, these increments contributed to a total daily power output of 24.57 kWh for the VBPV system, compared to 23.3 kWh for the VMPV system, marking a 1.27 kWh gain or a 7.87% improvement.

Comparative daily power output of VBPV versus VMPV Systems, highlighting bifacial gain in early morning and late afternoon hours, ( a ) Day 1, ( b ) Day 2. This data was taken on 26th April 2023, with a mean temperature of 14.3 °C.

Complementing this, Fig.  4 b reaffirms the superior performance of the VBPV system under what can be presumed to be varying operational conditions. The early morning hours once again showed an enhanced power output with a gain of 2.46 kWh, while the afternoon session contributed an additional 1.87 kWh. Collectively, these increments contributed to a total daily power output of 24.66 kWh for the VBPV system, compared to 22.85 kWh for the VMPV system, marking a 1.81 kWh gain or a 11.45% improvement.

The consistency with which the VBPV system outstripped the VMPV system in energy generation is a testament to the inherent advantages of bifacial technology. By effectively harnessing sunlight not only from direct overhead exposure but also from reflected light, the VBPV system demonstrates its capacity for increased energy capture, particularly during the low-angle sunlight periods at dawn and dusk. This ability to capitalize on diffuse and reflected irradiance adds a dimension of efficiency that is particularly advantageous in regions with significant ground albedo 21 , 24 or in installations with reflective surroundings.

Vertical bifacial PV vs tilted monofacial PV

Our comprehensive assessment extends to Fig.  5 a, b, which provide further evidence of the enhanced performance of the VBPV system compared to the TMPV system. These figures represent a pivotal set of data showcasing the daily power output and clearly delineate the differential advantages offered by the bifacial technology under varied lighting conditions.

Comparative daily power output of VBPV versus TMPV Systems, ( a ) Day 1, ( b ) Day 2. This data was taken on 7 th May 2023, with a mean temperature of 16.7 °C.

In Fig.  5 a, we observe that the VBPV system significantly surpasses the TMPV system during the early hours, with a recorded bifacial gain of 3.24 kWh between 5:30 and 9:00 AM. This trend of increased efficiency extends to the latter part of the day, with an additional gain of 2.59 kWh noted from 5:00 to 8:30 PM. The aggregate gain for the VBPV system in this instance is an impressive 4.92 kWh, which equates to an enhancement of 25.38% when compared to its monofacial counterpart.

Similarly, Fig.  5 b corroborates the superior performance of the bifacial system. The morning hours once again present a marked advantage with a bifacial gain of 2.71 kWh. The evening period contributes to this lead with a gain of 2.03 kWh. Together, these increases amount to a total gain of 3.91 kWh for the VBPV system, representing a 21.40% boost in power output over the TMPV system.

The substantial gains in power output during the less intense light conditions of morning and evening highlight the potential for VBPV systems to provide a more consistent energy supply throughout the day, mitigating the well-known midday peak in power generation associated with traditional solar systems. This distribution of energy generation could align more closely with typical consumption patterns, thereby enhancing the match between supply and demand. For instance, residential energy consumption typically peaks in the early morning and late afternoon to evening hours, coinciding with periods when people are at home and engaging in activities such as cooking, heating, and using electronic devices 37 . Similarly, commercial buildings experience peak energy demand in the late morning and early afternoon, driven by the operation of lighting, HVAC systems, and office equipment 38 , 39 . By aligning energy generation with these demand patterns, VBPV systems can improve grid stability and reduce the reliance on energy storage solutions or supplementary power sources.

Monthly power gain comparison

This section analyzes the performance enhancements of the VBPV system in comparison to both VMPV and TMPV systems, as depicted in Figs.  6 and 7 , respectively. Figure  6 offers a nuanced view of the monthly power gains achieved by the VBPV system over the VMPV system, categorized by season. The histograms detail the frequency of power gain percentages, with a red dashed line indicating the seasonal average. In spring, the VBPV system shows a robust average power gain of 11.42%, indicating its superior performance during a time when sun angles and daylight hours start to increase. Summer, typically characterized by high solar irradiance, presents an average gain of 8.13%, a figure that might reflect high baseline performance from the VMPV system, reducing the relative gain. Autumn and winter follow with average gains of 10.94% and 12.45%, respectively, illustrating the VBPV system's effective light capture even during seasons with lower solar angles and shorter daylight hours.

VBPV compared to VMPV. ( a ) Monthly power gain (Percentage, %) for VBPV over VMPV. ( b ) Seasonal variations in power gain (Percentage, %) for VBPV over VMPV. The histograms represent the frequency distribution of the power gain percentages, and the red dashed lines indicate the seasonal average power gains.

VBPV compared to TMPV. ( a ) Monthly power gain (Percentage, %) for VBPV over TMPV. ( b ) Seasonal variations in power gain (Percentage, %) for VBPV over TMPV. The histograms represent the frequency distribution of the power gain percentages, and the red dashed lines indicate the seasonal average power gains.

Turning to Fig.  7 , the VBPV system's performance is compared with the TMPV system. Here, the seasonal average power gains are significantly higher, underscoring the VBPV system's advanced capabilities. Spring shows a remarkable average gain of 19.32%, indicating the profound impact of bifacial technology during this season. Summer months present an average gain of 14.77%, autumn shows a substantial 20.27%, and winter peaks with a 24.52% average gain, reinforcing the idea that the VBPV system's design is particularly beneficial in capturing low-angle light and diffused reflections, a common scenario in the colder months.

The data from Figs.  6 and 7 underscore the VBPV system's consistent and significant outperformance relative to both the VMPV and TMPV systems across all seasons. The marked efficiency of the VBPV system is reflective of its dual-capture capability, which enables it to harness light from both its front and rear surfaces. This capability is evidenced in the results by the substantial power gains observed during periods of diffuse light conditions, such as early morning and late afternoon, as well as during seasons with lower sun angles, like autumn and winter. Specifically, the VBPV system's ability to capture reflected light from the ground and surrounding surfaces significantly contributes to its enhanced performance, as demonstrated by the higher average power gains in comparison to monofacial systems. This dual-capture feature ensures that the VBPV system maximizes energy harvest from both direct sunlight and diffuse, reflected light, leading to a more consistent and higher overall energy output.

In concluding to this section, Fig.  8 offers a comprehensive statistical overview of the PV systems over an annual cycle. The box plot visualization encapsulates the monthly power gain percentages, delivering a succinct and robust comparative analysis. The box plots reveal that the VBPV system consistently exhibits higher power gains when compared to the TMPV and VMPV systems throughout the year. These gains are quantified by the median of each box, indicating that regardless of the month, the VBPV system capitalizes on its design, which allows it to capture additional energy from reflected light not accessible to monofacial systems.

Annual comparative analysis of monthly power gain percentages for VBPV versus TMPV and VBPV versus VMPV systems. The box plots illustrate the distribution of monthly power gain percentages for each system throughout the year. The blue box plot shows the power gain of the VBPV system compared to the TMPV system, while the green box plot shows the power gain of the VBPV system compared to the VMPV system. Median values are indicated by the horizontal lines within each box.

A critical observation from Fig.  8 is that the VBPV system not only outperforms the TMPV but also shows a significant advantage over the VMPV system. This distinction is noteworthy as it suggests that the enhancements in bifacial technology translate to tangible gains in power output, even when compared to a more conventional monofacial system like the VMPV. When analyzing the VBPV's performance against the TMPV system, we see an even more pronounced difference in reflective gain. The box plots for the VBPV and TMPV comparison stretch higher on the percentage axis, indicating that the traditional system, without the advanced technology of the VMPV, falls short in harnessing the available solar energy. Moreover, the box plots for the VBPV and VMPV comparison demonstrate that the VMPV, while more efficient than the TMPV, cannot match the VBPV system's capacity for increased energy capture. This pattern is consistent across all months, underlining the VBPV's superior design and efficiency.

To ascertain the financial benefits of VBPV systems, we conducted an analysis based on the monthly power gain percentages derived from empirical data, taken from Fig.  8 . Using an assumed standard monthly energy output of 1500 kWh as a baseline for all the systems, we applied the power gain percentages to estimate the additional energy produced solely due to the bifacial gain. The cost of electricity was factored in at the 2023 standard variable price of 28.62p/kWh. This price point reflects the retail electricity rate for an average consumer in the UK, which is subject to regional variations and market fluctuations. The analysis revealed discernible monthly fluctuations in savings (as shown in Fig.  9 ), which correspond with the changes in power gain percentages over the course of the year. The savings reached their zenith during the summer months, in alignment with the augmented power gains from increased solar irradiance. Conversely, the savings diminished during the winter months, reflecting the diminished solar irradiance inherent to the season.

Comparative Estimation of Monthly Savings Achieved Through Power Gain: A side-by-side comparison of the economic advantages of using VBPV systems versus VMPV systems (in green) and TMPV systems (in blue), across each month of the year.

For the VBPV compared with the VMPV systems, the additional solar energy captured by the bifacial technology translated into considerable monthly and cumulative annual savings. With the power output for these systems set at 1500 kWh, the use of VBPV systems resulted in a total estimated annual saving of £932.58 over the VMPV systems (Fig.  9 ). These savings are reflective of the consistent additional power generation offered by VBPV systems across all months, with the highest gains observed during the peak solar irradiance months of summer. In comparison to the TMPV systems, the VBPV systems demonstrated even greater economic advantages. The enhanced power gain percentages of VBPV systems, particularly noted during the winter months, emphasize their efficiency in low-irradiance conditions. The annual savings when comparing VBPV to TMPV systems amounted to a notable £1,221.13. This significant difference in savings highlights the VBPV system's ability to harness solar energy more effectively throughout the year, including during periods of lower sunlight availability.

In addition to the power gain analysis, a cost estimation comparison between the VBPV, VMPV, and TMPV systems is provided. The analysis considers the initial installation costs, maintenance costs, and the economic benefits derived from the increased energy output of the VBPV system. The initial installation cost of the VBPV system is higher than that of the VMPV and TMPV systems due to the advanced bifacial technology and the need for specialized mounting structures. Based on current market prices, the estimated cost per kW for VBPV systems is approximately £1,200, compared to £1,000 for VMPV and £900 for TMPV systems. Maintenance costs for VBPV systems are slightly lower due to the reduced accumulation of dirt and debris on vertically mounted panels.

To provide a comprehensive economic comparison, the annual energy savings and return on investment (ROI) were calculated. The cost of electricity in the UK is approximately £0.2862 per kWh. The annual additional energy produced by the VBPV system, as demonstrated in Fig.  9 , results in significant cost savings compared to VMPV and TMPV systems.

Bificail PV system gain vs solar irradiance

This section presents a critical analysis of the modeling challenges and successes encountered in simulating the performance of bifacial PV systems. Plane of Array (POA) irradiance, which refers to the solar irradiance incident on the plane of the PV array, is a key parameter in this analysis. However, to provide a complete picture of the relations, both direct and diffuse irradiance contributions to the bifacial gain are compared.

Figure  10 illuminates the relationship between bifacial gain and incident light, showcasing a clear trend where increased diffuse irradiance correlates with higher bifacial gain. This direct association highlights the complex interplay between light conditions and the energy capture efficiency of bifacial panels 7 . The scatter of data points emphasizes the difficulty in predicting performance due to the variability of solar irradiance, especially the proportion of diffuse light 40 . Such insights indicate that current modeling approaches may need refinement to account for this variability. This complexity is further evidenced by the limited data available for bifacial systems, which constrains the ability of models to accurately capture the nuances of their performance. The scarcity of robust datasets is a significant hurdle, suggesting a pressing need for more comprehensive data collection to improve the predictability and reliability of bifacial PV system models.

Correlation between bifacial gain and diffuse irradiance, highlighting the importance of diffuse light in bifacial PV system performance. The scatter plots show data points and regression lines indicating the trend, highlighting the significant role of diffuse irradiance in bifacial PV system performance.

Transitioning to Fig.  11 a, we examine the initial modeling attempts using the SAM NREL model 41 , 42 , which did not adequately capture the performance of the VBPV system. The figure portrays a significant discrepancy between modeled DC power and measured DC power, evidenced by the mean model error of 37.16% and an RMSE of 0.38%. This gap between expected and actual performance underscores the limitations of the model when it does not incorporate critical factors such as the variability of sunlight, particularly the diffuse component.

Modelling VBPV system output power (mix between hourly and daily data samples), ( a ) Initial modelling results, ( b ) Refined modelling results with adjusted sunlight variability.

In the quest to enhance the fidelity of PV system performance models, the incorporation of sunlight variability, specifically the ratio of diffuse to direct sunlight, stands as a pivotal aspect. This is particularly crucial for bifacial PV systems due to their ability to capture light from both their front and rear sides. The ratio of diffuse to direct sunlight can dramatically influence the amount of light received by the rear side of bifacial panels, which is not directly exposed to the sun. For this reason, Fig.  11 b presents a refined modeling approach where the variability of the sun, especially the ratio of diffuse to direct sunlight, is accounted for. The adjusted model results in a markedly improved correlation between modeled and measured DC power, with a substantially reduced mean model error of 11.55% and an RMSE of 0.12%. This improved alignment validates our hypothesis that incorporating the dynamic nature of sunlight, and its interactions with bifacial panels, is essential to accurately simulate their performance.

The refined model can be described by a set of equations that account for the bifacial gain, which is a function of both the direct and diffuse components of solar irradiance. The ratio of diffuse to direct irradiance, also known as the clearness index, is a crucial parameter in evaluating the performance of bifacial PV systems. This ratio, widely reported in the literature, indicates the proportion of solar radiation that is diffuse as opposed to direct. A higher clearness index signifies more diffuse light, which is particularly advantageous for bifacial systems as they can capture light from both their front and rear surfaces. According to 43 , understanding the clearness index is essential for accurately modeling bifacial PV performance, as it affects the amount of light available for the rear side of the panels. Similarly 44 , emphasized that regions with higher diffuse irradiance ratios exhibit enhanced bifacial gains. These findings underscore the importance of incorporating the clearness index in performance models for bifacial PV systems.

Let \({G}_{bifacial}\) be the bifacial gain, \({I}_{direct}\) is the direct irradiance, \({I}_{diffuse}\) is the diffuse irradiance, therefore, the bificail gain can be calculated in (2).

where \(\propto \) is the bifaciality coefficient for ground-reflected irradiance, \({R}_{ground}\) is the ground albedo, \(\beta \) is the bifaciality coefficient for sky-diffuse irradiance, and \({R}_{sky}\) is a factor representing the effective sky view factor affecting diffuse irradiance capture. The total amount of power output, \({P}_{modelled}\) , can then be calculated by (3). Where \({P}_{STC}\) is the power output under standard test conditions, \({\eta }_{conversion}\) is the conversion efficiency of the PV cells, and \(FF\) is the fill factor.

To calibrate the model with respect to the ratio of diffuse to direct sunlight, we introduce weighting coefficients that adjust the impact of each component on the total irradiance. The calibration process involves optimizing these coefficients so that the model output matches measured data as closely as possible. This was achieved by adjusting, \({w}_{direct}\) and \({w}_{diffuse}\) , the weighting coefficients for direct and diffuse irradiance, respectively. And therefore, to find the total effective irradiance, \({I}_{effective}\) calculated using (4). The optimization process aims to find the values of \({w}_{direct}\) and \({w}_{diffuse}\) , that minimize the error between the modeled and measured power output. This was achieved using an Levenberg–Marquardt optimization algorithm 45 , which is suited for solving non-linear least squares problems 46 .

Figure  12 presents the outcomes of modelling bifacial gain versus irradiance over two distinct temporal scales: daily and hourly. In the top panel, showcasing daily data, we observe the daily bifacial gain plotted against the day of the year. The data points, marked in blue, display a degree of variability that seems to follow a seasonal trend, likely reflecting the sinusoidal nature of solar irradiance throughout the year. A polynomial model fit, depicted by the red dashed line, attempts to capture this underlying trend. The fit seems to trace the central tendency of the data but does not adhere closely to individual data points, reflecting in a mean model error of 3.71% and an RMSE of 0.07. These metrics suggest that while the model grasps the general pattern, there is room for improvement, particularly in capturing the daily variability.

Comparative analysis of bifacial gain vs. irradiance on daily and hourly basis. The top panel illustrates the variation and model fit of daily bifacial gain over a year, while the bottom panel depicts the hourly bifacial gain for a week. The polynomial model fits (red dashed line for daily data, orange dashed line for hourly data) highlight the challenge in capturing temporal dynamics in bifacial PV system performance.

The bottom panel of Fig.  12 displays the hourly data, where each green dot represents the hourly bifacial gain for a particular hour of the week. Here, the volatility is more pronounced, reflecting the more dynamic changes in irradiance that occur throughout the day. The hourly model fit, illustrated by the orange dashed line, shows considerable deviation from the actual data points, with a mean error of 9.61% and an RMSE of 0.19. This discrepancy indicates that the hourly variations in irradiance and corresponding bifacial gain are not adequately captured by the current model, suggesting a need for a more complex or different modeling approach for short-term predictions.

The environmental and economic implications of adopting VBPV systems on a large scale are multifaceted and far-reaching. Environmentally, the most significant impact would be the substantial reduction in carbon emissions. Solar power is a clean, renewable resource, and the increased efficiency of VBPV systems means that more electricity can be generated per unit area compared to traditional solar solutions. This increased efficiency is critical in densely populated or land-scarce regions where the optimization of limited space is essential. Furthermore, the dual-sided nature of bifacial panels captures reflected light, enhancing energy yield and reducing the need for additional land, which is crucial for preserving natural habitats and biodiversity. These findings are consistent with studies that highlight the environmental benefits of bifacial PV systems, such as reduced land use 47 and lower carbon footprint 48 .

From an economic standpoint, the adoption of VBPV systems could lead to substantial cost savings over time. Although the initial investment might be higher than traditional systems due to the advanced technology involved, the higher energy yield and efficiency of VBPV systems will likely result in lower long-term costs. According to recent studies, bifacial PV systems can provide a return on investment that is 20–30% higher compared to monofacial systems due to the additional energy captured from the rear side 47 , 48 . Additionally, the maintenance costs might be lower due to the vertical design, which is less prone to dirt accumulation and potential shading issues. This factor alone could make VBPV systems more economically viable, especially in regions where labour and maintenance costs are significant factors.

The findings of this study have profound implications for global renewable energy strategies. The enhanced efficiency of VBPV systems aligns well with the growing global emphasis on sustainable development and the urgent need to shift to renewable energy sources. Studies have demonstrated the viability of bifacial PV systems in various urban environments, highlighting their adaptability and high energy yield even in constrained spaces 47 . For instance, bifacial PV installations on building facades and rooftops have shown significant energy production benefits 49 , supporting the transition to more sustainable urban infrastructure. By demonstrating the potential of VBPV systems in diverse environmental settings, this technology could play a pivotal role in the transition to a low-carbon economy.

In terms of policy and planning, these findings could influence government and industry leaders to reconsider their investment strategies. Encouraging the adoption of VBPV technology in urban planning and building design could be a significant step towards achieving energy efficiency targets. The literature since 2018 has explored various aspects of bifacial PV systems, emphasizing their efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and integration into smart grids such 50 , 51 . Future research should focus on testing VBPV systems in a variety of geographical locations and environmental conditions to validate and extend these findings. Additionally, it would be beneficial to explore the integration of VBPV systems with other renewable energy technologies such as wind or hydroelectric power to create more robust and resilient energy systems.

The specific geographical location and environmental conditions of York, UK, where this study was conducted, play a significant role in the performance of VBPV systems. York experiences a temperate maritime climate, characterized by relatively mild temperatures throughout the year, moderate rainfall, and variable cloud cover. The average annual temperature is around 10°C, with average daylight hours ranging from approximately 5–7 h in winter to 14–16 h in summer. The sun angle in York varies significantly with the seasons, reaching a maximum elevation of about 62 degrees during the summer solstice and a minimum of approximately 15 degrees during the winter solstice. These climatic conditions and solar geometry are critical factors influencing the performance of VBPV systems, as they determine the amount of direct and diffuse irradiance received by the panels.

In summary, the environmental and economic potential of VBPV systems is significant, with the possibility to make a considerable impact on global renewable energy strategies. However, acknowledging and addressing the limitations of current research is crucial in advancing this technology and maximizing its benefits.

Conclusions

This pioneering study on the VBPV system marks a significant leap forward in the realm of solar energy technology. Our comprehensive year-long research at the University of York, UK, serves as the first in-depth exploration of this innovative concept, diverging from conventional solar panel installations. The VBPV system, with its vertical orientation and utilization of advanced HJT cells, has demonstrated exceptional performance, surpassing traditional solar solutions in efficiency and energy output.

Key findings of this study reveal the superior capability of the VBPV system compared to its counterparts. Notably, the system outperformed VMPV system, showing a 7.12% and 10.12% increase in daily power output during early morning and late afternoon periods. When compared to a traditional TMPV system, the VBPV system exhibited even more remarkable gains, with a 26.91% and 22.88% enhancement in energy output in similar time frames. Seasonal analysis further highlights the system's efficiency, with average power gains of 11.42% in spring, 8.13% in summer, 10.94% in autumn, and 12.45% in winter over the VMPV system. Against the TMPV system, these gains peaked at an impressive 24.52% in the winter months.

These findings underscore the VBPV system's unparalleled ability to harness solar energy efficiently, irrespective of seasonal variances. Its design not only maximizes land use but also integrates seamlessly with modern architectural landscapes, adding an aesthetic value to its functional benefits. The system's bifacial technology, capable of capturing solar radiation from both sides, significantly boosts its energy yield, making it a potent solution for regions with variable sun exposure and reflective environments.

In conclusion, the VBPV system emerges as a promising solution for the future of sustainable energy. Its innovative design, superior efficiency, and adaptability to various environmental conditions position it as an ideal candidate for widespread adoption in both urban and rural settings. This study paves the way for future research and development in photovoltaic technology, encouraging a shift towards more efficient, environmentally friendly, and architecturally integrated solar energy solutions. As the first paper to delve into this new PV technology and concept design, it lays a strong foundation for the evolution of solar energy systems, steering the industry towards a more sustainable and energy-efficient future.

Data availability

Data will be made available on reasonable request to the corresponding author of the paper.

Abbreviations

Computational fluid dynamics

Direct current

Heterojunction

Interdigitated Back Contact

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell

Passivated Emitter Rear Locally Diffused

Passivated Emitter Rear Totally Diffused

Plane of Array

Photovoltaic

Root mean square error

Standard test conditions

Tilted monofacial photovoltaic

Vertical bifacial photovoltaic

Vertical monofacial photovoltaic

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the EPSRC IAA under the project "Next-Generation Vertically Mounted Bifacial Solar Panels: Conceptualization, Field Testing, and Energy Performance Monitoring." We are grateful for the industrial collaboration and financial backing provided by Over Easy Solar AS and the Norwegian Research Council. Special thanks are extended to Richard Armitage, Electrical Technician, and Andy White, Chief Engineer at the University of York, for their invaluable assistance with the installation of the VBPV system. Additionally, we acknowledge the OverEasy team, particularly Jørgen Wallerud and Trygve Mongstad, for their pivotal role in facilitating the acquisition and funding of this system in the UK.

EPSRC, Next-Generation Vertically Mounted Bifacial Solar Panels: Conceptualization, Field Testing, and Energy Performance Monitoring, Next-Generation Vertically Mounted Bifacial Solar Panels: Conceptualization, Field Testing, and Energy Performance Monitoring.

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Badran, G., Dhimish, M. Comprehensive study on the efficiency of vertical bifacial photovoltaic systems: a UK case study. Sci Rep 14 , 18380 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68018-1

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Kelley, Beth A., "Exploring Prelicensure BSN Students' Knowledge of Mindfulness Meditation Using A Smartphone App To Manage Stress And Promote Resilience: A Qualitative Single Case Study" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations and Projects . 5909. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5909

The purpose of this qualitative single case study was to explore pre-licensure Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) students' knowledge of mindfulness meditation (MM) using a smartphone app (SMA) to manage stress and promote resilience. Guiding this study was the transactional model of stress, adaptation, and coping by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) educational theory by Vygotsky. The study asked the following questions: What was pre-licensure Bachelor of Science of Nursing (BSN) students’ knowledge of mindfulness meditation (MM) using a smartphone app (SMA) to manage stress and promote resilience? What had the prelicensure BSN student experienced regarding MM with an SMA? What did prelicensure BSN students know about MM using an SMA to manage stress? What did prelicensure BSN students know about MM using an SMA to promote resilience? A sample of 91 students was obtained to answer the demographic questionnaire and three surveys. From those students, 25 volunteered for interviews and focus groups with 14 BSN students for interviews and 11 students split into two focus groups. The data were collected from surveys, interviews, and focus groups, and themes were developed. Data obtained contributes to current knowledge, and recommendations for further research are given.

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Research on aerodynamic characteristics of three offshore wind turbines based on large eddy simulation and actuator line model.

1. Introduction

2. numerical method, 3. verification and validation, 3.1. single turbine parameter settings, 3.2. results of the mesh independence test, 3.3. comparison and validation with existing literature results, 4. three-turbine array configuration, 4.1. three-turbine configuration and computational domain grid division under full wake cases, 4.2. cases of three turbines under staggered arrangement, 5. comparative analysis of three-turbine simulation results, 5.1. three turbines under full wake conditions, 5.1.1. comparison of aerodynamic performance results, 5.1.2. comparison of wake characteristics results, 5.1.3. unsteady aerodynamic characteristics of three turbines under full wake conditions, 5.2. three turbines under staggered cases, 5.2.1. comparison of aerodynamic performance results, 5.2.2. comparison of wake characteristics results, 5.2.3. unsteady aerodynamic characteristics of three turbines under staggered conditions, 6. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest, abbreviations.

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Share and Cite

Fu, C.; Zhang, Z.; Yu, M.; Zhou, D.; Zhu, H.; Duan, L.; Tu, J.; Han, Z. Research on Aerodynamic Characteristics of Three Offshore Wind Turbines Based on Large Eddy Simulation and Actuator Line Model. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024 , 12 , 1341. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12081341

Fu C, Zhang Z, Yu M, Zhou D, Zhu H, Duan L, Tu J, Han Z. Research on Aerodynamic Characteristics of Three Offshore Wind Turbines Based on Large Eddy Simulation and Actuator Line Model. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering . 2024; 12(8):1341. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12081341

Fu, Chen, Zhihao Zhang, Meixin Yu, Dai Zhou, Hongbo Zhu, Lei Duan, Jiahuang Tu, and Zhaolong Han. 2024. "Research on Aerodynamic Characteristics of Three Offshore Wind Turbines Based on Large Eddy Simulation and Actuator Line Model" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 12, no. 8: 1341. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12081341

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