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Monographic study on demography, peace, and security in the sahel: case of mali, attachments.

Executive Summary

Mali’s geographical position in a Sahel that has been plagued by insecurity for many years exposes the country to security instability that is aggravated continuously by attacks by non-State armed groups present in the region, including jihadist groups, armed bandit groups, and community vigilante groups, particularly in the border areas with Algeria, Burkina Faso, and Niger. As a result, Mali has been experiencing instability and conflict period since the military coup of 2012 and the north of the country’s occupation by armed groups.

The country’s security situation creates many uncertainties, particularly about its economic and social development. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how security and development are linked in the specific context of the Sahel. It is against this backdrop that this monograph has been prepared, offering a situational analysis of critical issues related to security, development, and population dynamics in Mali.

Despite the signing of two peace agreements between the various players in Ouagadougou in June 2013 and in Algiers in June 2015, central and northern Mali’s situation continues to deteriorate. In the North, violence continues to escalate. Jihadist groups continue their attacks and many armed groups with a wide range of demands are organizing. At the same time, the conflict has moved to the country’s centre, where insecurity is increasing, and there is a rise in organized crime and communalism. Moreover, and as with everywhere else in the Sahel, Mali has become a transit point for all kinds of trafficking over the last ten years or so, particularly in migrants, cigarettes, drugs, etc. All these facts illustrate the complexity of Mali’s security problem, highlighting the interactions between several issues, including governance, legitimate violence, justice, land issues, inter-community divisions, regional integration, organized crime, climate change, development, and even patriarchal institutions.

To date, instability with regard to the country’s security has resulted in thousands of casualties and hundreds of thousands of displaced persons. The number of deaths continues to rise dramatically each year, and civilians seem to pay a heavy price for this. This has established Mali as the fourth most deadly country in armed conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa, after Somalia, Southern Sudan and the Central African Republic. Other acts of grave violations committed include violations of the right to life, torture, sexual violence, arrests, arbitrary detention, violations of property rights, and collective punishment.

The social and human consequences of all these acts of violence, beyond the immediate cost of death and injury, include migration or displacement of people, closure of businesses, reduced investment, decline in tourism, and lack of institutions’ legitimacy. The result is a considerable increase in new public expenditure for reconstructing destroyed infrastructure, assistance to displaced populations, and the resettlement of displaced persons and refugees in their homes and regions of origin. There is also significant new public expenditure involved in the costs of negotiating and implementing the peace and reconciliation agreement in Mali and establishing the new institutions that will be created under that agreement.

At the same time, the deteriorating security situation has prompted the country’s authorities to define new programmes for internal and external security and strengthen the law enforcement apparatus.. Thus, Mali has become caught up in an arms race, sharply increasing its defence and security spending. From 2010 to 2018, the government’s military spending effort increased quite significantly. In fact, there was slightly more than a threefold spending increase during this period. Mali’s military expenditure increased by 233% between 2010 and 2018, which corresponds to an average annual increase of 14% over this period.

However, these increases in military spending have taken place in a context where the State’s resources have not increased much. Over the same period (2010-2018), the overall state budget grew at an average annual rate of only 7% and tax revenues by 6%, well below the annual growth rate of military expenditure (14%). Under these conditions, the reallocation of resources is the only option open to the Malian State to support these new military expenditures. The reallocation of resources consists of a readjustment of expenditures in line with the forecasts in the original Budget Act. In the new security environment, reallocation has become an increasingly common means in Sahelian countries to finance new needs in internal and external security and management of the implications of conflict.

The immediate implication is that with the government’s limited overall budget, the increase in military spending has a crowding effect on other government spending components such as education and health spending in Mali. The analysis indicates that quite a strong crowding-out effect is occurring as a result of central government spending in the health sector. The health sector is the biggest loser of the increase in defence budget allocations. Between 2010 and 2018, the share of public health expenditure in the State budget was maintained at an average of less than 5 percent, while military expenditure doubled from 7 percent to 14 percent of the State budget.

The crowding-out effect on public spending on education is equally present, though less apparent. The share of education expenditure in the State budget has remained broadly stable, fluctuating around 17 per cent over the 2008-2018 period. At the same time, the share of military expenditure in the overall State budget has been steadily increasing. A catch-up effect was even observed towards the end of the period, when the military spending share reached almost 15%, while the public education spending share dropped to 15%.

These crowding-out effects are all the more worrying given Mali’s overall capital performance alarming. Despite the efforts made over the past six decades, Mali has a severe human capital deficit. It is among the African countries with the lowest score on the human capital index published in 2018. With a score of 0.32 out of a maximum of 1, Mali is ranked 40th, just ahead of Southern Sudan and Chad, and at the same level as Liberia and Niger.

Mali’s score of 0.32 on the Human Assets Index means that the level of income that a child born in Mali today can expect to achieve as an adult will be 68% lower than it would have been if he or she had been fully educated and lived in good health. Mali’s score of 0.32 also means that the country could reach a future GDP per worker three times higher if it reached the level corresponding to complete schooling and full health.

Furthermore, it should be noted that the human capital deficit could worsen in the future due to uncertainty with regard to the country’s security and in particular, due to population growth. All population projections indicate that Mali will experience a considerable increase in its population by 2050, regardless of the total fertility rate (TFR) variation. Over the next three decades, Mali’s population will continue to grow regardless of the trend in the TFR, mainly due to population momentum.

In its quest for accelerated economic and social transformation of the country, the Government of Mali should pay particular attention to this demographic dynamic and its impact on development. This cannot be achieved by focusing on the economic dimension alone. Demographics are also a determining factor. Human capital (the potential of each individual) is the most crucial investment that Mali will have to make in this perspective.

Analysis of the costs associated with the investments needed to close the human capital gap shows that this objective is in fact achievable if the State implements bold policies that allow it to generate sufficient fiscal margins to finance these investments. The prerequisite, however, is to create the conditions for just and lasting peace, which would enable the country to mobilize itself to initiate and implement the reforms needed to increase the growth rate and the level of mobilization of the State’s resources (increase tax rates).

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The Geography of the Bottom Billion: Rural Isolation and Basic Service Access in the Republic of Mali

• Original Article
• Published: 04 March 2019
• Volume 31 , pages 1147–1170, ( 2019 )

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• Leif V. Brottem   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9830-332X 1 &
• Bakary Coulibaly 2  

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This article investigates the challenge of basic service access in one of the world’s poorest regions. Using the Republic of Mali as a case study, the article provides a new perspective on the dominant paradigm of decentralized service provision with a focus on rural areas, where basic services remain persistently inadequate. Service provision in regions such as West Africa will represent one of the most important development challenges in coming decades. This article applies a new geographical framework to decentralized institutions and service provision that is necessary to understand why access to basic services is becoming a more difficult problem to solve. It introduces two new analytical concepts—livelihood extensification and service attenuation—as well as a novel geographic dataset of rural service accessibility to show how rapid population growth and continued dependence on agriculture are putting basic services out of reach for an increasing share of Mali’s population.

Cet article examine le défi de l’accès aux services de base dans l’une des régions les plus pauvres du monde. En utilisant la République du Mali comme étude de cas, cet article offre une nouvelle perspective sur le paradigme dominant de l’approvisionnement par les institutions décentralisées, en mettant l’accent sur les zones rurales, où les services de base restent toujours insuffisants. Les services de base dans des régions telles que l’Afrique de l’Ouest représentera l’un des défis de développement les plus importants des prochaines décennies. Cet article applique aux institutions décentralisées et à leur approvisionnement des services un nouveau cadre géographique, nécessaire pour comprendre pourquoi l'accès aux services de base devient un problème plus difficile à résoudre. Il introduit deux nouveaux concepts analytiques - l’extensification des moyens de subsistance et l’atténuation des services - ainsi qu’un nouvel ensemble des données géographiques sur l’accessibilité des services ruraux, démontrant ainsi que la croissance démographique rapide et la dépendance continue à l’agriculture rendent les services de base inaccessibles pour une part croissante de la population malienne.

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge Lassine Ba and Mamadou Diakite, and Grinnell College Committee for the Support of Faculty Scholarship.

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Brottem, L.V., Coulibaly, B. The Geography of the Bottom Billion: Rural Isolation and Basic Service Access in the Republic of Mali. Eur J Dev Res 31 , 1147–1170 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-019-00205-7

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Published : 04 March 2019

Issue Date : 01 September 2019

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-019-00205-7

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Case Study: Agroforestry in Mali

Agroforestry in koutiala, mali.

Mali is a low-income country. An agroforestry program in Koutiala is increasing the sustainability of Mali's food supplies. Part of Mali borders a desert biome and only gets 8 inches of rain each year.

What is agroforestry?

• Agroforestry involves growing crops and trees together to reduce soil erosion and to increase food yields.
• The low rainfall and torrential nature of rain in Mali when it does come mean that farmers are using agroforestry to improve yields and the sustainability of their food supplies.
• Agroforestry has increased maize crop yield in the Koutiala region.

Nitrogen-fixing plants in agroforestry

• In Mali, a nitrogen-fixing plant called 'stylosanthes', improves the nitrogen content of the soil.
• Plants need nitrogen and nitrates to grow.

Trees in agroforestry

• Gliricidia trees are planted around the crops to bind the soil, reduce soil erosion and give the crops shade from the sun.

1 The Challenge of Natural Hazards

1.1 Natural Hazards

1.1.1 Natural Hazards

1.1.2 Types of Natural Hazards

1.1.3 Factors Affecting Risk

1.1.4 People Affecting Risk

1.1.5 Ability to Cope With Natural Hazards

1.1.6 How Serious Are Natural Hazards?

1.1.7 End of Topic Test - Natural Hazards

1.1.8 Exam-Style Questions - Natural Hazards

1.2 Tectonic Hazards

1.2.1 The Earth's Layers

1.2.2 Tectonic Plates

1.2.3 The Earth's Tectonic Plates

1.2.4 Convection Currents

1.2.5 Plate Margins

1.2.6 Volcanoes

1.2.7 Volcano Eruptions

1.2.8 Effects of Volcanoes

1.2.9 Primary Effects of Volcanoes

1.2.10 Secondary Effects of Volcanoes

1.2.11 Responses to Volcanic Eruptions

1.2.12 Immediate Responses to Volcanoes

1.2.13 Long-Term Responses to Volcanoes

1.2.14 Earthquakes

1.2.15 Earthquakes at Different Plate Margins

1.2.16 What is an Earthquake?

1.2.17 Measuring Earthquakes

1.2.18 Immediate Responses to Earthquakes

1.2.19 Long-Term Responses to Earthquakes

1.2.20 Case Studies: The L'Aquila Earthquake

1.2.21 Case Studies: The Kashmir Earthquake

1.2.22 Earthquake Case Study: Chile 2010

1.2.23 Earthquake Case Study: Nepal 2015

1.2.24 Reducing the Impact of Tectonic Hazards

1.2.25 Protecting & Planning

1.2.26 Living with Tectonic Hazards 2

1.2.27 End of Topic Test - Tectonic Hazards

1.2.28 Exam-Style Questions - Tectonic Hazards

1.2.29 Tectonic Hazards - Statistical Skills

1.3 Weather Hazards

1.3.1 Winds & Pressure

1.3.2 The Global Atmospheric Circulation Model

1.3.3 Surface Winds

1.3.4 UK Weather Hazards

1.3.5 Changing Weather in the UK

1.3.6 Tropical Storms

1.3.7 Tropical Storm Causes

1.3.8 Features of Tropical Storms

1.3.9 The Structure of Tropical Storms

1.3.10 The Effect of Climate Change on Tropical Storms

1.3.11 The Effects of Tropical Storms

1.3.12 Responses to Tropical Storms

1.3.13 Reducing the Effects of Tropical Storms

1.3.14 Tropical Storms Case Study: Katrina

1.3.15 Tropical Storms Case Study: Haiyan

1.3.16 UK Weather Hazards Case Study: Somerset 2014

1.3.17 End of Topic Test - Weather Hazards

1.3.18 Exam-Style Questions - Weather Hazards

1.3.19 Weather Hazards - Statistical Skills

1.4 Climate Change

1.4.1 Climate Change

1.4.2 Evidence for Climate Change

1.4.3 Natural Causes of Climate Change

1.4.4 Human Causes of Climate Change

1.4.5 Effects of Climate Change on the Environment

1.4.6 Effects of Climate Change on People

1.4.7 Climate Change Mitigation Strategies

1.4.8 Adaptation to Climate Change

1.4.9 End of Topic Test - Climate Change

1.4.10 Exam-Style Questions - Climate Change

1.4.11 Climate Change - Statistical Skills

2 The Living World

2.1 Ecosystems

2.1.1 Ecosystems

2.1.2 Food Chains & Webs

2.1.3 Ecosystem Cascades

2.1.4 Global Ecosystems

2.1.5 Ecosystem Case Study: Freshwater Ponds

2.2 Tropical Rainforests

2.2.1 Tropical Rainforests

2.2.2 Interdependence of Tropical Rainforests

2.2.3 Adaptations of Plants to Rainforests

2.2.4 Adaptations of Animals to Rainforests

2.2.5 Biodiversity of Tropical Rainforests

2.2.6 Deforestation

2.2.7 Impacts of Deforestation

2.2.8 Case Study: Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest

2.2.9 Why Protect Rainforests?

2.2.10 Sustainable Management of Rainforests

2.2.11 Case Study: Malaysian Rainforest

2.2.12 End of Topic Test - Tropical Rainforests

2.2.13 Exam-Style Questions - Tropical Rainforests

2.2.14 Deforestation - Statistical Skills

2.3 Hot Deserts

2.3.1 Hot Deserts

2.3.2 Interdependence in Hot Deserts

2.3.3 Adaptation of Plants to Hot Deserts

2.3.4 Adaptation of Animals to Hot Deserts

2.3.5 Biodiversity in Hot Deserts

2.3.6 Case Study: Sahara Desert

2.3.7 Desertification

2.3.8 Reducing the Risk of Desertification

2.3.9 Case Study: Thar Desert

2.3.10 End of Topic Test - Hot Deserts

2.3.11 Exam-Style Questions - Hot Deserts

2.4 Tundra & Polar Environments

2.4.1 Overview of Cold Environments

2.4.2 Interdependence of Cold Environments

2.4.3 Adaptations of Plants to Cold Environments

2.4.4 Adaptations of Animals to Cold Environments

2.4.5 Biodiversity in Cold Environments

2.4.6 Case Study: Alaska

2.4.7 Sustainable Management

2.4.8 Case Study: Svalbard

2.4.9 End of Topic Test - Tundra & Polar Environments

2.4.10 Exam-Style Questions - Cold Environments

3 Physical Landscapes in the UK

3.1 The UK Physical Landscape

3.1.1 The UK Physical Landscape

3.1.2 Examples of the UK's Landscape

3.2 Coastal Landscapes in the UK

3.2.1 Types of Wave

3.2.2 Weathering

3.2.3 Mass Movement

3.2.4 Processes of Erosion

3.2.5 Wave-Cut Platforms

3.2.6 Headlands & Bays

3.2.7 Caves, Arches & Stacks

3.2.8 Longshore Drift

3.2.9 Sediment Transport

3.2.10 Deposition

3.2.11 Spits, Bars & Sand Dunes

3.2.12 Coastal Management - Hard Engineering

3.2.13 Coastal Management - Soft Engineering

3.2.14 Case Study: Landforms on the Dorset Coast

3.2.15 Coastal Management - Managed Retreat

3.2.16 Coastal Management Case Study - Holderness

3.2.17 Coastal Management Case Study: Swanage

3.2.18 Coastal Management Case Study - Lyme Regis

3.2.19 End of Topic Test - Coastal Landscapes in the UK

3.2.20 Exam-Style Questions - Coasts

3.3 River Landscapes in the UK

3.3.1 The Long Profile of a River

3.3.2 The Cross Profile of a River

3.3.3 Vertical & Lateral Erosion

3.3.4 River Valley Case Study - River Tees

3.3.5 Processes of Erosion

3.3.6 Sediment Transport

3.3.7 River Deposition

3.3.8 Waterfalls & Gorges

3.3.9 Interlocking Spurs

3.3.10 Meanders

3.3.11 Oxbow Lakes

3.3.12 Floodplains

3.3.13 Levees

3.3.14 Estuaries

3.3.15 Case Study: The River Clyde

3.3.16 River Management

3.3.17 Hydrographs

3.3.18 Flood Defences - Hard Engineering

3.3.19 Flood Defences - Soft Engineering

3.3.20 River Management Case Study - Boscastle

3.3.21 River Management Case Study - Banbury

3.3.22 End of Topic Test - River Landscapes in the UK

3.3.23 Exam-Style Questions - Rivers

3.4 Glacial Landscapes in the UK

3.4.1 The UK in the Last Ice Age

3.4.2 Glacial Processes

3.4.3 Glacial Landforms Caused by Erosion

3.4.4 Tarns, Corries, Glacial Troughs & Truncated Spurs

3.4.5 Types of Moraine

3.4.6 Drumlins & Erratics

3.4.7 Snowdonia

3.4.8 Land Use in Glaciated Areas

3.4.9 Conflicts in Glacial Landscapes

3.4.10 Tourism in Glacial Landscapes

3.4.11 Coping with Tourism Impacts in Glacial Landscapes

3.4.12 Case Study - Lake District

3.4.13 End of Topic Test - Glacial Landscapes in the UK

3.4.14 Exam-Style Questions - Glacial Landscapes

4 Urban Issues & Challenges

4.1 Urban Issues & Challenges

4.1.1 Urbanisation

4.1.2 Factors Causing Urbanisation

4.1.3 Megacities

4.1.4 Urbanisation Case Study: Lagos

4.1.5 Urbanisation Case Study: Rio de Janeiro

4.1.6 UK Cities

4.1.7 Case Study: Urban Regen Projects - Manchester

4.1.8 Case Study: Urban Change in Liverpool

4.1.9 Case Study: Urban Change in Bristol

4.1.10 Sustainable Urban Life

4.1.11 Reducing Traffic Congestion

4.1.12 End of Topic Test - Urban Issues & Challenges

4.1.13 Exam-Style Questions - Urban Issues & Challenges

4.1.14 Urban Issues -Statistical Skills

5 The Changing Economic World

5.1 The Changing Economic World

5.1.1 Measuring Development

5.1.2 Limitations of Developing Measures

5.1.3 Classifying Countries Based on Wealth

5.1.4 The Demographic Transition Model

5.1.5 Stages of the Demographic Transition Model

5.1.6 Physical Causes of Uneven Development

5.1.7 Historical Causes of Uneven Development

5.1.8 Economic Causes of Uneven Development

5.1.9 Consequences of Uneven Development

5.1.10 How Can We Reduce the Global Development Gap?

5.1.11 Case Study: Tourism in Kenya

5.1.12 Case Study: Tourism in Jamaica

5.1.13 Case Study: Economic Development in India

5.1.14 Case Study: Aid & Development in India

5.1.15 Case Study: Economic Development in Nigeria

5.1.16 Case Study: Aid & Development in Nigeria

5.1.17 End of Topic Test - The Changing Economic World

5.1.18 Exam-Style Questions - The Changing Economic World

5.1.19 Changing Economic World - Statistical Skills

5.2 Economic Development in the UK

5.2.1 Causes of Economic Change in the UK

5.2.2 The UK's Post-Industrial Economy

5.2.3 The Impacts of UK Industry on the Environment

5.2.4 Change in the UK's Rural Areas

5.2.5 Transport in the UK

5.2.6 The North-South Divide

5.2.7 Regional Differences in the UK

5.2.8 The UK's Links to the World

6 The Challenge of Resource Management

6.1 Resource Management

6.1.1 Global Distribution of Resources

6.1.2 Uneven Distribution of Resources

6.1.3 Food in the UK

6.1.4 Agribusiness

6.1.5 Demand for Water in the UK

6.1.6 Water Pollution in the UK

6.1.7 Matching Supply & Demand of Water in the UK

6.1.8 The UK's Energy Mix

6.1.9 Issues with Sources of Energy

6.1.10 Resource Management - Statistical Skills

6.2.1 Areas of Food Surplus & Food Deficit

6.2.2 Increasing Food Consumption

6.2.3 Food Supply & Food Insecurity

6.2.4 Impacts of Food Insecurity

6.2.5 Increasing Food Supply

6.2.6 Case Study: Thanet Earth

6.2.7 Creating a Sustainable Food Supply

6.2.8 Case Study: Agroforestry in Mali

6.2.9 End of Topic Test - Food

6.2.10 Exam-Style Questions - Food

6.2.11 Food - Statistical Skills

6.3.1 Water Surplus & Water Deficit

6.3.2 Increasing Water Consumption

6.3.3 What Affects the Availability of Water?

6.3.4 Impacts of Water Insecurity

6.3.5 Increasing Water Supplies

6.3.6 Case Study: Water Transfer in China

6.3.7 Sustainable Water Supply

6.3.8 Case Study: Kenya's Sand Dams

6.3.9 Case Study: Lesotho Highland Water Project

6.3.10 Case Study: Wakel River Basin Project

6.3.11 Exam-Style Questions - Water

6.3.12 Water - Statistical Skills

6.4.1 Global Demand for Energy

6.4.2 Increasing Energy Consumption

6.4.3 Factors Affecting Energy Supply

6.4.4 Impacts of Energy Insecurity

6.4.5 Increasing Energy Supply - Solar

6.4.6 Increasing Energy Supply - Water

6.4.7 Increasing Energy Supply - Wind

6.4.8 Increasing Energy Supply - Nuclear

6.4.9 Increasing Energy Supply - Fossil Fuels

6.4.10 Carbon Footprints

6.4.11 Energy Conservation

6.4.12 Case Study: Rice Husks in Bihar

6.4.13 Exam-Style Questions - Energy

6.4.14 Energy - Statistical Skills

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Creating a Sustainable Food Supply

End of Topic Test - Food

Area:  1,240,192 km²

Geography:  Mali is a landlocked country located in West Africa, with a subtropical to arid climate. Due to the country’s geographical extension it can be divided into three different zones: the southern cultivated Sudanese zone, the central semiarid Sahelian zone and the northern arid Saharan zone. Mali’s terrain is mostly flat with rolling plains in the north, savanna in the south and rugged hills in the northeast. In 2011 about 34% of the land was used for agriculture.  ( CIA, 2019 )

Land Degradation:  Studies suggest the annual loss of GDP due to soil erosion to account for  6 % of GDP. The most severe degradation in Mali occurs in the northern semi-arid belt between Gao and Mopti. Also the arid zone in the north is highly degraded. Most areas in the south are only moderately or mildly degraded, except for some small patches around cities, which are affected by severe degradation. ( World Bank )

Sustainable Land Management:  The Malian Government articulates a response to the challenge of land degradation in several national strategies and action plans. These strategies highlight internal solutions to ensure that land management is prioritized and better addressed. ( World Bank )

ELD ACTIVITIES

Case study (2020).

Title : The Economics of Cotton Production in Mali and the Challenges of Land Degradation Content:  This study compares the economics of conventional and organic cotton production in the Koutiala and Bougouni counties in Mali. Publication : April 2020 Report :  EN   FR Policy brief:  EN Fact sheet :  EN   FR

Capacity Building (2017-2020)

Within the Regreening Africa  project, jointly implemented with the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), the ELD Initiative is conducting trainings on the total economic valuation of terrestrial ecosystems and their services. Trainings are complemented by practical exercises as part of research within the country.

Case Study (2015)

Title : An economic valuation of agroforestry and land restoration in the Kelka forest Mali. Authors : Sidibé Y., Myint M., Westerberg V. Content : The Mali case study uses an ex-ante cost-benefit analysis of large-scale agroforestry and reforestation in the Kelka forest to provide decision makers with information about the value and importance of changing current land use practices towards more sustainable approaches. The benefits of large-scale landscape restoration from acacia reforestation and agroforestry in the Kelka area largely outweigh the costs both at the local and global levels for a time horizon of 25 years. Every invested USD may create a USD 6 benefit to local farmers and even a USD 13 benefit to global society due to advanced ecosystem services and carbon sequestration. Report :  EN ,  FR

ELD Secretariat E-Mail: [email protected]

• ELD Ambassador Mali

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Geography A-level Population Case study break down - Alongside specification

Subject: Geography

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Assessment and revision

Last updated

5 June 2020

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CIE A-level geography population case studies. Each case study is referenced alongside its specification reference, including case studies from over 30 countries with key facts and figures for use in extended writing answers such as 8,15,20 mark questions.

Some examples of case studies included are;

• England (aging population)
• South India
• Gambia (youthful population)
• China (one - child policy)
• Russia (high death rate)
• Japan (aging population)
• Mali (youthful population)
• Uganda (youthful population)
• Yemen, Democratic republic of Congo, South Sudan (food shortages)
• Africa, India (role of technology in food production)
• Singapore (pro-natalist policy) *etc

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Case Study Ghana, Kenya and Mali

Together with water availability and the absence of weeds, pests and diseases, soil fertility is the most important biophysical yield-determining factor. In the tropics, soils are generally older and poorer than in the Northern Hemisphere. In many places, the already low level of fertility tends to decline further as farmers generate many nutrient outputs in crops and through processes such as leaching and erosion without applying matching inputs in the form of fertilizers, manure and biological nitrogen fixation (BNF).

A country soil-fertility map shows areas with richer and poorer soils, but provides no clues for the mesolevel stakeholder and the farmer. Nor do such maps show diversity at farm level. The present study hypothesizes that between country level (macrolevel) and farm level (microlevel) there is an important mesolevel, where facilitation of production can take place, and where the private sector may invest in a commodity or a production system. Therefore, the evaluation of soil fertility and the manipulation of the nutrient flows, i.e. integrated nutrient management (INM), should take place at three relevant spatial scales, which are also stakeholder-specific scales.

» See FAO publication .

LAPSUS Application

Nutrient input can result from input in sediment as a result of erosion. The input by sedimentation was calculated by the  LAPSUS model, which also provided a feedback between nutrient input by sedimentation and -loss by erosion.

The outcome of the model is a net erosion-sedimentation map with units in metres, convertible to tonnes per hectare. It is possible to calculate the loss or gain of nutrients by multiplying by soil nutrient contents and an enrichment factor. The enrichment factor reflects the fact that the finer and more nutrient-rich soil particles will be dislodged earlier during erosion.

Publications

Lesschen, J.P., Asiamah, R.D., Gicheru, P., Kante, S., Stoorvogel, J.J. & Smaling, E.M.A. 2005. Scaling Soil Nutrient Balances - Enabling mesoscale approaches for African realities. FAO fertilizer and plant nutrition bulletin 15. FAO, Rome. View publication.

» more LAPSUS Publications .

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Wateraid in Mali CASE STUDY

Useful for the 'An aid project in an LEDC' case study for OCR B Geography.

I hope it helps :)

• Created by: lemxn
• Created on: 11-04-13 19:58
• Water and rivers Water and rivers

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