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New Report Examines the Role of Arts and Culture in Fostering Social Cohesion and Community Well-Being

Washington, DC and Detroit, MI —Social cohesion is a basic requirement of healthy communities, especially now since the COVID-19 pandemic has inflicted trauma and exposed social, racial, and health inequities across the country. A new report published today, WE-Making: How Arts & Culture Unite People to Work Toward Community Well-Being, shows that place-based arts and cultural practices, or creative placemaking, can help grow social cohesion to encourage community well-being. 

Developed with support from the National Endowment for the Arts, The Kresge Foundation, and other funders, WE-Making breaks new ground by synthesizing research from different areas of study along with on-the-ground experiences of artists and researchers, practitioners in community development, and advocates for health equity. The report distills that information into key terms and concepts that together demonstrate that social cohesion nurtures coordinated community organizing and can lead to increased community well-being.

Arts Endowment Acting Chairman Ann Eilers said, “The Arts Endowment is proud to have been a catalyst of this report. It encourages arts organizations, community developers, and public health officials to work from the same page so they can leverage the arts to help improve social cohesion for the public good. As we climb out of COVID-19 and focus on equitable recovery, this need is greater than ever.”

“Early in our inquiry of equitable practices in creative placemaking, we heard from residents, artists and practitioners about the importance of social cohesion as an essential pre-condition to long term community change,” said Regina Smith, managing director of Kresge’s Arts & Culture Program . “During these unprecedented times, we strongly believe that artists and creative practices can help us reckon with the past and pave the way to a more racially just and equitable recovery. The WE-Making report expands our understanding of why social cohesion matters and offers compelling examples of how it has contributed to confronting systemic inequities, supporting health and well-being, and bridging across differences.” 

In Natchez, Mississippi the HEAL Community Natchez festival took place in September 2017 and included a performance by the singing group Girls'n Pearls. Photo by Josh Miller, courtesy of IDEAS xLab.

In addition to the NEA and Kresge, funders of the WE-making report are the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and Bush Foundation, with support from the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation for the first phase of the project. ArtPlace America was key throughout the project’s development and execution. Metris Arts Consulting is the primary author in collaboration with PolicyLink and the University of Florida Center for Arts in Medicine. The Arts Endowment provided technical and logistical support.

The report has four components. As listed below, the components start with a high-level view in the Theory of Change and Case Studies and then become increasingly more focused, thus affording readers different points of entry and specificity.

• The East Oakland Black Cultural Zone is working to “innovate, incubate, inform, and elevate community driven projects that allow Black residents in East Oakland to ‘THRIVE.’”
• In Natchez, a weekend-long art exhibit and performance series strove to “lift up the often untold stories of African Americans throughout [Natchez’s] 300-year history.”
• “Dear Tamaqua…In a New Light” was “part festival, part public performance, part theater, part block party” that turned community input into artistic expression in a small town that faced an uncertain future.
• Conceptual Framework unpacks the theory of change in greater detail to identify the factors in social cohesion, how social cohesion is affected by and in turn influences creative placemaking, and how creative placemaking encourages community well-being.
• Literature Review includes and expands on previous research to explore different ideas and evidence for social cohesion.
• Appendices detail the methods used and offer preliminary recommendations for future work. 

 Renewed determination was one of the outcomes of the project “Dear Tamaqua . . In a New Light.”  Photo courtesy of Tamaqua Community Arts Center..

Among the findings of the WE-Making report are: 

• Place-based arts and cultural practices do grow social cohesion for community well-being, while presenting opportunities for further research and investment. 
• Community well-being is not restricted to mental and physical health but encompasses individual benefits, such as happiness and communal creative responses to trauma and racism.

The report concludes with “Promising Practices for the Field,” which connects research to practice. Certain types of place-based arts and cultural practices are most effective at generating and amplifying social cohesion including those that:

• Build and share power through community ownership.
• Connect people across difference.
• Include all types of community members.
• Have a consistent presence in the community.
• Align with community change goals.

The report—along with links to other materials produced for the project by PolicyLink and the Center for Arts in Medicine—is available to download from the Arts, Culture and Community Development website where announcements about future activities related to the report will be posted. The report can also be found on the websites of Metris Arts Consulting and the Center for Arts in Medicine . 

Rendering for the future Black Cultural Zone that "will promote community health and lift up and celebrate the area’s Black cultural heritage." Image courtesy of the EastSide Arts Alliance.

Kresge Foundation   The Kresge Foundation was founded in 1924 to promote human progress. Today, Kresge fulfills that mission by building and strengthening pathways to opportunity for low-income people in America’s cities, seeking to dismantle structural and systemic barriers to equality and justice. Using a full array of grant, loan, and other investment tools, Kresge invests more than $160 million annually to foster economic and social change. To learn more, visit kresge.org  

About the National Endowment for the Arts

Established by Congress in 1965, the National Endowment for the Arts is the independent federal agency whose funding and support gives Americans the opportunity to participate in the arts, exercise their imaginations, and develop their creative capacities. Through partnerships with state arts agencies, local leaders, other federal agencies, and the philanthropic sector, the Arts Endowment supports arts learning, affirms and celebrates America’s rich and diverse cultural heritage, and extends its work to promote equal access to the arts in every community across America. Visit arts.gov to learn more.  

CONTACTS:     Media Inquiries                              NEA: Victoria Hutter, [email protected], 202-682-5692                              Kresge Foundation: Kaniqua Welch, [email protected], 248-760-3355                       Researcher Inquiries: PolicyLink, Victor Rubin, [email protected]

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• Open access
• Published: 15 May 2023

Globalizing the sociology of the arts and culture: East Asian perspectives

• Jun Fang 1  

The Journal of Chinese Sociology volume  10 , Article number:  8 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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In this editorial, I argue for a globalized sociology of the arts and culture that transcends West-centered theories and practices. To this end, two interrelated perspectives—global and decentering—are needed. The article commences with a brief overview of the emergence of the sociology of arts in the West, and synthesizes major themes emerging from articles in the thematic series and the existing literature on creative cultures in East Asia. These themes include local–global dynamics (such as flows, legitimacy, and the centrality of the local), regionalization, state support and control, and theorizing beyond the arts. Finally, I highlight several promising directions for future research, and emphasize that East Asian perspectives present distinct opportunities to advance the sociology of the arts and culture.

Introduction

In this article, I urge scholars to expand the sociology of the arts and culture beyond West-centered theories and practices. The goal is not to disregard those classical approaches which have been the foundation of the field. Rather, it is to extend those approaches to the global scale to explicate the new global cultural economy, and explore new possibilities of theory building, enabled by rich empirical cases in non-Western contexts.

In other words, this globalizing agenda argues for two interrelated perspectives. The first is a global/transnational perspective that accounts for the distinctive dynamics of cultural production and consumption beyond national borders. Recent decades have witnessed global and regional flows of capital, talent, content, and technology, as well as the profound effects of transnational institutions (Appadurai 1996 ; Crane 2016 [2002]; Adams 2007 ; Buchholz 2022 ). These forces have transformed how cultural objects are imagined, produced, distributed, evaluated, and consumed. This necessitates situating the analysis of culture and the arts in a global context. However, major sociological approaches to the arts are predominantly bound within a national context and based on Western experiences. As such, updates to existing approaches are needed to fine-tune our analysis of local–global dynamics, and especially how the global context shapes creative processes and the properties of cultural objects.

Second, we need a “decentering” perspective which can be used to advocate for empirical research and theory building outside North American and European contexts. Proponents of this perspective may use empirical studies in non-Western contexts to critique or expand “Western/Northern theory” (Connell 2006 ). More importantly, this perspective may provide opportunities for scholars to develop new conceptual tools and theories of creative cultures rooted in local histories and socio-political realties in the region. The latter attempts often result from prioritizing explanations of data at hand (Benzecry 2023 ), instead of applying Western-centered theories uncritically.

Of course, many global-minded sociologists have advanced the agenda to transcend West-centric frameworks, from early attempts that included cultural objects in non-Western contexts (Griswold 1987 , 1992 ), to more recent works which extended the existing approaches to a global scale (Bielby and Lee 2008 ; Buchholz 2016 ; Benzecry 2022 ). Still, more work is needed. In this article, I relay their calls to further globalize the field by focusing on the arts and creative cultures in East Asia, a terrain less explored by cultural sociologists. In what follows, I first give an overview of the emergence of the field in the West (especially in the United States), and then explain how East Asian perspectives can create new possibilities for advancing the sociology of the arts and culture.

Sociology meets the arts

In the 1970s, a small cohort of American sociologists began studying the arts, at the time an underdeveloped domain within sociology. Footnote 1 White and White’s ( 1965 ) Canvases and Careers examined how the French painting world had transitioned into a dealer-critic system in the nineteenth century. This was one of the earliest empirical studies within American sociology to address the social and economic conditions of art. Since art objects were considered less “serious,” doing sociology of the arts risked one being seen as not a “real” social scientist. Howard Becker wanted to take up the challenge and try a novel approach. Unsatisfied with European thinkers’ emphasis on philosophical aesthetics and judgments of artistic value, Footnote 2 Becker was more interested in understanding the organization of artistic activity. The result was his seminal work Art Worlds (1982), which, many would agree, “changed forever how sociologists study art” (Domínguez Rubio 2022 ). For Becker, art is simply something people do together, so the primary task is understanding cooperative networks among the participants. Studying the art world, in short, is about “who knows what and uses it to act together,” and it carries sociological weight because “art worlds mirror society at large” (Becker 1982 ). Another “systems” approach, the production of culture perspective (Hirsch 1972 ; Peterson 1976 , 1997 ), became another major pillar of the emergent field. This approach emphasized how production subsystems shape the symbolic elements of cultural objects. For Peterson and Anand ( 2004 ), six facets—technology, law and regulation, industry structure, organization structure, occupational career, and market—constitute a field of symbolic production, and collectively shape cultural change. Similarly, in the view of the culture industry system approach, cultural production can be divided into technical, managerial, and institutional subsystems that determine how cultural objects are discovered, sponsored, and marketed to targeted audiences (Hirsch 1972 ). Overall, the “systems” approach draws attention to the complex apparatus between cultural creators and consumers, and the complex network of organizations that transform creativity into mass culture products.

Around the same time, several French sociologists also turned to studying art. Footnote 3 Among them, Raymonde Moulin ( 1967 ) conducted a large-scale interview study of the Parisian art markets in the mid-twentieth century, which was translated into English two decades after its original publication (Moulin 1987). Becker ( 1982 ) believed that Moulin’s work was “more ethnographic and exciting,” than that of Pierre Bourdieu, whose work had already been introduced to American sociology. In Distinction and other works, Bourdieu ( 1984 , 1993 , 1996 ) developed his “fields” approach which underlined the objective relations embedded in cultural production and consumption. Seeing fields as social spaces of relations (or sites of physical and symbolic forces), Bourdieu’s theory of the field entails the idea that cultural producers in a specific field occupy different “positions,” embedded in a “hierarchical” relationship based on domination and subordination. In this, actors employ field-specific forms of capital to position themselves relative to other actors in their field, struggling for better positions under the shared “rules of the game.” Since then, Bourdieu’s fields approach has been embraced by many North American and European sociologists, and has become a dominant force in the field of the sociology of culture, and beyond.

In the 1980s and 1990s, a growing body of Western scholars were studying the arts, or culture in general, partly thanks to the high time of the “cultural turn” within sociology. While the list is long, it is worth mentioning a few to demonstrate the array of topics these scholars have covered. For instance, Vera Zolberg ( 1990 ) wrote a survey of the emerging field; Janet Wolff ( 1981 , 2021 [1983]) bridged cultural studies and the sociology of art; Wendy Griswold ( 1986 , 1987 ) studied English Renaissance theatre genres and literary interpretation; Diana Crane ( 1987 ) explored the rise of abstract expressionism in the New York art world; Gary Alan Fine ( 1992 , 2004 ) turned to chefs and kitchens to study the culture of production and occupational aesthetics, and later to self-taught artists; David Halle ( 1993 ) studied the display of the visual arts in New York homes; Tia DeNora ( 1995 ) examined the development of Beethoven’s reputation in the changing musical world of late eighteenth-century Vienna; Lamont and Fournier ( 1992 ) co-edited a volume that intersected the arts with symbolic boundaries and inequality; and Pierre-Michel Menger’s ( 1999 , 2014 ) works on creative work and uncertainty would become influential in both France and the United States. Together, these sociologists of the arts and their major approaches—art worlds, systems, fields—have contributed significantly to the analysis of the social construction of the arts.

Since the early twenty-first century, there has been a burgeoning literature on the “new” sociology of art which has brought meaning and content back into sociological analyses, making aesthetic properties of art and arts-in-action compatible with the lens of social constructionism (DeNora 2000 ; de la Fuente 2007 ; Rodríguez Morató and Santana-Acuña 2023 ). Instead of focusing on the social causes of art, this approach highlights the productive role of art and how it shapes social relations (Hennion 1993 , 2001 ; DeNora 2003 ). According to this approach, artistic production is not reducible to individual intentions or contextual factors, but emerges from a material engagement between subjects and cultural objects (Hennion 2007 ; Benzecry 2011 ). This emphasis on materiality and action aligns with the “materiality turn” in cultural sociology and beyond, which highlights the role of cultural objects as agents of cultural formation (Griswold et al. 2013 ; McDonnell 2019 ; Domínguez Rubio 2020 ).

While a notable “global turn” has not occurred throughout the development of the subfield, many sociologists have tried to globalize existing approaches to the arts. Among them, Wendy Griswold ( 1987 , 1992 ) was an early proponent of studying cultural objects from non-Western contexts, such as the reception of Barbadian and Nigerian novels. Since then, some sociologists have examined global cultural production and markets (Wherry 2006 , 2008 ; Bielby and Lee 2008 ; Bandelj and Wherry 2011 ; Phillips 2013 ). Others have proposed “global culture worlds” by examining how transnational organizations enable global flows and create a hierarchical system (Crane 2010 ). Still, others have extended the art worlds approach to the global scale, for example exploring the “craft of the global” in the shoe industry (Benzecry 2022 ). Many scholars have advanced the Bourdieusian approach by developing “transnational/global cultural fields” in cases of global media and art markets (Kuipers 2011 , 2015 ; Meulemen and Savage 2013 ; Buchholz 2016 , 2022 ). Still, others have explored how the dynamics between nationalism and transnationalism shape cultural production, display, circulation, evaluation, and consecration (Levitt 2015 ; Santana-Acuña 2020 ). Despite these efforts, sociologists in the West have largely neglected creative cultures in East Asia. It is time for scholars to shift their focus to this region.

East Asian perspectives

While social scientists in Western institutions have long delved into the political, economic, and social issues of East Asian societies, scant attention has been paid to the arts and creative industries in the region (Silvio 2018 ). Nevertheless, the past three decades have witnessed the global diffusion of cultural and media products originating from East Asia, ranging from Japanese animation to K-pop, K-drama, contemporary Chinese art, and most recently, TikTok. On the one hand, these cultural and artistic scenes possess distinct features, given their embeddedness in specific national contexts; on the other hand, local creative industries and cultural markets have been increasingly globalized, partly thanks to technological developments and transnational collaboration. Such regional and global flows, as well as the practices of producers, brokers, intermediaries, consumers, and state agents, offer opportunities for empirical investigation and theory building.

By shifting the spotlight to East Asia, this thematic series has two agendas. First, it seeks to comprehend the processes of production, circulation, and reception of East Asian cultural products in a global context. As cultural imaginations in East Asia are becoming global (Allison 2006 ; Kelts 2006 ; Lie 2015 ; Jin 2016 ), East Asia can serve as a case to explore broader questions about globalization. For instance, it is crucial to understand what must be in place to facilitate the global production and diffusion of local cultural products, how legitimacy, status, and hierarchy are constructed and contested in this process, how global forces influence local cultural production, and the role of states and local agents in enabling (or constraining) globalization.

The second agenda echoes Chen’s ( 2010 ) “Asia as Method,” arguing that East Asia can also be used to deviate from West-centric frameworks and develop new theories. In doing so, this would allow scholars to use East Asian societies as reference points for each another, rather than feeling obliged to position them in relation to North American or European contexts—that is, being confined to the center-periphery framework. For instance, it would be fruitful to examine creative cultures within East Asia to account for regional exchanges and historical entanglements, seeing East Asia as an “imaginary anchoring point.” This decolonized and decentered perspective enables alternative understandings of creative experiences and practices in East Asian societies, which can challenge taken-for-granted concepts such as “creativity” and “copycats” (Chumley 2016 ; Lindtner 2020 ), leading to new theories and conceptual tools.

Although articles included in the special issue have advanced both agendas, realizing the second goal requires more effort. By synthesizing the existing literature and the insight offered by these five articles, I highlight several themes which have emerged in the attempts to study and theorize East Asian art worlds. Footnote 4

Local–global dynamics: flows, legitimacy & seeing the global in the local

One theme, also the classical problem of globalization studies, is local–global dynamics. Literature on the interaction between East Asian societies and the West in the sector of the arts and creative cultures is the most robust. Early literature tended to follow the center-periphery model, in which East Asia was seen as the “periphery,” and a few European or American countries and cities were regarded as the “center.” In this, cultural flows are often unidirectional (from the center to the periphery), and the reverse order is either neglected, or viewed as challenging. However, recent studies have complicated East Asia’s role in global creative production and cultural markets, suggesting that culture flows both ways. For example, scholars have shown how Japanese anime (Allison 2006 ; Kelts 2006 ), K-pop (Lie 2015 ; Gong 2022 ), and contemporary Chinese and Japanese art (Favell 2012 ; Kharchenkova 2018 , 2019 ; Buchholz 2022 ) have amassed regional and global popularity.

In this thematic series, Levitt and Shim ( 2022 ) direct our attention away from the usual cultural objects when studying South Korea, such as K-pop, K-drama, and Korean film. Instead, they focus on Korean literature, asking how it has reached the center of the “World Republic of Letters,” to use Pascale Casanova’s ( 2004 ) term. Since Korean is one of the “small languages,” Korean literature’s unlikely ascension to the global top shows alternative mechanisms, i.e., not those produced in the former colonies of Western powers. While previous studies have emphasized the role of cultural intermediaries and the power structure of the global literary world, Levitt and Shim ( 2022 ) build on this literature and the concept of “infrastructure” to propose a multifaceted literary infrastructure. This infrastructure must be in place to enable the “scaling up” of Korean literature. They identify three types of infrastructure. First, the “infrastructure of export and promotion,” facilitated by the state and the private sector, allows for the success of translation, circulation, and promotion. Second, the “infrastructure of discovery and consecration,” which includes book contests, prizes, and curated volumes, provides a pipeline of creators and high-status cultural producers and consecrators. Lastly, the “infrastructure of connection and vernacularization” includes a group of key intermediaries who engage in gatekeeping and connect South Korea to the world through their teaching, critiquing, and other cultural practices.

Moreover, many studies focus on status, valuation, legitimacy, and consecration, examining how contemporary art in South Korea and China is valued in global art markets and in other cultural fields (Pénet and Lee 2014 ; Shin et al. 2014 ; Kharchenkova and Velthuis 2018 ; Lee 2018 ). Instead of exploring how East Asian cultural objects are vertically integrated into the global cultural field and gain status, Zhu and Braden ( 2022 ) examine how a local cultural event can become internationally recognized and obtain legitimacy in the global art world. In their analysis of the historical development of the Shanghai Biennale from 1996 to 2018 (included in this series), the authors trace its three stages—incipience, internationalization, and the expanding period—and how at each stage, cultural producers must attend to organizational legitimacy. This transpires both domestically and internationally, as they negotiate forces from the local art world, the state, and global art markets. The study reveals the processes behind the internationalization of a local cultural event, and how a local site can be legitimized as a new “center” that distinguishes itself from others.

In addition to diffusion and markets, the local–global tension is also salient during the stages of creation/development and production (Martin 2017 , 2022 ). In this vein, Wong’s ( 2014 ) ethnography of the oil painting village of Dafen reveals how worker-painters participate in the mass production of Western masterpieces for the world market. Her study challenges the conventional understanding of what “art” is, the relationship between copying and creativity, and what it means to be a Chinese “artist” in a global capitalist system. In his global ethnography of how women’s designer shoes are designed and produced, Benzecry ( 2022 ) examines the micro-coordination between designers from the New York office and the technicians and fit models in Chinese factories. While it is undoubtedly a case of the production of a global craft, Benzecry also emphasizes how the “craft of the global” is produced—the infrastructures, peoples, and materials that must be in place for the global scale to function. In my work on China’s engagement with Hollywood, I examine how Hollywood and Chinese studios co-develop “global” movies with Chinese cultural elements in the writers’ room, striking a balance between crafting authenticity and seeking global appeal (Fang 2021 ). In each of these cases, the local particularities are not simply treated as the “peripheral” or the “other”; instead, they constitute a central role in shaping the global. As such, the local and the global are intertwined, and power dynamics can be reversed, constituting the centrality of the local.

In this series, Yu ( 2022 ) investigates the complex entanglements between the local and the global in the case of the Chinese traditional music world, where a seemingly traditional art world has long been Westernized. In this study, Yu reveals the aesthetic conflicts between two groups of musicians in the Chinese traditional music world, and their divergent understandings of normative practices (i.e., composition and performance). While performers favor stability in music creation and idiosyncratic styles of performance, those engaging in composing, conducting, and research prefer innovation and more systematic styles of performance. This disparity can be explained by the fact that the second group’s practices have been influenced by Western aesthetics throughout the twentieth century. In this way, we can see the global from the conventions of the most “local” art form.

Regionalization: markets, tastes, and challenges

Despite the political disruptions, the significance of regional connections within East Asian creative industries has grown considerably. This provides an opportunity for scholars to transcend the center-periphery paradigm, and instead, explore new dynamics of encounters and collaborations within the region.

While social scientists have paid less attention to regional cultural production (e.g., film and television co-production among South Korea, Japan, China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan), there is a growing literature on cultural markets and pop culture consumption within the region. Some have written about Japan’s cultural presence in Asia (Iwabuchi 2016 [2002]), while others have emphasized the contentious nature of transnational cultural reception given historical complexities and the complex geopolitics within East Asian societies. For instance, Wu ( 2021 ) examines how Chinese young adults must reconcile their wide-ranging consumption of Japanese cultures and contradictory sentiments toward the Japanese government, given the collective memory of the “War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression.” Similarly, Gong ( 2022 ) investigates Chinese K-pop fans’ dilemma, as they must also reconcile their transnational tastes and national loyalty against the background of escalating nationalism and the political tension between China and South Korea. These studies have shown that cultural tastes within the region are transnationally connected, but also contentious, and channeled by traumatic collective memory and current geopolitics. This may contribute to a dual movement of the politicization and the apoliticization of the entertainment industry within Asia, and worldwide. While the former may be driven by some cultural receivers with nationalist mentalities, and states that mobilize those mentalities for political purposes, the latter can be pursued by industry players who downplay politics for economic benefit, and fans who follow neoliberal logic.

In this series, Du ( 2022 ) explores the diverse cultural tastes in East Asian societies. In his quantitative study of music consumption in China, Japan, and South Korea, Du examines the correlation between global exposure and cultural omnivorousness (CO). Although CO is an established concept in the literature, Du further operationalizes it along two dimensions by attending to the East Asian case: vertical CO (e.g., appreciating both highbrow and lowbrow music) and horizontal CO (e.g., appreciating both transnational and traditional music). His findings reveal that global exposure is significantly correlated with vertical CO in all three societies, but is only correlated with horizontal CO in the Chinese case.

The regional diffusion of cultural objects can be genre-specific, demonstrating that the regionalization of markets and tastes can be fraught with challenges. Some genres have achieved regional diffusion with more success than others. For instance, K-drama, K-pop, Japanese anime and cosplay culture (Yang 2022 ) have spread throughout Asia and worldwide, and Chinese TV shows have gained popularity among Southeast Asian fans. However, some genres have proven more resistant to localized tastes and regional identification. The case in point is Korean literature which has not achieved equivalent popularity (Levitt and Shim 2022 ), although Asian audiences have largely embraced the Korean wave. Thus, historical and political complexities may limit regional flows of the literary genre. Further, a collective regional identification has not coalesced to challenge Western hegemony, in contrast to the collective emergence of the “Latin American Literature” genre (Santana-Acuña 2020 ).

States and creative production

Creative practices in East Asia possess characteristics that diverge from Western conventions, including the state’s involvement in creative production. The presence of diverse political systems in the region, spanning from democracy to authoritarianism, offers fertile ground for conducting empirical analyses and developing theories on art and the state from a comparative perspective. While the state’s role in cultural production in democratic societies—e.g., state subsidies, and tax policies—is generally implicit, authoritarian regimes’ involvement in cultural production is explicit and sometimes considered appropriate and necessary. Overall, the state’s role in cultural production is ubiquitous. As Becker ( 1982 : 165–191) summarizes:

[The state] creates the framework of property rights within which artists get economic support and make reputations. It limits what artists can do when it protects people whose rights may have been infringed by artists intent on producing their work. It gives open support to some forms of art, and to some practitioners of those forms, when they appear to further national purposes. It uses state power to suppress work which seems likely to mobilize citizens for disapproved activities or prevent them from being mobilized for appropriate purposes.

States enable art making by providing direct or indirect support, while also constraining it through suppression. This includes limiting access to production and distribution.

In terms of state support, the Chinese and South Korean governments have promoted their creative industries on the global stage (Su 2016 ; Kokas 2017 ; Silvio 2018 ; Kim 2018 ; Levitt and Shim 2022 ). However, the legitimacy of their state-affiliated practices is perceived differently by Western media and scholars. In contrast, the Japanese government has played a less crucial role in launching the global popularity of Japanese media culture, although local governments tend to capitalize on those cultural products by promoting tourism without fully understanding those subcultures (Choo 2012 , 2018 ; Miller 2011 ). Since the early twenty-first century, many local governments in East Asia (and Asia at large) have embraced Richard Florida’s ( 2002 ) “creative class” model, though with modifications. They have used the creative industries for economic growth and in building global cities (Roy and Ong 2011 ; Silvio 2018 ). This is facilitated by policymakers’ belief in teaching creativity in standardized educational systems, which entails mass-scale artistic training and evaluation (Chumley 2016 ; Fang 2020 ).

Research on state control has been more robust, especially (but not exclusively) in the Chinese context. For instance, before shifting to active support of internationalizing Korean culture in the 1990s, for decades the Korean state had utilized a rigorous censorship system to regulate domestic cultural production (Kwon and Kim 2013 ). And even during the administration of Park Geun-hye (2013–2017), artists on her “blacklist” were excluded from both state and private support (Kim 2018). Censorship in the Chinese context has drawn the most attention from scholars across disciplines (Roberts 2018 ; Luo and Li 2022 ; Chen 2022 ). The state regulates cultural production through various measures, shaping the content and form of cultural objects. The state can control what type of art can be produced and how it is evaluated, such as in the case of Chinese Model Opera during the Cultural Revolution (Zhang and Corse 2019 ). Moreover, in his study of hip-hop in China, Nie ( 2021 ) shows that state intervention can disperse stylistic conventions of a censored genre to neighboring music genres.

When studying state censorship, it is crucial to transcend the top-down model and the direct control trope, and to explore the local negotiations between creatives and state agents. In their study of Chinese TV production, Zeng and Sparks ( 2019 ) show that the production team uses various strategies to negotiate with the central broadcasting authorities and local governments. These state-society negotiations are central to many sectors in China, such as the nuanced relationship between the Shanghai government and the Shanghai Biennale (Zhu and Braden 2022 ) and the “contingent symbiosis” dynamics between the Chinese state and grassroots NGOs (Spires 2011 ). Additionally, it is fruitful to examine the increasingly blurred boundaries between “state” and “society.” For instance, state-owned cultural enterprises (SOCEs) in the PRC constitute what Morgan and Orloff ( 2017 ) call “public–private hybrids”; inevitably, creatives affiliated with SOCEs engage in creative production for the state (Lin 2019 ).

East Asian states’ varied involvement in cultural production, either explicit or implicit, allows us to re-examine the mechanisms and effects of state censorship and intervention. Western scholars should avoid a simplified view of censorship as “a devil term” or “something others [i.e., un-Enlightened (non-Liberal) societies] do” (Jansen 1988 : 4). Darnton ( 1995 : 40) criticizes the repression/freedom binary many scholars, journalists, and politicians in the West hold: “The trouble with the history of censorship is that it looks so simple: it pits the children of light against the children of darkness.”

Theorizing beyond the arts

To echo Becker ( 1982 ), research on art worlds is not supplementary to other “serious” studies on economic and political structure; instead, art worlds reflect society at large. It is worth noting that studying the arts in the East Asian context to understand better those art worlds and societies is not the only end. Instead, art worlds, in East Asia or elsewhere, can serve as a window to reveal general patterns of social behaviors and pressing questions for social scientists.

In this thematic series, Yang ( 2022 ) examines an intriguing art world—the cosplay scene in China—and further theorizes how “cosplay” may serve as a conceptual heuristic for analyzing gender performance and social interaction in general. Over the past three decades, cosplay has become a popular subculture in China due to the global diffusion of Japanese ACG (anime, comic, game) fandom. Drawing on the art worlds approach and the production of culture perspective, Yang reveals that gender embodiment in cosplay is a collective activity among the cosplayer and a line of collaborators, such as makeup artists, photographers, and photo editors. In their pursuit of authenticity, cosplayers craft their presentation and embodied performance of masculinity/femininity according to both gender category and the character’s personality—the latter is largely overlooked by the existing literature. Beyond the empirical findings, Yang ambitiously integrates cultural sociology and the performance paradigm in the sociology of gender to propose cosplay as a new heuristic. Instead of seeing gender as “drag,” he argues that the heuristic of cosplay “allows us to reconceptualize gender embodiment as a collectively manufactured artwork that requires a division of labor for its production” (Yang 2022 : 20). As such, the art world of cosplay reveals the artwork of gender performance, foregrounding the multi-authorship of gender performativity that is often disguised by neoliberal individualism.

Indeed, the sociology of the arts and culture overlaps with many other subfields and domains. In addition to gender, many scholars have used the arts as their cultural objects to advance theories of global studies. It is worth reiterating the contributions of several of the aforementioned studies. Wong’s ( 2014 ) analysis of the painters in Dafen starts with her critique of Romanticist anxieties over industrialization and its effect on creativity, and she quickly problematizes West-centered cultural hierarchies (e.g., the exaggerated cultural imaginaries of “assembly-line painting” and copying in China) and the exploitative nature of global capitalism. Additionally, Benzecry ( 2022 ) creatively reverses the imagination of global infrastructure by situating a group of humble foot models at the center of the global shoe industry; in doing so, he reveals the vulnerability of the global and the significance of local actors in what he calls the “ecology of tastes.” Lastly, in The Global Rules of Art , Buchholz ( 2022 ) uses the rise of contemporary Chinese art and other cases in the global market to advance Bourdieu’s field theory by proposing a “global cultural fields approach.” The emergence of a global cultural field within a cultural domain involves three mechanisms: “global institutional circuits” (the organizational infrastructure that enables global circulation), “field-specific global discourse” (the construction of distinctive meanings that provide the cultural foundation of the field), and “global institutions for consecration and evaluation” (e.g., the institutionalization of reputation and hierarchical status). As such, she argues that this alternative to the globalization of culture framework differs from the political-economy model of cultural imperialism, the cultural flows and networks model, and the global culture/art worlds model (Buchholz 2022 ).

Future directions

In this article, I outline a theoretical and thematic groundwork for scholars studying arts in East Asian contexts. This thematic series is built upon the attempts of other scholars. Most notably, anthropologists Teri Silvio and Lily H. Chumley guest-coedited a 2018 special issue titled “After Creativity: Labour, Policy, and Ideology in East Asian Creative Industries” for Culture, Theory and Critique . Social scientists should pay more attention to the rise of the arts sector in this region. The burgeoning interest in cultural sociology in East Asian societies (Tsang and Lamont 2018 ; Xu et al. 2019 ; Ku et al. 2022 ) may pave the way for the development of the sociology of the arts, and culture in and of East Asia.

I highlight several future directions. Firstly, more comparative studies are needed, both within East Asian societies and beyond. While some studies have explored cultural flows within the region, few have been comparative, i.e., designed to either draw connective themes across these societies or show divergent patterns of artistic practices and cultural consumption in diverse contexts. A recent example is a comparative study of fashion consumption behaviors in South Korea and China (Tse and Tsang 2021 ). Similarly, Chew ( 2007 ) examines the contemporary re-emergence of the qipao in the PRC context; it can be expanded to examine different mechanisms through which the qipao has regained popularity in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore, among other regions. Despite challenges posed by language barriers, collaborative research among Asian scholars could be a viable solution. Moreover, comparative studies can be conducted between East Asian and global cases. For instance, Martin’s ( 2017 ) comparative analysis of the Hollywood and Hong Kong media industries sets a good example, illustrating the transnational connections between the two industries and the risk and uncertainty that are central to global media production.

Moreover, we should expand our regional focus to include creative cultures in Asia at large. “Asia as method” (Chen 2010 ) should not be used only as a decolonizing device in response to Western hegemony, but also to recognize the relative “privilege” of research on creative cultures located in Japan, South Korea, and the PRC (such as its publication and reception in English-language journals). Therefore, more empirical studies on arts and culture in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and other parts of Asia are needed. For research on other parts of Asia, there is a robust literature on Singaporean media and pop culture (e.g., the works of Audrey Yue and Beng Huat Chua) and, more recently, in Malaysian beauty culture (Menon 2023 ).

Additionally, sociologists must keep up with technological advancements to study creative production in digital spaces. The proliferation of social media, digital platforms, and AI art generators has reshaped how creative cultures in East Asia and beyond are produced, distributed, consumed, and evaluated. For instance, in his study of online music platforms, Nie ( 2022 ) uses computational tools to show how monetization programs added to a Chinese music platform likely restrain artistic novelty among songs released by indie companies, pop musicians, and veteran producers. Additional studies focusing on new media production are more than necessary, as are robust methodologies suitable for addressing these questions.

Finally, we need more empirical studies of the arts and culture beyond North America and Europe. The most effective way to diversify the field would be by flooding it with a wide range of voices and experiences. Many other compelling studies located in the East Asian context direct our attention to themes such as occupational identities among Korean poets, Chinese painters, and Japanese musicians (Shim 2022 ; Zhang 2015 ; Kowalczyk 2022 ); galleries, art markets, and the materiality aspect of exhibitions (Zhang 2020 , 2022 ); emotions in reality TV shows (Wei 2014 ); naming culture (Obukhova et al. 2014 ; Fang and Fine 2020 ); fashion and fast fashion (Zhao 2013; Chu 2018 ); grassroots branding (Zemanek 2018 ); the visual arts in the middle-class home (Fang 2018 ); and local receptions of American television (Gao 2016 ). As creative cultures continue to emerge and evolve in the region, it is imperative that we expand the scope of empirical studies to incorporate these diverse and exciting experiences.

To reiterate my call, a globalized sociology of the arts and culture is crucial in the new global cultural economy. East Asian experiences offer a new window to scrutinize art worlds—and the social world—from a global and decentering perspective.

These sociologists included Howard Becker, Herbert Gans, Robert Faulkner, Paul Hirsch, and Paul DiMaggio, among others.

Baxandall’s ( 1972 ) Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy was an exception. It illuminated the social history of art and informed the work of Howard Becker.

See Heinich ( 2022 ) for a more detailed review of the three generations of the French sociology of art.

Given my academic training and background in both China and the United States, the studies included in this review are skewed toward Chinese cases and those published in English-language social scientific journals. Rather than a comprehensive review, it represents a crucial first step. I encourage other scholars to join me in further globalizing the field by conducting additional empirical studies and editing special volumes.

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Fang, J. Globalizing the sociology of the arts and culture: East Asian perspectives. J. Chin. Sociol. 10 , 8 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40711-023-00190-9

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• Am J Public Health
• v.100(2); Feb 2010

The Connection Between Art, Healing, and Public Health: A Review of Current Literature

H. L. Stuckey conducted the literature search and led the writing of the article. J. Nobel supervised the study and provided input into the introduction and conclusion.

This review explores the relationship between engagement with the creative arts and health outcomes, specifically the health effects of music engagement, visual arts therapy, movement-based creative expression, and expressive writing. Although there is evidence that art-based interventions are effective in reducing adverse physiological and psychological outcomes, the extent to which these interventions enhance health status is largely unknown. Our hope is to establish a foundation for continued investigation into this subject and to generate further interest in researching the complexities of engagement with the arts and health.

There are many more things, between heaven and earth, than are dreamt of in your philosophy, Horatio. —Shakespeare, Hamlet

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines holistic health as:

viewing man in his totality within a wide ecological spectrum, and … emphasizing the view that ill health or disease is brought about by an imbalance, or disequilibrium, of man in his total ecological system and not only by the causative agent and pathogenic evolution. 1 (p13)

This important perspective is echoed in the organization's 1946 preamble, wherein health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being rather than merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Implied in this definition is the tie to health outcomes or changes in health as a result of an action; in the present case, the connection between artistic engagement and the psychosocial and biological manifestations of that connection. More specifically, there is evidence that engagement with artistic activities, either as an observer of the creative efforts of others or as an initiator of one's own creative efforts, can enhance one's moods, emotions, and other psychological states as well as have a salient impact on important physiological parameters. 2

Chronic diseases are a nationwide burden, with cardiovascular disease being the leading cause of death during the past century and the incidence of diabetes continuing to increase, now affecting more than 20 million Americans. 3 , 4 These diseases are associated with psychosocial difficulties such as depression 5 and chronic stress, contributing to negative cardiovascular outcomes. 6 , 7 Engagement with creative activities has the potential to contribute toward reducing stress and depression and can serve as a vehicle for alleviating the burden of chronic disease.

Over the past decade, health psychologists have cautiously begun looking at how the arts might be used in a variety of ways to heal emotional injuries, increase understanding of oneself and others, develop a capacity for self-reflection, reduce symptoms, and alter behaviors and thinking patterns. 8 Given the ubiquity of creative expression, as well as the relative ease of engagement, the extent to which psychological and physiological effects are sustainably health enhancing is an important area for public health investigation.

We reviewed research in the area of art and healing in an effort to determine the creative therapies most often employed. Four primary therapies emerged: music engagement, visual arts therapy, movement-based creative expression, and expressive writing. In these forms of expression, arts modalities and creative processes are used during intentional interventions to foster health. 9 By assessing the use of these processes in clinical and qualitative trials, one can determine how others have found benefit in tying the intricacies of artistic meaning to the complexities of health and wellness. Our hope is to expand effective exploration of these concerns.

We further believe that certain social and environmental factors are converging to thrust the central questions related to better understanding the relationship between art and health into the spotlight of expanded and vigorous attention. Globalization, bringing with it the need to embrace the broad cultural diversity around how personal and societal philosophies interoperate, will put a premium on finding more effective ways to create and share meaning and meaningfulness. This need for meaning and relevance in daily experience has long been recognized as one of the fundamental driving forces in artistic creation and engagement. 10

Similarly, expansion of individual and community health-enhancing efforts worldwide and an acceptance of the definition of health as being more than the absence of illness are spurring active investigation into the fundamentals of whole-person approaches to creating and sustaining health. Investigating the relationship between art and health offers some interesting ways to bridge these 2 important areas of inquiry and perhaps provide timely and important insights into each.

Art and health have been at the center of human interest from the beginning of recorded history. Despite that fact, and despite the invested effort and growth of knowledge and understanding in each arena, it is interesting that we often still find ourselves struggling with the “fundamentals” of art and health and their meaning in society. We make no attempt to clarify or resolve these fundamental issues. Instead, our intent is to summarize current knowledge about the connection between art and health, identify the most compelling next steps for investigation, and generate further interest in researching the complexities of art and health. Legitimate research questions include whether certain art-based therapies are more or less effective than others, whether the impact of therapy can be tied to other important variables and preconditions, and whether health benefits are sustained or short term. These issues deserve vigorous continued attention.

We conducted a review of current research to determine what is known about art and healing. The goals of our review, primarily covering the period 1995 through 2007, were to assess the state of peer-reviewed research on arts and healing, to provide a brief summary of both qualitative and quantitative research methods and results, and to describe the principal categories of creative expression that have emerged as effective means of enhancing health and wellness.

We focused on creative arts or expressive activities that were conducted primarily in North American and European countries and primarily with adults. We excluded studies focusing on complementary medicine practices. Although the literature in this review targeted adults (aged 18 years or older), many studies have focused on use of the arts with children in various contexts (e.g., sandplay, 11 dance-movement therapy, 12 dramatherapy, 13 , 14 music, 15 myth to facilitate storytelling and drawing activities, 16 wheelchair dance experiences, 17 mandalas, 18 art therapy during painful cancer procedures, 19 drama therapy, 20 and drawing. 21 ), and other reviews have focused on art therapy and children. 22 , 23 Also, we excluded articles about art education or art in professional career development. Finally, we did not evaluate the relationship of creative expression with major mental disorders such as schizophrenia or dementia, severe developmental disorders, end-of-life issues, the use of art with incarcerated populations, or the impact of religion on health outcomes.

We assessed how creative expression as a healing process has been used in both clinical and informal practice to promote wellness and healing. We searched the following databases and Internet sites, covering the recent period of 1995 through 2007: Medline (PubMed) for general health care literature; Proquest, specifically PsycINFO for psychology journals and CINAHL for nursing and allied health literature; the Cochrane Library for health care reviews; and the Web of Science database including the Science Citation Index, the Social Sciences Index, and the Arts and Humanities Index. Primary keywords included the arts and medical outcomes, the creative arts and healing or wellness, creative expression and healing or wellness, the arts and health care, creative expression and illness, music therapy, art therapy, and creative expression and humanities.

In the Cochrane Library evidence-based literature, the only studies that included references to art or creative expression were those associated with the treatment of schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like illnesses 24 , 25 ; therefore, we did not include any Cochrane database studies in our review. In addition to the sources just mentioned, specific journals were also targeted because of their connection to art and health: Health Education Research , Health and Quality of Life Outcomes , Health Education and Behavior , The Arts in Psychotherapy , and the Journal of Music Therapy .

We also searched literature from 1970 to 1995 on PubMed (MeSH art therapy database) to determine whether there were further foundational research articles, but we did not find any abstracts matching our criteria. However, we found 1 randomized controlled trial in PubMed, and we included that study. 26 Because music therapy was observed to be a predominant source of research in the arts and healing, the Journal of Music Therapy was also reviewed for foundational articles. As mentioned, 4 major areas of arts and health care emerged from our review: music engagement, visual arts therapy, movement-based creative expression, and expressive writing. Therefore, we focused on the potential of these creative areas to promote healing.

The idea that creative expression can make a powerful contribution to the healing process has been embraced in many different cultures. Throughout recorded history, people have used pictures, stories, dances, and chants as healing rituals. 27 there has been much philosophical and anecdotal discussion about the benefits of art and healing, but less empirical research exists in the literature. In fact, although arts therapy has been used clinically for more than a century 28 and has been recognized as a profession since 1991, 29 much of the published work is theoretical in nature, with little discussion of specific outcomes. 13 , 30 Only in recent years have systematic and controlled studies examined the therapeutic effects and benefits of the arts and healing. 31

Nevertheless, we have seen positive outcomes for the potential of using art to promote healing in our 4 primary areas of focus. This article is not meant to be a comprehensive review of all of the literature available (other authors have provided comprehensive overviews in areas such as music therapy 32 and expressive writing 33 ). Instead, it represents a sampling of the many potential benefits of art in enhancing health and wellness.

Music Engagement

Music is the most accessible and most researched medium of art and healing, and there has been a principal emphasis on the soothing capacity of music and its ability to offset overly technological approaches to care. 34 In particular, music therapy has been shown to decrease anxiety. 35 – 37 The pleasure shared by participants in the healing process through a music therapy program can help to restore emotional balance as well. 38 There is also evidence of the effectiveness of auditory stimulation, together with a strong suggestion that such stimulation abolishes pain, as a strategy for achieving control over pain. 39

In addition, it has been shown that music can calm neural activity in the brain, 40 which may lead to reductions in anxiety, and that it may help to restore effective functioning in the immune system partly via the actions of the amygdala and hypothalamus. As the activity levels of neurons in the central nucleus of the amygdala decrease in response to calming effects of music, there may be corresponding reductions in the signals being sent to other parts of the brain. Table 1 outlines the results of key studies we reviewed that focused on music engagement. 26 , 41 , 42

Details of the Music Engagement Studies Reviewed

In a lengthy review of the music therapy literature from 1983 to 1990, Aldridge noted that most of the research was concerned with passive music therapy and the playing of prerecorded music to patients to reduce stress and enhance well-being. 32 Overall, he concluded that although there is a broad literature covering applications of music therapy, there is a general absence of valid clinical research from which substantive conclusions can be drawn. In a later review, Gregory examined the Journal of Music Therapy from 1964 through 1999 to determine whether study methodologies included behavioral research designs (e.g., reversal, multiple baseline). 43 Of the 607 articles published in that journal during the study time period, 96 (15.8%) included a behavioral research design.

A widely researched phenomenon is the use of music in the control of chronic cancer pain. 32 Five benefits of using music therapy with cancer patients have been reported in the literature: increases in hospital patients' sense of control, promotion of wellness and the healthy aspects of patients' lives, reductions in pain 44 and increases in immunity, decreases in anxiety, and reductions in psychological and physical symptoms. 45 In several clinical studies examining the effects of music and music therapy on healing and wellness, music has been found to be a form of relaxation and anxiety reduction. 41 , 42 , 46 – 50

In a study of patients admitted to a coronary care unit with acute myocardial infarction, Guzzetta found that relaxation and music therapy were effective in reducing stress. 26 In that investigation, 80 patients were randomly assigned to a relaxation, music therapy, or control group. The relaxation and music therapy groups participated in 3 sessions over a 2-day period. Stress was evaluated via apical heart rates, peripheral temperatures, cardiac complications, and qualitative patient evaluative data. Results demonstrated that apical heart rates were lower and peripheral temperatures were higher in the relaxation and music therapy groups than in the control group.

Another area of research is the relationship between coronary heart disease and reductions in anxiety states. 51 – 53 In 1 study, music was introduced into the private hospital rooms of 45 patients with myocardial infarction. 41 A Holter monitor was attached to each participant, baseline physiological values were obtained, and participants were asked to complete the State Trait Anxiety Inventory. After listening to relaxing music for 20 minutes, participants exhibited significant reductions in heart rate, respiratory rate, myocardial oxygen demand, and, in particular, anxiety, both immediately after and 1 hour after the intervention.

In their study, Burns et al. 42 investigated the relationship of music therapy with positive emotions and immune system responses. They assessed the therapeutic effects on patients of listening to music, both live and recorded, while in a relaxed state, as well as the effects of active involvement in music improvisation. Twenty-nine patients participating in a residential 1-week course completed the University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology (UWIST) Mood Adjective Checklist, and data were collected on cortisol levels. Results showed increases in well-being and relaxation and decreases in tension during the listening experience, increases in well-being and decreases in tension during the improvisation experience, and decreases in serum cortisol levels during both experiences.

An additional anxiety study 54 sought to investigate the effects of group music therapy combined with other creative art methods on self-reported levels of anxiety, depression, and self-esteem among women who had experienced intimate partner violence. The group met for 6 sessions, each 1 to 1.5 hours in duration, over a period of 3 months. Visual analog scales were used to assess anxiety, depression, and self-esteem; the goals of the group were to increase self-esteem and self-expression, decrease anxiety and depression, and increase social support. Significant decreases in depression and marginally significant decreases in anxiety were observed among the study's 7 participants. No significant effects were found for self-esteem. Most participants reported that all of interventions were helpful and rated the group therapy as a positive experience. These findings suggest that active music therapy in a group context may be effective in improving mood among women recovering from intimate partner violence.

Visual Arts

Art helps people express experiences that are too difficult to put into words, such as a diagnosis of cancer. Some people with cancer explore the meanings of past, present, and future during art therapy, thereby integrating cancer into their life story and giving it meaning. 55 Case studies are a typical methodology focusing on the use of the arts in meaning making. For example, McMurray and Schwartz-Mirman 56 and Reynolds and Prior 57 conducted case studies in an attempt to understand why some people turn to making visual art after a cancer diagnosis and how artistic self-expression might contribute to maintenance or reconstruction of a positive identity. Table 2 summarizes the use of art therapies in the healing process. 57 – 63

Details of the Visual Arts Studies Reviewed

Guillemin, one of the first to use drawings in an effort to understand experiences of health and illness, examined how 32 middle-aged women with heart disease understood their condition. 64 After an individual interview, each participant was asked to “draw” her heart disease. The drawings were grouped into 3 themes: the heart at the center, the heart in the lived body, and heart disease as a social illness. Use of color, spatial organization, and composition were explored. The drawings were considered as both visual products of the women's knowledge about heart disease and processes of embodied knowledge production. It was concluded that having individuals draw how they visualized their condition was an insightful method with which to explore understandings of illness.

Art can be a refuge from the intense emotions associated with illness. 65 There are no limits to the imagination in finding creative ways of expressing grief. In particular, molding clay can be a powerful way to help people express these feelings through tactile involvement at a somatic level, as well as to facilitate verbal communication and cathartic release and reveal unconscious materials and symbols that cannot be expressed through words. 66

Women taking part in a qualitative study focusing on cancer described ongoing cancer-related difficulties such as fear for the future, pain, sleeplessness, role loss, activity restriction, reduced self-confidence, and altered social relationships. 63 Engaging in different types of visual art (textiles, card making, collage, pottery, watercolor, acrylics) helped these women in 4 major ways. First, it helped them focus on positive life experiences, relieving their ongoing preoccupation with cancer. Second, it enhanced their self-worth and identity by providing them with opportunities to demonstrate continuity, challenge, and achievement. Third, it enabled them to maintain a social identity that resisted being defined by cancer. Finally, it allowed them to express their feelings in a symbolic manner, especially during chemotherapy.

In another study, supportive care providers responding to a survey described the healing benefits of music and art therapy in hospital settings, and these benefits seemed to be clustered around notions of exploration, expression, release, and the healing process. 67 In an additional study conducted at the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital, Staricoff compared the use and nonuse of an art intervention in different units of the hospital. 68 The groups that received the intervention were significantly more likely than were those that did not to have improved clinical outcomes, including better vital signs, diminished cortisol related to stress, and less medication needed to induce sleep.

There is also evidence that use of art and music reduces hospital stays, with studies showing earlier discharges among patients taking part in visual and performing arts interventions than among those not doing so. 69 , 70 In 1 study, surgery or critical care patients who participated in guided imagery or had a picture of a landscape on their wall had a decreased need of narcotic pain medication relative to their counterparts and left the hospital earlier. 71 , 72 Evaluations of art projects can link the benefits of creative expression to healing and greater wellness.

Two other visual arts studies have focused on the experience of women with cancer. 58 , 73 In a quantitative trial of mindfulness art therapy targeted toward women with cancer, Monti et al. 73 found that those who engaged in art making demonstrated statistically significant decreases in symptoms of physical and emotional distress during treatment. In addition to the introduction of self-care through guided imagery, the art-making therapy involved the women drawing complete pictures of themselves and engaging in yoga and meditation. The relaxation and symptom reduction produced by creative expression opened pathways to emotional healing.

The psychological effects of breast cancer, in particular, may include adjustment disorders, depression, and anxiety, and these symptoms in turn may generate feelings of fear, anger, guilt, and emotional repression. In their study, Puig et al. 58 explored the efficacy of a complementary creative arts therapy intervention with respect to enhancing emotional expression, spirituality, and psychological well-being among newly diagnosed breast cancer patients. This pretest–posttest study included 4 individual therapy sessions conducted over a 4-week period, with each hour-long session comprising guided, semistructured, creative arts therapy exercises involving drawing implements. Thirty-nine women with stage 1 or stage 2 breast cancer were randomly assigned to an experimental group that took part in an individual creative arts therapy intervention or to a delayed treatment control group.

Analyses of covariance were used to analyze the results, which indicated that the creative arts therapy intervention was not effective in enhancing the expression of emotions or the participants' level of spirituality. 58 However, participation in the intervention enhanced experimental group participants' psychological well-being by decreasing their negative emotions and enhancing their positive emotions.

Medical professionals are beginning to recognize the role that creative arts play in the healing process; increasingly, arts in medicine programs are emerging throughout the United States and worldwide. 74 With the success of the University of Florida's general arts in medicine program, a similar set of activities was launched in the long-term dialysis unit with the goal of assessing their effects. 59 Long-term hemodialysis is associated with impaired quality of life and depression, which are thought to worsen compliance with treatment regimens. At baseline and 6 months, the study authors administered the Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-36) and Beck Anxiety Inventory to 46 patients and assessed dialysis times, interdialytic weight gain, and predialysis laboratory results. 75

They also examined relationships between these variables and participation in the arts in medicine program. The intervention, led by artists, included artwork, crocheting, crafts, seasonal displays, poetry, and playing of musical instruments. At 6 months, the participating patients, nurses, technicians, and physicians reported that the program had a positive impact on the unit. Paired comparisons with baseline data showed significant improvements in SF-36 symptom scores (e.g., weight gain, serum carbon dioxide content, phosphate levels) and a trend toward reduced levels of depression.

In addition, regression analyses showed that high levels of program participation correlated with improved SF-36 social functioning, bodily pain, and physical role functioning scores, as well as a trend toward greater albumin levels, but also higher phosphate and lower calcium levels. In conclusion, participation in an arts-in-medicine program was related to improved quality-of-life measures, and there were encouraging trends in terms of improvements in depression and certain laboratory and hemodialysis parameters.

Walsh et al. conducted a pretest–posttest quasi-experimental study to test the efficacy of a creative arts intervention with 40 family caregivers of patients with cancer. 60 Participation in the creative arts intervention was the independent variable, and stress, anxiety, and emotions were the dependent variables. The 6-month study was implemented at a regional cancer treatment center. The creative arts intervention consisted of several creative arts activities designed for bedside delivery. Participants completed the Mini-Profile of Mood States (Mini-POMS), the Beck Anxiety Inventory, and the Derogatis Affects Balance Scale (as a measure of negative and positive affect). The creative arts intervention promoted short-term well-being in this sample of family caregivers. Caregivers reported significantly reduced stress, decreased anxiety, and increased positive emotions after taking part in the intervention. They also reported increases in positive communications with cancer patients and health care providers.

In another study, 61 the specific aim was to determine the effects of a 1-hour art therapy session on pain and other symptoms common to adult cancer inpatients. The Edmonton Symptom Assessment Scale and the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Index were used to quantify symptoms, and the 50 patients taking part were asked open-ended questions to evaluate their perceptions of the experience. There were statistically significant reductions in 8 of the 9 symptoms measured by the Edmonton scale, including the global distress score, as well as significant improvements in most of the domains measured by the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Index. Patients overwhelmingly expressed comfort with the process and a desire to continue with therapy. This study provides initial evidence of the efficacy of art therapy in reducing a broad spectrum of symptoms among cancer inpatients.

Movement-Based Creative Expression

A growing interest in dance and movement has accompanied recognition of the mind and body benefits of motor activity. 76 Movement-based creative expression focuses on nonverbal, primarily physical, forms of expression as psychotherapeutic or healing tools. Through the movement of mind and body in a creative way, stress and anxiety can be relieved, and other health benefits can be achieved as well. Table 3 highlights some of the research conducted in the area of movement-based creative expression and dance therapy to promote well-being. 77 – 80

Details of the Movement-Based Creative Expression Studies Reviewed

Picard expanded Newman's theory of expanding consciousness to include creative movement as a mode of expression. 80 She conducted 2 in-depth interviews and a single creative movement group experience with each of 17 midlife women. The results demonstrated expanding consciousness at midlife, with patterns of meaning identified in relationships with others, the self, and spirit as well as challenges associated with loss, illness, and threats to relationships. The consciousness activities identified were choosing, balancing, accepting, and letting go, and creative movement was shown to support self-awareness.

Sandel et al. conducted pilot research at 2 cancer centers in Connecticut to determine the effects of a dance and movement program on quality of life, shoulder function, and body image among breast cancer survivors treated within the preceding 5 years. 79 Thirty-five women completed this randomized controlled trial, which included a 12-week intervention focusing on healing through movement and dance. Results showed significant quality of life improvements in the intervention group. Shoulder range of motion increased, as did body image, at 13 weeks. By addressing posttreatment patients' physical and emotional needs, this program substantially enhanced their quality of life.

A unique study involving the use of theater investigated the benefits of a short-term intervention for adults aged 60 to 86 years (n = 124) that targeted cognitive functioning and quality of life issues important for independent living. 78 The theater component consisted of demanding exercises designed to have participants experience the essence of acting (i.e., to become engrossed in the drama). In the visual arts component, participants speculated on the intention of the art or commented on an ambiguous image. Participants were grouped into 1 of 3 study conditions: theater arts (primary intervention), visual arts (non-content-specific comparison group), or a no-treatment control group.

After 4 weeks of instruction, those given theater training exhibited significantly greater gains than members of the no-treatment control group on both cognitive and psychological well-being measures, specifically word and listening recall, problem solving, self-esteem, and psychological well-being. A comparison of theater and visual arts training showed fewer benefits in fewer areas for visual arts.

In a different type of movement expression, tai chi, a semimeditative exercise derived from martial arts, has been gaining popularity as an intervention for reducing falls in older adults and improving health status. One study, 77 conducted among older adults who were becoming frail, attempted to determine whether intense tai chi exercise could improve perceived health status and self-rated health more than wellness education. The participants were 269 women aged 70 years or older who were recruited from 20 congregate independent senior living facilities.

In this 48-week randomized controlled trial, participants were randomly assigned to receive either tai chi or wellness education. Participants were interviewed regarding their perceived health status and self-rated health before randomization and at 1 year. Perceived health status was measured with the Sickness Impact Profile. Relative to the wellness education group, the tai chi group exhibited significant improvements in physical functioning and ambulation and borderline significant improvements in the Sickness Impact Profile body care and movement category. Self-rated health status did not change in either group. These findings suggest that older women who are becoming frail demonstrate perceived health status benefits, most notably in ambulation, after taking part in intensive tai chi exercises.

Expressive Writing

Studies have shown that, relative to control group participants, individuals who have written about their own traumatic experiences exhibit statistically significant improvements in various measures of physical health, reductions in visits to physicians, 81 and better immune system functioning. 82 Writing increases health and wellness in varied ways, as shown in the expressive writing studies outlined in Table 4 . 83 – 87

Details of the Expressive Writing Studies Reviewed

Pennebaker 88 – 90 is the leading researcher on the power of writing and journaling for healing purposes. 27 According to Pennebaker, although the expressive writing paradigm has generally produced positive results, no single theory or theoretical perspective adequately explains how or why. 88 This situation can be attributed to the fact that “expressive writing occurs on multiple levels—cognitive, emotional, social and biological—making a single explanatory theory unlikely.” 88 (p138) However, there is little doubt that writing has positive consequences, and self-report studies suggest that writing about upsetting experiences produces long-term improvements in mood and health. 89

In one exercise, Pennebaker 89 had students write about their deepest thoughts and feelings on an important emotional issue, with the only rule being that “once you begin writing, continue to do so until your [15- to 30-minute] time is up.” 89 (p162) Dozens of replications of these types of studies have demonstrated that emotional writing can influence frequency of physician visits, immune function, stress hormones, blood pressure, and a number of social, academic, and cognitive variables. These effects have been shown to hold across cultures, age groups, and diverse samples. 91 , 92

Expressive writing can improve control over pain, depressed mood, and pain severity, as can be seen in Table 4 . For example, in a pair of randomized controlled trials, 83 , 84 patients were assigned to write about either emotional or nonemotional topics. In their 9-week study, Graham et al. 84 divided 102 chronic pain center outpatients into an anger-expression group (n = 51) and a control group (n = 51). Results showed greater improvements in control over pain and depressed mood, and marginally greater improvements in pain severity, in the anger-expression group than in the control group. These findings suggest that expressing anger may be helpful for individuals suffering from chronic pain, particularly if it leads to meaning making.

In their study, Petrie et al. 83 had 37 HIV-infected patients write 30 minutes per day for 4 days. CD4+ lymphocyte counts and HIV viral loads were measured at baseline and at 2 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months after the writing exercise. Participants who engaged in emotional writing rated their essays as more personal, valuable, and emotional than did control group participants. HIV viral loads dropped immediately after the intervention in the experimental group and increased slightly in the control group. The CD4+ lymphocyte counts of the emotional writing group gradually and continuously increased during the 6-month follow-up, whereas the CD4+ lymphocyte counts of the control writing group increased slightly from baseline levels and then remained stable. On the basis of the participants' reports of the value of writing and the study's preliminary laboratory findings, the results suggest that emotional writing may be beneficial for patients with HIV. There is evidence, however, that the benefits of writing may not be maintained over time. 86 , 87

Another form of expressive writing, poetry, has long played a role in the art of healing. 93 Several authors 94 – 96 have described the use of poetry to help people find their voice and gain access to the wisdom they already have but cannot experience because they cannot find the words in ordinary language. According to Carroll:

Our voices are saturated with who we are, embodied in the rhythms, tonal variations, associations, images and other somato-sensory metaphors in addition to the content meaning of the words. Our voices are embodiments of ourselves, whether written or spoken. It is in times of extremity that we long to find words or hear another human voice letting us know we are not alone. 94 (p164)

Finding one's voice via poetic means can be a healing process because it opens up the opportunity for self-expression not otherwise felt through everyday words. One British hospital introduced poetry into the culture of the hospital so that patients could experience other forms of literary work 97 and perhaps experience healing through the short snippets of expressive words and emotions to which they could relate.

Expressive writing through journaling is another way to access the unconscious self. Journal writing has been linked to creativity, spiritual awareness, and expansion of the self. 98 , 99 In 2 qualitative studies, 100 , 101 journal writing helped participants identify and work though feelings, improve relationships, and learn new things about themselves.

In an in-depth qualitative study conducted at Boston University, Grossman et al. 101 explored how 16 resilient male survivors of serious childhood sexual abuse, representing a range of racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds, made meaning from their abuse experiences. Three main types of meaning-making styles were identified in the narratives: meaning making through action, use of cognitive strategies, and spirituality. Meaning making through action included helping others and using creative expression to describe and process the abuse. Although not all of the men used creativity to find healing, 1 of the participants reflected on how he used writing, which was crucial to his survival. He reported that he would write both fiction and nonfiction to “go inside” and “be characters. Create characters. Fantasize. That was the safe space.” 101 (p438)

In a particularly unique study combining several visual, music, movement, and expressive writing modalities, Garland et al. 102 examined the positive outcomes of a pair of psychosocial interventions aimed at cancer patients, mindfulness and healing arts, with respect to posttraumatic growth, spiritual well-being, stress, and mood. 102 Garland et al. focused on 2 groups of cancer patients: those involved in mindfulness-based stress reduction (15 hours of class discussion, meditation, and yoga sessions) and those involved with movement to music, journaling, creative writing, and drawing (12 hours of self-exploration and healing activities) hours. Participants in both groups improved significantly over time in terms of overall posttraumatic growth, but participants in the mindfulness therapy group, in particular, showed improvement on measures of anxiety, anger, overall stress symptoms, mood disturbance, and spirituality. Benefit finding was the best predictor of long-term adjustment to chronic illness.

In all 4 areas of creative artistic expression reviewed here, there are clear indications that artistic engagement has significantly positive effects on health. There are, however, limitations to many of the studies included in our review, and sweeping generalizations as to what they may mean in aggregate cannot be made. We also recognize that our sample of studies is not exhaustive, and other research has been added to the literature since our review was conducted.

In addition, as a result of the wide range of studies examining the relationship between multiple varieties of art-related interventions and a similarly large group of physiological and behavioral outcomes, comparisons both between intervention types and within certain disease states or conditions are challenging. Moreover, many of the studies were observational in nature and at best were limited to a preintervention and postintervention comparison within the treated groups, with limited or no control groups available for comparison. Also, many of the interventions were both small in size and launched in groups that were “convenience samples” of available participants, introducing a number of potential confounding factors such as responder bias as well as limiting the generalizability of the findings to other populations.

More randomized controlled trials involving consistency in terms of the measurements used would increase the likelihood that patterns of health improvement associated with art can be demonstrated. In the studies reviewed here alone, stress and psychological outcomes were assessed with the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Index, the UWIST Mood Adjective Checklist, the Mini-POMS, and the Beck Depression Inventory, among other instruments. Also, many of these studies were short term, and thus longitudinal follow-ups are needed to secure additional data. 58

With respect to research methodology, the qualitative data focused on the meaning-making process of the arts and healing, and examples were provided of how art-based programs can contribute to wellness. Qualitative studies that report individual and unique results through rich descriptions and data could complement the use of quantitative methods. Both are needed to understand creative engagement and health effects among generalized populations with unique individual differences.

Several issues should be considered in future studies seeking to add to the insights available from the investigations reviewed here. For example, researchers should make better attempts to establish meaningful control groups, should attempt to quantify interventions and outcome variables at higher levels of standardization and precision to allow for more cross-study comparison, should expand study populations to allow exploration of the effects of interventions in groups with diverse cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds, and should plan for longer term follow-ups to assess the sustainability of outcomes over time.

Finally, the majority of the research was conducted within hospital rather than community settings. Given our nation's ideal of individuality, the social support that can be derived from one's community is an important but much ignored area of research. Community leaders can partner with researchers to create a health care agenda that can have an impact on not only those who are ill in hospitals but those in the community who want to experience greater wellness. Traditionally, scientists involved with statistics have not partnered with those in the arts community, but in future studies, teams with solid research methodology experts (i.e., biostatisticians), clinical experts, and those with artistic expertise in the community should be created to form an effective triad of experts.

Despite methodological and other limitations, the studies included in our review appear to indicate that creative engagement can decrease anxiety, stress, and mood disturbances. It is not unreasonable to assume that future studies involving better methodology and more consistent assessment of outcomes will demonstrate the ability of creative engagement to improve psychological and physical well-being and quality of life. As can be seen from our analysis, it is likely that creative engagement contributes to many aspects of physiological and psychological conditions typically associated with improved health status.

Use of the arts in healing does not contradict the medical view in bringing emotional, somatic, artistic, and spiritual dimensions to learning. Rather, it complements the biomedical view by focusing on not only sickness and symptoms themselves but the holistic nature of the person. 103 When people are invited to work with creative and artistic processes that affect more than their identity with illness, they are more able to “create congruence between their affective states and their conceptual sense making.” 104 (p53) Through creativity and imagination, we find our identity and our reservoir of healing. The more we understand the relationship between creative expression and healing, the more we will discover the healing power of the arts.

Acknowledgments

We recognize the Foundation for Art and Healing for its financial support and strong commitment to improving research on the use of creative expression and wellness for the benefit of individuals and communities.

Human Participant Protection

No protocol approval was needed for this study.

Can the Arts Challenge Mainstream Representations of Migration? An Inquiry into the Aga Khan Museum’s Afghanistan My Love Exhibition

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• Published: 08 August 2024

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• Alice Massari   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9103-5273 1 , 2 &
• Jeremie Molho 2  

In the past few years, numerous art initiatives have addressed the subject of migration and sought to voice an alternative to the predominant images diffused in the mainstream media. This article starts from the premise that the role of the arts in challenging dominant narratives of migration is too often taken for granted and argues for the need for a critical examination of the conditions and modalities through which arts can engage with a key societal debate like migration that has become so divisive on a global scale. Drawing on the notion of art worlds established in the sociology of the arts, we argue it is essential to move beyond a romanticized figure of the enlightened creator and consider the embeddedness of art in a complex network of production and diffusion, which greatly influences the nature of the meanings produced and their reception. The article focuses on the “Afghanistan, My Love” exhibition organized by the Aga Khan Museum of Toronto, Canada, in the aftermath of the Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan in the summer of 2021, which led to a significant surge of media coverage and the start of a dedicated scheme for the resettlement of Afghan nationals who collaborated with the Canadian Government due to Canada’s active involvement in the conflict. By employing a multi-modal methodology that includes textual and visual social semiotic analysis along with key stakeholder interviews, the paper examines under what conditions art can participate in (re)shaping representations of migration. Drawing from this case study, the article proposes to differentiate between “reframing” and “counter-narrating” to understand the distinct modalities through which the arts can engage with and seek to challenge representations of migration. While reframing seeks to implicitly change perceptions by offering complex portrayals of migrant experiences, counter-narrating introduces explicit alternative discourses. Less than intended to shift underlying structural representations, the latter approach seeks to ignite a collective process and generate empathy.

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Introduction

In recent years, a range of art projects have tackled the topic of migration with the intent to challenge mainstream representations. Ai Weiwei, the world-famous Chinese artist, created works like Law of the Journey , a 70-foot-long inflatable boat installation to highlight refugees’ struggles in the context of European migration policies (National Gallery Prague, 2018 ). The artwork aimed to disrupt the media narratives often depicting migrants as threats or burdens: “There’s no refugee crisis, but only human crisis,” he asserted, advancing the use of art “as a means to understand our complex reality.” The Undocumented Migration Project launched by UCLA Anthropology Professor Jason De León combines photography, installations, and ethnographic findings and aims to challenge dominant narratives on migration across the US-Mexico border (Undocumented Migration Project,  2017 ). It offers a humanizing portrayal of migrants and exposes the dangers and complexities they face on their journey while shifting the frame away from border security and criminalization. These examples reflect how art can be mobilized to challenge dominant media narratives on migration. Not only do they bring attention to the complex realities that migrants face, but they also explicitly address dominant narratives such as the recurrent idea of a migration crisis in Europe or the criminalization of migration at the Southern US border.

Such art projects have generated growing interest in the context of a global rise in anti-migrant sentiment and extreme right movements, fed by the diffusion of dehumanizing narratives of migrants (Petersen, 2017 ; Mekdjian, 2018 ; Barry, 2019 ). However, enthusiasm over the potential of the arts in promoting alternative narratives can lead to taking for granted the power of the arts in promoting values of hospitality and solidarity. We argue that the conditions under which the arts indeed engage with migration narratives and may or may not challenge existing frames require critical examination. This article emphasizes the embeddedness of the arts in a complex network of production and diffusion, which can affect the nature of the work and its reception, and aims to sketch a framework to highlight the tensions and dilemmas that the various producers involved in such socially engaged art projects are facing.

This article analyzes the “Afghanistan My Love” exhibition held at the Aga Khan Museum (AKM) in Toronto, Canada, between October 2022 and April 2023, and how it engaged with discourses and representations of migration. The exhibition constitutes an ideal case study for examining the conditions under which the arts can respond to mainstream narratives of migration, as it combines three essential components: timing that puts migration in the spotlight, an institution committed to challenging the dominant migration narrative, and diaspora artists who take center stage to voice their perspectives. First, the exhibition was organized in the aftermath of the Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan in the summer of 2021, which led to a significant surge in media coverage focusing on the country’s political turmoil and human rights concerns, accompanied by a resettlement program for Afghan refugees in Canada. Second, this exhibition has been put forward by the Aga Khan Museum (AKM), which since its establishment in Toronto in 2014 has led several exhibition projects aiming to engage with the dominant portrayal of migrants in Canada and the West in general. For instance, the exhibition “Don’t Ask Me Where I’m From” showcased work from descendants of immigrants in various parts of the world. While the Afghanistan My Love exhibition is not framed explicitly as an exhibition about migration, it is driven by an explicit attempt to challenge dominant narratives of Afghanistan and Afghans in Canada and to show “how art can be used as a powerful medium for connection during times of adversity” (Aga Khan Museum, 2022 ). Third, the exhibition displays the work of transnational Afghan artists with distinct trajectories: Shaheer Zazai, who fled Afghanistan as a child and grew up in Pakistan and Canada and is now a Canadian citizen, and the Kabul-founded artists collective Artlords, largely dispersed globally in the aftermath of the Taliban takeover. By showcasing these artists, the exhibition indeed offers a platform to different transnational Afghan artists with varied migration experiences.

Our methodology combines textual analysis, visual social semiotic analysis of the artworks displayed, and interviews. Textual analysis involved closely examining exhibition texts, including wall labels, artist statements, and media coverage, to uncover the underlying discourses and narratives that shape the exhibition’s framing of migration. To grasp the polysemic meanings of the artworks displayed at the exhibition, visual social semiotic analysis focused on their visual elements, composition, and symbolism. Drawing from the work of Barthes ( 1972 ) and Kress and Van Leeuwen ( 2020 ), this method involves scrutinizing the images’ denotation (literal messages) and connotation (cultural interpretations and ideological meanings), as well as the context or visual syntax. We analyzed how images represent reality, the relationship between the image producer and viewer, and how these functions operate within specific communication genres. Finally, interviews with key stakeholders involved in the exhibition are also integral to our methodology. This includes in-depth, semi-structured interviews with the artists participating in the exhibition, the curator, the director of collections, and the CEO of the AKM to discuss the creative processes, intentions, and conceptual underpinnings of the exhibition.

As our study primarily focuses on the production of the exhibition, a detailed analysis of audience demographics and their perceptions was beyond the scope of our current research. Nevertheless, it is worth noting the broader public reception of the exhibition. Reviews in online culture magazines (e.g., Nanji,  2022 ; Berge,  2022 ) and comments on social media platforms (Aga Khan Museum Facebook page, 2022 ; Aga Khan Museum Instagram, 2022 ) highlighted the exhibition’s attempt to engage with mainstream narratives about Afghanistan, moving away from an association with war and emphasizing cultural richness and resilience. The exhibition encouraged active audience engagement, for instance, by distributing postcards for visitors to share their messages within the museum space. We observed that a diverse audience engaged with the exhibit, including members of the Afghan diaspora and many other communities in Toronto.

This paper is structured as follows: it starts with a section providing an outline of the state of the art of studies on the power of the arts in shaping representations of migrants. The following part presents the conceptual framework that underpins the paper’s analysis. It sets the stage for the subsequent section, “Afghanistan in mainstream representations,” which critically examines how Afghanistan has been portrayed in Western mainstream accounts. The subsequent section introduces the “Afghanistan My Love” exhibition. The paper proceeds by analyzing the two key modalities through which the exhibition seeks to challenge mainstream narratives of migration. First, it analyzes reframing tactics, which implicitly revisit dominant representations of Afghans in various aspects of the curatorial choices made and the artwork displayed. Then, it analyzes how the exhibition sought to create an explicit counter-narrative which, although it does not seek to fundamentally shift the key underlying frames that structure the perception of Afghans and Afghanistan, tries to initiate a collective movement to propose a narrative of hope that counters the narrative of war and despair.

Artistic Production and the Representation of Migration

Over the last few years, an increasing number of scholars have become interested in the relationship between arts and migration representations (Dogramaci & Mersmann, 2019 ; Martiniello, 2022 ). Particularly, there has been increasing interest over the potential power of arts as a tool to reframe representations of migrants (Schramm et al., 2019 ; Leurs et al.,  2020 ; Marchevska & Defrin,  2023 ). Artistic expression has long been put forward as a powerful medium for challenging and offering alternatives to mainstream media representation (Holle et al.,  2021 ; Makhumula,  2019 ). Artists often employ symbolism, metaphor, and visual rhetoric to convey their messages, prompting viewers to question and interrogate dominant ideologies (Abderrezak,  2016 ; Molho, 2019 ). Artistic interventions have the potential to incite dialogue, inspire social change, and shape public opinion by presenting alternative narratives that challenge conventional wisdom (McKay & Bradley, 2016 ; Ong & Rovisco,  2019 ; Sievers, 2021 ).

While the art world has long perpetuated a very limited, biased, Western-centric vision and a point of view determined by dominant identities, art world actors have been increasingly pushing to give visibility and agency to those who have been historically silenced or underrepresented, offering more diverse perspectives (Martiniello,  2019 ; Molho, 2023 ). In this context, the perspective brought by artists with migrant background has garnered increasing attention (Brownlie, 2021 ; Golemo, 2020 ). By sharing personal stories, exploring cultural traditions, and addressing the nuances of their lived experiences, migrant artists present a more authentic portrayal of their communities (Horsti, 2019 ). Diaspora artists can convey in their work how they navigate the complexities of cultural identity, displacement, and the interplay between their adopted home and their motherland (Mathur,  2011 ). Their work can bring up complex cross-boundary social and political issues across and highlight the diversity and cultural richness of their home countries.

However, assigning such a political function to the work of diaspora artists has also been argued to be to the detriment to the full acknowledgement of their aesthetic value (Parzer, 2021 ; Rodgers, 2021 ). Diaspora artists are often constrained to perform their identity to position themselves within the art scene. To gain recognition and navigate the art world, artists may find themselves compelled to produce work that aligns with dominant notions of their country’s culture or artistic traditions (Çağlar, 2016 ). This can result in the perpetuation of clichéd narratives or exoticization, which in turn reinforces the limited understanding and representation of their motherland. By being confined to dual identities (same and other, here and there), artists may feel compelled to repeatedly create works that conform to these expectations, limiting their ability to explore diverse themes, experiment with different artistic styles, or address contemporary social and political issues.

To critically assess the transformative potential of art in shaping representations of migrants, one must examine the networks of art production and distribution within which artists and artworks operate. Art is a collaborative social activity involving various actors, including artists, audiences, curators, critics, and institutions (Becker, 1982 ; Moulin, 1994 ). Museums occupy a central position in the art world, shaping artistic and aesthetic values (Bevelander & Johansson, 2018 ). In the latter half of the twentieth century, museums have faced the challenge of addressing historical exclusions and giving visibility to marginalized communities often overlooked or misrepresented in mainstream narratives.

Museums have become platforms for representing the diverse histories and identities of migrant communities. By addressing historical exclusions and making visible the experiences of migrants, museums attempt to promote a more inclusive understanding of cultural heritage (Whitehead et al., 2016 ). Dedicated migration museums and exhibitions have emerged with the ambition to educate the public, foster empathy, and serve as cultural mediators, connecting migrant histories with broader audiences and challenging exclusionary discourses to promote a more nuanced understanding of migration (Kubica, 2024 ; Gouriévidis, 2014 ).

To achieve the ambition of challenging mainstream discourses on migration, museums can adopt various approaches. One approach views the museum as a ritual space, where museum professionals aim to enact an alternative vision and transform viewers’ perceptions. Duncan ( 2004 ) posits that museums function similarly to religious and ceremonial places, guiding visitors through a transformative journey designed to elevate their understanding. In the context of migration, this ritualistic function is intended to foster empathy among visitors and challenge stereotypes. By displaying migrants’ narratives and featuring artists from these communities, museums seek to create opportunities for visibility, recognition, and empowerment (Erdogan-O’Connor et al., 2023 ).

Alternatively, the concept of the participatory museum emphasizes museums as cultural mediators, aiming to facilitate connections between artworks, diverse audiences, and among the audiences themselves. Simon and Grabow ( 2010 ) advocates for a participatory culture in museums, where visitors are encouraged to actively engage with exhibits and contribute to shaping their experiences. This approach aims to transform museums into interactive spaces where knowledge is shared and produced collaboratively. Participatory exhibitions have been argued to facilitate direct engagement between visitors and migrant narratives, fostering a sense of solidarity and understanding (Nieroba, 2018 ).

Reframing vs Counter-Narrating: An Analytical Framework

We propose to distinguish the notions of “reframing” and “counter-narrating” and conceptualize them as two distinct modalities of challenging narratives of migration. Reframing involves altering the underlying structure that governs the understanding of reality. Counter-narrating, on the other hand, explicitly confronts the dominant narrative, providing an explicit alternative view.

Erving Goffman ( 1974 ) work introduced the concept of “frames” understood as interpretative schemata that enable individuals to identify and categorize occurrences within the world (Goffman, 1974 : 21). Building on Goffman’s ideas, Entman ( 1993 : 52) further developed this idea, explaining framing as the selective emphasis of certain aspects of reality in public discourse, while diminishing others. The media plays a crucial role in this process. They are not passive conduits of information but active participants in the creation and shaping of frames (Matthes & Kohring, 2008 ; Steidley & Colen, 2017 ). The application of framing in migration studies is illustrated through a diverse array of research that examines how the issue of migration is presented and interpreted across different contexts and actors (Helbling, 2014 ; Ransan-Cooper et al., 2015 ; Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007 ; Wallace, 2018 ). Klein and Amis ( 2021 ) explored the interplay between visual representations and emotional responses, shedding light on how these elements shape public discourse. Brouwer et al. ( 2017 ) highlighted how specific frames can criminalize this population, impacting public opinion and policy. Merolla et al. ( 2013 ) discussed how language choices, like the terms “illegal,” “undocumented,” or “unauthorized,” serve as framing devices that influence public sentiment on immigration.

The notion of narrative has a long history in the social sciences (Jones & McBeth, 2010 ). Somers and Gibson ( 1994 ) highlighted the pivotal role of narratives in crafting individual identities and behaviors, arguing that the very fabric of social life is interwoven with storied elements, rendering narrative an essential component of social existence. In the realms of political sociology and political science, the narrative approach became instrumental in understanding how policy issues are socially constructed, diverging from the idea of policy problems as objective realities (Kaplan, 1986 ; Roe, 1994 ). Scholars have long examined how migration stories are constructed and disseminated and the effects they have on policy and public opinion (Boswell et al., 2021 ; Dennison, 2021 ; Sahin-Mencutek, 2020 ; Sommer, 2023 ). This includes important work on the impact of “narratives of ‘Crisis’” Squire ( 2020 ), the role of narratives in the global governance of migration (Pécoud, 2015 ), and their significance in the policy-making process (Boswell et al., 2021 ).

The concept of narrative is distinct from the notion of frame. While framing involves accentuating specific dimensions of an issue to shape its interpretation and policy implications, as outlined by Entman ( 1993 ), it does not necessarily incorporate the sequential, character-driven, and plot-based structure of narratives. Frames can make certain aspects of an issue more prominent, which can influence problem definition and moral evaluations (Fishman, 1978 ; Gamson & Modigliani, 1989 ). But unlike narratives, frames do not require the sequential progression and character development that characterize a traditional story architecture.

By extension, we propose to distinguish between reframing and counter-narrating. Reframing involves an implicit deconstruction and reconstruction of how a particular reality is represented. For instance, methodological nationalism is a frame that implies people are generally static and national cultures are homogenous (Wimmer & Glick Schiller, 2002 ). To reframe this, one might portray individuals as inherently mobile and cultures as dynamic and fluid. Conversely, a counter-narrative explicitly confronts an established discourse without stepping outside its parameters, which may inadvertently reinforce the underlying frame. For instance, humanitarian Non-Governmental Organizations seeking to challenge the mainstream media’s securitization framing of migration, while introducing new and alternative elements into the narrative, often fall short of reframing the issue. Instead, inadvertently, they contribute to its reproduction (Massari, 2021 ).

Mainstream Representations of Afghanistan in Canada

Canada’s military involvement in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014 and the subsequent arrival of Afghan refugees has influenced public discourse and media narratives surrounding Afghanistan in the Canadian context (Reese & Lewis,  2009 ; DeCillia, 2018 ; Sohail, 2023 ). Since the 1980s, Afghans have migrated to Canada to escape conflict and insecurity in their homeland, particularly during periods such as the Soviet-Afghan War (1979–1989), the civil war (1989–1996), the Taliban regime (1996–2001), and the subsequent war (2001–2021). Records indicate that approximately 63,000 Afghan citizens migrated to Canada between 1980 and 2015, with immigration numbers peaking at 4067 in 2001 (Pendakur, 2021 ).

Following the Taliban takeover in 2021, there has been a heightened urgency in resettling Afghan nationals. On 13 August 2021, the Canadian Government announced its plan to resettle 20,000 vulnerable Afghans who were forced to flee Afghanistan due to their previous collaboration with the Canadian Government (IRCC, 2021 ). By February 2022, the government had raised its commitment to accommodate at least 40,000 Afghan refugees (IRCC, 2022 ). The Afghan refugees resettled in Canada under these programs were granted permanent residency status, which entitled them to receive integration services such as temporary housing, assistance in finding permanent housing, orientation to integrate into the community, and temporary income support. As of March 2024, 49,070 Afghan refugees had arrived in Canada. Private sponsorship for the resettlement of Afghan refugees has also been established, similar to the case of Syrians. A Lifeline Afghanistan program has been set up to support this private sponsorship (IRCC, 2024 ).

Over the years, Western mainstream media portrayal of Afghanistan has been primarily focused on conflict, political instability, and military interventions, influenced by historical, political, and cultural contexts. Following the September 11, 2001, attacks in the USA, media coverage extensively highlighted the USA and allied military intervention in Afghanistan as part of the “War on Terror.” This coverage contributed to the global perception of Afghanistan primarily as a battleground (Hammond, 2007 ; Reese & Lewis, 2009 ).

Another significant aspect of Afghanistan’s portrayal involves human rights, particularly concerning women and children (Klaus & Kassel, 2005 ). Western media frequently report on restrictions imposed on women. These reports often feature personal stories of Afghan women, emphasizing their struggles and resilience to evoke sympathy and concern from Western audiences. Studies have highlighted how such representation of Muslim women, as uniformly oppressed and in need of “rescue” by the West (Abu-Lughod, 2015 ), during the US invasion of Afghanistan was used to justify military intervention (Hatef & Luqiu, 2021 ; Heck & Schlag, 2013 ; Mackie, 2012 ).

Western media coverage has also faced criticism for perpetuating stereotypes about Islamic societies (Hanifi, 2018 ; Said, 1977 ). A common example of such stereotyping can be found in the depiction of Afghan society monolithically, as “failed” and “traditional” (Ahmadi, 2016 ). This type of coverage tends to ignore the country’s rich cultural diversity, which includes a variety of ethnic groups (Marsden, 2005 ).

Another common representation of Afghanistan in Western media is associated with the coverage of the humanitarian crisis following natural disasters or during periods of intensified conflict, depicting struggles for basic necessities such as food, shelter, and medical care (de Lauri & Billaud, 2016 ; Friis, 2012 ; OCHA, 2023 ). While reporting on these crises is key to garnering international support and aid, they carry the limit of often portraying Afghans solely as victims and not as active agents in their struggle for survival and improvement (Massari, 2021 ).

The “Afghanistan My Love” Exhibition at the Aga Khan Museum

The Aga Khan Museum, located in Toronto, Canada, is an institution dedicated to the collection, preservation, and display of artifacts from Islamic civilizations. Opened in September 2014, the museum was established by the spiritual leader of the Ismaili Muslims, the Aga Khan, to foster a better understanding of Islamic art, culture, and history as well as their interrelation with other cultures. The museum’s collection spans over a thousand years of history, showcasing a variety of works of art, including manuscripts, ceramics, metalwork, and textiles. The Aga Khan Museum also offers an educational program (including online courses, guided tours, and podcasts) aimed at the promotion of pluralism, highlighting the history and diversity of Muslim civilizations and showcasing their contributions to the artistic, scientific, and intellectual development of the global heritage.

The “Afghanistan My Love” exhibition is part of a continuum in the museum’s sustained efforts to engage with the topic of migration and to confront prevailing narratives surrounding it. AKM opened an exhibition on Syria in 2016, during a period of intense global focus on the nation due to the conflict and the resulting mass displacement of its people. “Syria: A Living History” sought not just to inform but to recast perceptions, showcasing the country’s deep-rooted and diverse cultural heritage in the face of its reductionist portrayal in the media. Continuing this thread, in 2019, the “Don’t ask me where I’m from” exhibition addressed migration by giving a platform to artists who navigate multiple cultural identities. It emphasized the varied experiences of immigrants and their descendants, illustrating the complexities and the creative potential arising from living in cultural interstices.

The Afghanistan My Love exhibition, which ran from the 8th of October 2022 to the 10th of April 2023 centered on the work of art collective ArtLords and artist Shaheer Zazai. Artlords is an artist collective established in 2014, which began painting Kabul’s blast walls before expanding into performative art, offering public painting opportunities to address the psychological toll of war. Shaheer Zazai is a Toronto-based Afghan Canadian multidisciplinary artist who employs Microsoft Word to produce digital works reminiscent of Afghan carpets, reflecting on his heritage and the adaptability of human creativity.

The exhibition commences with a didactic introduction on Afghanistan, showcasing a topographical map that delineates its rugged terrain and highlights its principal cities and posing thought-provoking questions about the nation’s identity. “What constitutes a nation? Its land, people, culture, or history?” Accompanying these inquiries, a passage elucidates: “Afghanistan’s rich tapestry has been woven over millennia, at the confluence of diverse ethnicities, beliefs, languages, and innovations.” More questions of varying colors adorn the following walls, prompting explorations into Afghanistan’s history and culture: Is Islam the oldest religion in Afghanistan? Where did women get the Right to vote first, Afghanistan or the USA? Where in the world is the Afghan diaspora? These questions connect via painted lines to illustrated panels that unveil succinct answers. One panel depicts an Afghan mother tenderly kissing the forehead of her daughter. On the panel, visitors can learn that “since August 2021, following the return of the Taliban regime, more than 17,000 Afghans have settled in Canada – growing the local Afghan diaspora and adding to the tapestry of Canadian culture.”

Upon turning to the right-hand wall, visitors are faced with a vast mural co-created by previous visitors under the guidance of Artlords’ artists. This piece intertwines symbols from Afghanistan and Canada: the Canadian Rockies, the historic Afghan Bamiyan Buddhas, a prominent maple leaf, and a young girl clutching the map of Afghanistan.

Then, visitors initiate their journeys into the works of Artlords. This collection includes life-size photographs of murals, paintings, and carpets designed by the artists, as well as videos that documented the collective in action during various painting sessions. It starts with a series of expansive photographs of murals painted on Kabul’s security blast walls, including a mural on the National Directorate of Intelligence wall confronting corruption through the eyes of a young Afghan-Sikh girl, titled I See You from July 2015, and the Solidarity in South Asia mural featuring the calligraphy of a poem by Persian poet Sa’di, evoking collaboration among artists of Indian, Afghan, and Pakistani heritage.

Additionally, the exhibition presents new and rescued paintings from Kabul, reflecting themes of empowerment, healing, and peace. For instance, With Love from Kabul Jan depicts a child’s silhouette with colorful baskets, and another work portrays a boy playing soccer beside the Bamiyan Buddha. One painting captures a girl, seen from behind wearing vibrant colors, reaching toward a flight of white doves emerging from a tear in the canvas against a bright blue sky. The “From War to Peace” section features a painting where an armed figure’s weaponry is transformed into upward-pointing pencils, executed in a stencil art style that echoes the language of political street art.

Proceeding with the tour, visitors encounter a world map entitled “Mural Making in a Global Context” that provides a snapshot of the vast network of artists engaged in public murals and graffiti internationally. This map, which underscores the universality of mural art, showcases diverse figures like Philip Cote from Canada, an Anishinaabe-Algonquin artist and historian, Amanda Phingbodhipakkiya, an American artist with immigrant roots, the British street artist Banksy, as well as WiseTwo (Bhupi Jethwa), a Kenyan multidisciplinary artist.

The exhibition continues with an interactive section where visitors are invited to fill in postcards and share their own “hope for the future.” Many of these postcards are displayed on the wall, showcasing past visitors’ messages of hope for Afghanistan.

In the concluding section, the exhibition presents the art of Shaheer Zazai, which encompasses a digital series and rugs crafted by Afghan weavers from his Microsoft Word designs. A Study in Human Error exemplifies the collection, reflecting Zazai’s personal history of displacement from Afghanistan to Pakistan, then Canada, and ultimately Cyprus, underscoring his reflection on his transient life. The artworks display complex patterns that mirror traditional carpets, centralized by symmetrical motifs. A Call Home is another series where Zazai’s digital designs are reinterpreted by weavers living in Afghanistan. These large, geometrically patterned hangings adorn the gallery walls. The Blackout series forms a stark contrast, responding to recent Afghan events with predominately black text-like patterns, symbolizing a period of mourning for the artist’s homeland.

Reframing Afghan Migration: Empowering Transnationally Connected Artists

People don’t have context. Afghanistan is something that you see in the news. You may build your perception based on what you see in the news, but you actually know nothing about the place. I felt it was important that there is an acknowledgment of the complexity of the place and to undermine, provide a sort of imbalance to what people think they know. Footnote 1

As this statement reflects, challenging the dominant frames on Afghanistan was an explicit goal sought by the museum director and the exhibition curator. The exhibition’s title, Afghanistan My Love, is a statement that focuses on the subjective and emotional perspectives of those connected to this land, contrasting with the prevailing narratives of conflict. This first-person title brings intimate, personal views of migrants about their homeland to the forefront.

The selection of artists, though serendipitous, reflects AKM’s globalist view. Artlords received an award from the Center for Global Pluralism, AKM’s sister organization, while the concurrent local exhibition of Shaheer Zazai’s work in Toronto provided a fortuitous opportunity for the museum’s curators to discover and engage with his art. The juxtaposition of the artists’ perspectives—Shaheer Zazai’s external, diasporic viewpoint and Artlords’ internal, Afghan-based narrative—creates a complementary perspective between inside and outside perceptions of the country. The artists’ Afghan identity is combined with complex trajectories and multiple belongings. Zazai left Afghanistan as a child, lived in Pakistan for 30 years before immigrating to Canada, and later relocated to Cyprus, living a transnational and hypermobile life, reflected in his work. The members of Artlords are spread across the globe, and the co-founder, who left Afghanistan when he was 20 years old, went to Australia. He spent a significant part of his life in Australia before returning to Afghanistan in 2010 to develop his artistic projects, and when the Taliban took over, he relocated to Istanbul, maintaining a low profile to be able to remain active in his homeland. These complex trajectories embody a transnational existence, challenging binary notions of migration and belonging. Hence, showcasing these artists contributes to deconstructing the image of the Afghan refugee as a person going through a linear journey from a place of conflict to a place of freedom.

The exhibition adopted various reframing tactics. One of these tactics is the global map of street art located at the end of the Artlords segment, which proposes a decentered representation of the geography of global art world form: Artlords is not framed as following a tradition set in a Western context but rather as part of a global movement. By showcasing a diverse range of street artists from around the world, the exhibition positioned Artlords’ work within a broader international context, offering a decentered view of this artistic expression. This goes beyond an image of Afghanistan that would be merely ethnographic and would consider it as a space of ancient traditions, and rather situate it in a global landscape of creativity, through this comparative approach, that draws a parallel between political street art in Kenya, Canada, or South Korea as well as Afghanistan. The map’s caption is very explicit:

Whether you are on the streets of Kabul, Toronto, or indeed many other cities around the world, mural ‘artivists’ can be found at work, contributing to a broader global discussion.

Another reframing tactic is reflected in the video installation titled Ordinary Kabul, which captures everyday life in the streets of Kabul, presenting the ordinary and the mundane in stark contrast to the sensationalized images of conflict that dominate media portrayals. Marianne Fenton explains, “I wanted film footage of the place, so people can have a real sense of it. An ArtLords member still living there strapped a camera on his bicycle and cycled through the streets of Kabul.” Footnote 2 This approach offered a simple image of Kabul, without war, explosions, or sensational stories. It reminded audiences that “it’s a city just like any other city. It might look culturally a little different, but for a lot of people that come to the museum, it would remind them of cities that they’re from.” This aspect of the exhibition served to humanize and normalize the Afghan experience, countering the one-dimensional narrative of a country defined by violence. Fenton adds, “People are going about their everyday business, they are shopping. There’s a traffic jam. It’s a familiar scene and it seems so ordinary, so normal. To bring that normalcy back in again. No bombs were going off, nothing tragic was happening. Just an ordinary scene of people stuck in traffic, going to the market, drinking coffee.”

The segment on Zazai was perhaps the most reflective of a tactic aiming to reframe Afghanistan and move beyond an exotic representation. Zazai’s work offers an intimate perspective and introspective reflection. In the Mind the Gap , To Allow for a Question , and A Study in Human Error series, Zazai uses Microsoft Word characters combined with a vibrant color palette as a means of expressing his personal everyday feelings. According to him, the artwork emerged from a simple moment of boredom, which had little to do with Afghanistan:

When I first started working with Microsoft Word in 2013, I didn’t intend to make artwork. It was more about giving myself a task because I was feeling rather listless, often lounging on a couch in front of a laptop. So, I challenged myself to type dots and spaces. Out of this self-imposed task, the piece was born. Initially, I’d just take screenshots and post them on Facebook. But the overwhelming response and engagement from the community piqued my interest. As I generated more pieces and observed the growing response, I realized I wasn't merely performing a task; I was producing art. Footnote 3

After the Taliban takeover in August 2021, however, the artist decided to delve deep into the specific political events and reflect on his inner self through the series Blackout (Fig.  1 ). In this sequence of artworks, Zazai made a deliberate choice to restrict himself to a stark black-and-white palette, a vivid representation of the dark cloud that loomed over Afghanistan’s cultural and societal fabric. The absence of color in the “Blackout” series symbolizes Zazai’s emotional turmoil and deep-seated anguish regarding the societal regression and cultural stifling that the Taliban’s rise represented to the artist. This self-imposed color restriction served as a visual metaphor for the constraints, both literal and symbolic, that Afghanistan faced during this period.

Source: photograph of the artwork by the author

Blackout/2022 (Shaheer Zazai).

Shaheer Zazai’s artistic work, while drawing upon his cultural heritage, does not foreground it as the primary subject; rather, it serves as a resource. There is a discernible awareness in Zazai’s work of the need to communicate aesthetic statements that speak to the collective experiences of his audience, navigating between personal identity and universal appeal. As Zazai puts it: “It’s more that the viewer, the community, the art community around me has seen the cultural identity aspect in the work over me voicing it.”

Through the three reframing tactics we have discussed, the exhibition paints an implicit contrast against the backdrop of mainstream media representation, which reproduces a series of frames underpinning the public understanding of Afghanistan and its people. The creation of a decentered street art map situates Artlords’ work within global aesthetics, contrasting with the predominant representation of arts from the region as a peripheral movement that emerged by emulating aesthetics initiated in the West. The emphasis on ordinary life in the city contrasts with the spectacularized and dramatized portrayal of Kabul as a city at war. The display of Zazai’s formalist aesthetic research contrasts with the frequent culturalization of migrant artists, which often focus on stereotypical cultural symbols of their country of origin.

Counter-Narrating Afghanistan: Against Narratives of War, Conflicts, Ignorance, and Despair, Projecting a Narrative of Hope

The exhibition employs counter-narration as its main strategy to challenge dominant representations of Afghanistan. This approach is evident in the educational components integrated into the exhibition’s design, aimed at bridging the knowledge gap among Canadians regarding Afghanistan. To address this, the curator implemented educational components within the exhibition’s scenography to provide context and facilitate understanding. The introductory segment of the exhibition employed a Socratic method of inquiry, prompting visitors to confront and question their preconceived notions about Afghanistan. Curator Marianne Fenton explains, “We thought: what are some of the preconceptions that people come with, start with that and respond to those things in particular… We wanted to lead with questions. Rather than giving people answers, ask people questions to encourage them to think.” By displaying questions on the wall, such as “Is Islam the most ancient religion of Afghanistan?” alongside relevant answers, the exhibition aims to move beyond simplistic associations and provide a deeper understanding of the country’s history and complexity.

Representative of the counter-narrative strategy is the segment on Artlords, whose work is intertwined with Afghanistan’s tumultuous history, characterized by multiple invasions and conflicts. The collective work of Artlords prominently features visual representations of war, such as tanks, bombs, and military installations, juxtaposed with recurring symbols of peace like doves, hearths, butterflies, and pencils drawn instead of ammunition. Their artworks clearly place the quest for peace and healing at the forefront of their artistic expression. “We thought it was like a healing workshop in the street of Kabul,” Footnote 4 the founder of Artlords explained. Most pieces in the Afghanistan My Love exhibition focus on humanitarian themes, like children, women, and education symbols. While the “I See You” mural stands out for its political critique, the exhibition overall aligns with the collective’s mission of social transformation through art and culture, echoing narratives promoted by humanitarian organizations. The exhibition’s counter-narrative approach, which aims to substitute a narrative of despair that dominates media representations of Afghanistan by offering a narrative of hope, might inadvertently accentuate the “apolitical” lens that some humanitarian narratives promote (Fig.  2 ).

Afghan girl (Artlords), refugee (Artlords).

This content also results from the challenge of mediating artworks deeply connected to the Afghan context to an audience largely unfamiliar with it. Curator Marianne Fenton’s task was to bridge this gap, selecting works that would resonate within the museum’s space without being reductive. This involved deciphering the artworks’ cultural codes, which required external assistance and a significant amount of cultural translation. The themes chosen for the exhibition—corruption and women’s rights—mirror those prevalent in media narratives about Afghanistan, not out of a desire to perpetuate these frames, but due to similar constraints: limited knowledge of the internal context and the need to engage a diverse museum audience, largely unfamiliar with the intricacies of the Afghan context.

The exhibition emphasized participation, aiming for a collective effort in shaping a new narrative rather than a one-way educational message. Members of the Artlords collective, who were recently arrived refugee artists, came together at the museum to help paint a mural designed specifically for the museum. Marianne Fenton recalls: “Every Saturday, for 12 weeks, for three hours, we had facilitators there and ArtLords members who were there to help audiences complete the mural.” In the mural, the iconic Afghan Bamiyan Buddhas stand against the backdrop of the Canadian Rockies, while a young girl, clutching a map of Afghanistan under her arm, enters the scene as a displaced figure transitioning into a new context. “She is literally bringing in Afghanistan with her.” Fenton comments, “everything that Afghanistan represent, her history, her culture, her stories.” For the founder of Artlords: “Inviting people to be part of it is a rewarding thing for us. They internalize our message and own a piece of that art.” This message is not just about Afghanistan, but also to inspire empathy toward Afghan immigrants in Canada: To commemorate the community was important from the viewpoint of viewers in Canada: to say “they are not just refugees with problems, they come with food, with music… they bring a lot of richness to Canada.” Footnote 5

Contrary to the pervasive assumption of an inherently positive power of the arts in promoting “positive” views of migration (Marchevska & Defrin, 2023 ; Schramm et al., 2019 ), we have argued that the complex processes in which art productions and diaspora artists engage with dominant migration frames require critical analysis. While the Aga Khan Museum’s Afghanistan, My Love exhibition explicitly aimed to challenge simplistic representations of migrants and their home countries, the realization of such an ambition faces a number of challenges and hurdles.

By elaborating on the conceptual distinction between reframing tactics and counter-narrating strategies, we have offered a critical lens on the ways the arts engage with migration narratives. On the one hand, reframing aims to alter the existing framework through which migration is understood. It aims to change the lens through which we view migrants. It seeks to disrupt established frames of reference, which are embedded in institutional practices. This implicit approach intends to challenge deeply ingrained societal views by acting on internationalized representations that are often unconscious. On the other hand, counter-narrating seeks to introduce alternative stories that run explicitly counter to dominant ones. It serves to counteract negative stereotypes by offering positive stories and consensual values. This explicit approach aims to trigger conscientization: counter-narratives can be powerful in rallying communities. However, the constrain of rhetorical effectiveness can lead to a reproduction of familiar frames.

By featuring multilocated, diasporic artists, the Afghanistan My Love exhibition disrupts the conventional binary of host country and country of origin and the framing of migration as a linear process. The exhibition aims to achieve both objectives of offering a subjective view of Afghanistan by artists who hold an intimate and personal connection to the country while refraining from the labeling of Afghan artists and instead mobilizing diaspora artists, introduced as global artists. The exhibition highlighted the complexity of Afghan identities. Contrary to mainstream media portrayals, the artists in the exhibition reveal multifaceted identities that weave together their Afghan heritage, diasporic experiences, and global connections. This portrayal challenges simplistic narratives and stereotypes, offering a more comprehensive understanding of Afghan identity. It moves beyond dichotomic representations showing how diverse influences are mutually enriching and intertwine within the context of international mobility.

While the counter-narrative strategy aims at correcting misconceptions explicitly, it can also unintentionally reinforce dominant frames. The introduction narratives of hope are intended to create a counter-narrative against the predominant stories of conflict. But doing so also reinforces a dominant framing that associates Afghanistan with war, which is narrated without an in-depth exploration of its political complexities. Likewise, the portrayal of women and girls as symbols of hope and aspiration for progress may perpetuate the idea of them needing external intervention, aligning with media depictions of Afghanistan and portraying the West as a universal savior of women’s rights. However, counter-narrative strategies really come down to igniting a collective process through the arts (Martiniello, 2015 ). By setting up interactive spaces and experiments, the exhibition mobilized the potential of the arts to create connections, enabling encounters among communities with diverse ethnic backgrounds residing in the same locality. This collective counter-narration, while not presenting a reframing of Afghanistan that distinctly challenges mainstream representations of the country, enables encounters and the collective processing of a complex reality.

The various approaches through which the arts address migration narratives reflect broader challenges museums face in choosing how to engage their audiences effectively. On the one hand, reframing migration narratives in the museum space is embedded in the notion that the museum, like a ritual space, has the power and duty to elevate its audience toward a more accurate understanding of human mobility. The concept of the museum as a ritual suggests that its design can act as a transformative force. This requires a carefully curated space that acknowledges the complexities of migration, aiming to enlighten visitors by presenting a nuanced understanding through the mediation of aesthetic experiences. On the other hand, counter-narrating migration in the museum space entails engaging with the audience’s beliefs, not dismissing them as ignorance but rather entering into a dialogical process to move toward a more balanced narrative, even at the cost of some simplifications. The participatory museum approach considers that the messages taken from an exhibit can vary as widely as the visitors themselves. Therefore, it emphasizes engaging the public starting from their existing knowledge, which may involve simplification and pedagogy.

This highlights the need to further explore the respective effects of reframing and counter-narrating strategies in the context of audience engagement. While reframing may be praised by expert audiences for challenging stereotypes, counter-narrating might be more transformative for a broader audience. Future studies could shed light on these impacts by using interviews or questionnaires with audience members to analyze their attitudes before and after the exhibition.

The relevance of this study extends beyond this particular exhibition and offers broader implications for researchers and practitioners in the fields of arts and migration. The analytical distinction between reframing and counter-narrating provides a useful framework to critically assess efforts to engage with migration narratives through the arts, highlighting the dilemma in challenging dominant frames. Close attention to the various semiotic resources used by artists, the institutional and curatorial strategies, and the discursive context in which art is produced and exhibited is essential for a more critical and informed understanding of the role of the arts in societal debates about migration.

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Massari, A., Molho, J. Can the Arts Challenge Mainstream Representations of Migration? An Inquiry into the Aga Khan Museum’s Afghanistan My Love Exhibition. Int J Polit Cult Soc (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10767-024-09480-7

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Cultural policies that facilitate the participation of persons with disabilities in the arts: findings from a qualitative multi-national study.

1. Introduction

2. participation in culture by people with disabilities, 3. materials and methods, 4. findings: facilitators of cultural participation by people with disabilities—a bottom-up approach, 4.1. funding schemes incorporating disability criteria.

‘ …That made a lot of difference. So now everybody, every organisation that applies for money must have a plan for accessibility in every sense. So, when that law passed in 2017 it was also a game changer because otherwise you won’t get any money ’. (SE DPO)

4.2. Advocacy, Awareness-Raising, and Education

‘ … lack of awareness and knowledge…keeps people away and afraid of dealing with certain new things… and [training] makes them feel more comfortable and conscious of what kind of services they need to provide, what is the best way of providing them, how they can better deal with people. Front-of-house staff, for instance, they are very, very worried of offending, of not receiving [people] properly ’. (PT A&D)

‘ …the joy of seeing themselves represented on the stage… It was incredible… that is why disabled people need to see themselves represented. It is so important ’. (UK A&D)

4.3. Accessibility of Cultural Infrastructure and Content

4.3.1. physical accessibility, 4.3.2. content accessibility, 4.4. consultation with and employment of people with disabilities in cultural sectors.

‘ [There are] some good examples about museums that focus on the topic of accessibility …. They have gathered the experts from these organisations [of people with disabilities] together in the start of the process they have thought out how the exhibition, how the rooms in the museums are built up also…. And together they have made these exhibitions, thought out how is the most accessible way to build them up, to set them up in the rooms. And the final outcome has been quite fantastic and has met the needs in the terms of accessibility ’. (EE DPO)

‘ Having disabled people on the staff in such places like libraries or cultural clubs or movie theatres—that makes a difference. And that makes a difference in service, in accessibility and in attracting clients including disabled clients ’. (BG DPO)

5. Discussion

6. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Leahy, A.; Ferri, D. Cultural Policies That Facilitate the Participation of Persons with Disabilities in the Arts: Findings from a Qualitative Multi-National Study. Disabilities 2024 , 4 , 539-555. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities4030034

Leahy A, Ferri D. Cultural Policies That Facilitate the Participation of Persons with Disabilities in the Arts: Findings from a Qualitative Multi-National Study. Disabilities . 2024; 4(3):539-555. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities4030034

Leahy, Ann, and Delia Ferri. 2024. "Cultural Policies That Facilitate the Participation of Persons with Disabilities in the Arts: Findings from a Qualitative Multi-National Study" Disabilities 4, no. 3: 539-555. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities4030034

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Virginia Tech professor's research influences a historic expansion of Medicare’s mental health coverage

In the first half of 2024, approximately 43,000 mental health professionals opted to enroll as independent Medicare providers.

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In the last six months, the United States has seen the largest expansion of Medicare’s mental health coverage in history – and a Virginia Tech professor helped make it happen. 

Historically, the more than 60 million Americans covered by Medicare, which is federal health insurance for people older than 65 years old, were not able to access services from marriage and family therapists or mental health counselors. That is until a law, heavily influenced by research at Virginia Tech, went into effect in early 2024 .  

The law gave mental health professionals not previously covered the opportunity to enroll as Medicare providers. So far, about 43,000 mental health counselors and marriage and family therapists have opted in, according to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services , allowing those 60 million people covered by Medicare to have access to services they wouldn’t have had before.

Matthew Fullen , associate professor of counselor education at Virginia Tech, has been one of the nation’s leaders in this arena. For years, he’s been advocating for health care professionals to be able to accept Medicare coverage. And by working with the American Counseling Association (ACA), the National Board of Certified Counselors , and other organizations associated with the Medicare Mental Health Workforce Coalition, his ideas finally took hold and influenced policy.  

"Modernizing mental health access for Medicare recipients is incredibly timely,” said Fullen, who has worked at Virginia Tech for seven years. “Working alongside colleagues and graduate students to articulate why this change is needed has been the highlight of my career."

Why is the law important?

This law opened the doors for about 400,000 counselors and marriage and family therapists to accept Medicare payments. 

Those providers account for about 40 percent of America’s mental health workforce and have largely been unable to accept Medicare enrollees who couldn’t afford to pay out of pocket until now. 

So far this year, 36,000 licensed counselors and 7,000 licensed marriage and family therapists have enrolled as Medicare providers.  

According to the Administration for Community Living (ACL), the United States will see major growth in those covered by Medicare due to an aging population, which means the number of providers will need to increase to keep pace. Right now, there are roughly 65 million older adults covered by Medicare. The ACL predicts that number will hit 90 million to 95 million in the next 20 or 25 years. 

History of Fullen's work

Before the most recent update to Medicare coverage, the policy hadn’t been updated since 1989. 

Recognizing that this legislation was in desperate need of an update, Fullen led research by students and faculty at Virginia Tech, both through the School of Education and the Institute for Society, Culture and Environment , with the focus of defining and describing the impacts of the outdated Medicare policy. 

“The research that Dr. Fullen and his team were able to produce was, by all accounts, the central reason that this advocacy effort finally came to fruition,” said Gerard Lawson, interim director for the School of Education . “There were thousands upon thousands of older adults, veterans, and individuals with disabilities who were in desperate need of mental health support and were waiting months for appointments. This was especially true for people living in rural areas. Stakeholders that had been struggling with this issue for decades needed data to help legislators understand the scale and scope of the problem, and Dr. Fullen’s research did just that.”   

That research then contributed to a larger conversation at the legislative level, helping lawmakers understand how the outdated policy had tangible negative effects in communities nationwide. 

“What that research trajectory helped to define was, ‘How many providers are being impacted by this outdated policy?'” said Fullen. “Then, we added qualitative research focused on individual Medicare recipients who had not been able to find services because so much of the mental health workforce was not included.”

According to Lawson, research like this is the bread and butter of the School of Education’s counselor education program . 

“This project and the positive impact made by this research and advocacy are right in the wheelhouse for faculty in our counselor education program,” said Lawson. “The faculty in that program are actively engaged in research and advocacy to address thorny issues like this one, as well as school climate and working conditions, rural school counseling, serving LGBT and gende-expansive clients, anti-racist pedagogy, and more. Research and advocacy go hand in hand, and the counselor education faculty are improving the lives of individuals who are receiving mental health services on a day-to-day basis.”   

Why did it take so long?

The actual administrative process of making changes to the policy isn’t easy. Medicare is federal law, meaning any revisions to the policy require an act of Congress. But as former chair of the American Counseling Association’s government relations committee, Fullen is no stranger to the work it takes to make legislative change. 

While there were some obvious hurdles, years of advocacy work paired with the change in public discourse helped change the tide. 

“Thanks to Dr. Fullen’s dedication to the counseling field and support for increased mental health access, mental health counselors, and marriage and family therapists are seen as major actors in addressing the needs of older adults with mental health conditions and increasingly sought by behavioral health systems and health care providers for their expertise in the older adult space,” said Joel Miller, executive consultant with the National Board for Certified Counselors and Affiliates.    

Much of that advocacy work was spearheaded by the Medicare Mental Health Workforce Coalition . The CEO of the American Counseling Association, which is a part of the coalition, explained that Fullen’s work has been “pivotal” in moving this landmark legislation forward.  

“His relentless advocacy and active participation in the Medicare Mental Health Workforce Coalition, along with his seminal 2019 research which analyzed the impact of the Medicare coverage gap on counseling professionals, is helping to provide those in need with greater access to essential mental health services,” said the association's CEO Shawn Boynes.  

Another catalyst that helped change perceptions of mental health was the pandemic because it pushed the needs of often overlooked populations into the spotlight. While a study from the Administration for Community Living shows that older adults fared better in terms of mental health during the height of the pandemic when compared to younger generations, isolation during COVID-19’s peak made discussing mental health more mainstream. 

While changing federal law is no easy feat, Fullen said there was overwhelming bipartisan support behind the policy updates. 

What’s next? 

Now that licensed counselors and marriage and family therapists are approved providers under Medicare, Fullen said his job on the panel is to continue to advise the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services on mental health policies. 

Looking forward, Fullen said a major goal is to aim for as many providers to enroll as possible. With the influx of new providers, there will also need to be training to help prepare them on how to best help older adults specifically. 

Fullen’s appointment to the federal Advisory Panel on Outreach and Education is for two years, and he is one of several professionals on the panel focusing on mental health.  

“It's a unique opportunity to represent the mental health community,” said Fullen. “It’s like adding to a part of the conversation that has really not been there before because we didn't get invited to these panels when we weren't part of the program.”

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University of Sydney media scholar receives prestigious humanities medal

Born in Ukraine, Dr Olga Boichak researches the role of media, data, and technologies in contemporary military conflicts, as well as digital sovereignty and digital infrastructure in wars, in the School of Arts, Communication and English at the University of Sydney.

"I’m interested in the role of social media across the participative war spectrum," Dr Boichak said. "This refers to the fact that anyone with an internet-connected device can participate in wars in different ways, by sharing information or mobilising people for humanitarian support or engaging in open-source intelligence."

Her research also extends into how communication infrastructure — such as cables and satellites — and data can be used by adversaries in "unprecedented ways in contemporary wars."

Humanities research fundamental for urgent global issues

Dr Olga Boichak will dedicate the award to Ukranian scholars who have lost their lives to the Russian invasion. 

Dr Boichak’s research has previously been honoured with a Fulbright Fellowship and an Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DECRA).

"I’m grateful to my nominators and all those who have supported me on this journey," said Dr Boichak. "I am heartened to see the Australian Academy of the Humanities recognise the importance of public scholarship surrounding Ukraine at this time. The Max Crawford Medal gives me strength to continue this research and support other early-career scholars working at the intersection between war and media."

Dr Boichak will dedicate the medal to the hundreds of Ukrainian scholars who have lost their lives to the Russian invasion.

"Olga Boichak is an outstanding recipient of the Crawford Medal," said Emeritus Professor John Griffiths FAHA, Chair of the Selection Committee. "The impact of her research is far-reaching, and it deals with major societal issues inherent with internet use — they go to our core humanitarian values and the fundamentals of our democratic society.

"Not only is it intelligent research, but it is also brave and bold in its focus on the current conflict threatening the existence of Ukraine. It is an outstanding example of the impact of humanities researchers in matters of urgent global concern and great human import."

Vice-Chancellor and President Professor Mark Scott congratulated Dr Boichak on her achievement. "Dr Boichak’s dedication and passion to the humanities is truly inspiring. Dedicating this honour to the Ukrainian researchers who have perished since the 2022 invasion is a powerful and poignant gesture. Her work not only honours their memory but also highlights the resilience and importance of academic pursuits even in the face of adversity. We are deeply proud to have Dr Boichak as a part of the University of Sydney community."

Dr Boichak will be formally presented with the Max Crawford Medal at the 2024 Annual Academy Dinner in Canberra on Thursday 14 November.

About the Australian Academy of the Humanities

The Australian Academy of the Humanities is the national body for the humanities in Australia, with a Fellowship of over 730 of Australia’s leading humanities scholars. The Academy is one of Australia’s five Learned Academies – independent organisations established to encourage excellence in their respective fields and to provide expertise and advice at public, institutional and government levels.

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