essay on world war 2

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World War II

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 7, 2024 | Original: October 29, 2009

World War II, the largest and deadliest conflict in human history, involved more than 50 nations and was fought on land, sea and air in nearly every part of the world. Also known as the Second World War, it was caused in part by the economic crisis of the Great Depression and by political tensions left unresolved following the end of World War I.

The war began when Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939 and raged across the globe until 1945, when Japan surrendered to the United States after atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. By the end of World War II, an estimated 60 to 80 million people had died, including up to 55 million civilians, and numerous cities in Europe and Asia were reduced to rubble.

Among the people killed were 6 million Jews murdered in Nazi concentration camps as part of Hitler’s diabolical “Final Solution,” now known as the Holocaust. The legacy of the war included the creation of the United Nations as a peacekeeping force and geopolitical rivalries that resulted in the Cold War.

Leading up to World War II

The devastation of the Great War (as World War I was known at the time) had greatly destabilized Europe, and in many respects World War II grew out of issues left unresolved by that earlier conflict. In particular, political and economic instability in Germany, and lingering resentment over the harsh terms imposed by the Versailles Treaty, fueled the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and National Socialist German Workers’ Party, abbreviated as NSDAP in German and the Nazi Party in English..

Did you know? As early as 1923, in his memoir and propaganda tract "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle), Adolf Hitler had predicted a general European war that would result in "the extermination of the Jewish race in Germany."

After becoming Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hitler swiftly consolidated power, anointing himself Führer (supreme leader) in 1934. Obsessed with the idea of the superiority of the “pure” German race, which he called “Aryan,” Hitler believed that war was the only way to gain the necessary “Lebensraum,” or living space, for the German race to expand. In the mid-1930s, he secretly began the rearmament of Germany, a violation of the Versailles Treaty. After signing alliances with Italy and Japan against the Soviet Union , Hitler sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 and the following year annexed Czechoslovakia. Hitler’s open aggression went unchecked, as the United States and Soviet Union were concentrated on internal politics at the time, and neither France nor Britain (the two other nations most devastated by the Great War) were eager for confrontation.

Outbreak of World War II (1939)

In late August 1939, Hitler and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin signed the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact , which incited a frenzy of worry in London and Paris. Hitler had long planned an invasion of Poland, a nation to which Great Britain and France had guaranteed military support if it were attacked by Germany. The pact with Stalin meant that Hitler would not face a war on two fronts once he invaded Poland, and would have Soviet assistance in conquering and dividing the nation itself. On September 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland from the west; two days later, France and Britain declared war on Germany, beginning World War II.

On September 17, Soviet troops invaded Poland from the east. Under attack from both sides, Poland fell quickly, and by early 1940 Germany and the Soviet Union had divided control over the nation, according to a secret protocol appended to the Nonaggression Pact. Stalin’s forces then moved to occupy the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and defeated a resistant Finland in the Russo-Finnish War. During the six months following the invasion of Poland, the lack of action on the part of Germany and the Allies in the west led to talk in the news media of a “phony war.” At sea, however, the British and German navies faced off in heated battle, and lethal German U-boat submarines struck at merchant shipping bound for Britain, sinking more than 100 vessels in the first four months of World War II.

World War II in the West (1940-41)

On April 9, 1940, Germany simultaneously invaded Norway and occupied Denmark, and the war began in earnest. On May 10, German forces swept through Belgium and the Netherlands in what became known as “blitzkrieg,” or lightning war. Three days later, Hitler’s troops crossed the Meuse River and struck French forces at Sedan, located at the northern end of the Maginot Line , an elaborate chain of fortifications constructed after World War I and considered an impenetrable defensive barrier. In fact, the Germans broke through the line with their tanks and planes and continued to the rear, rendering it useless. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by sea from Dunkirk in late May, while in the south French forces mounted a doomed resistance. With France on the verge of collapse, Italy’s fascist dictator Benito Mussolini formed an alliance with Hitler, the Pact of Steel, and Italy declared war against France and Britain on June 10.

On June 14, German forces entered Paris; a new government formed by Marshal Philippe Petain (France’s hero of World War I) requested an armistice two nights later. France was subsequently divided into two zones, one under German military occupation and the other under Petain’s government, installed at Vichy France. Hitler now turned his attention to Britain, which had the defensive advantage of being separated from the Continent by the English Channel.

To pave the way for an amphibious invasion (dubbed Operation Sea Lion), German planes bombed Britain extensively beginning in September 1940 until May 1941, known as the Blitz , including night raids on London and other industrial centers that caused heavy civilian casualties and damage. The Royal Air Force (RAF) eventually defeated the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) in the Battle of Britain , and Hitler postponed his plans to invade. With Britain’s defensive resources pushed to the limit, Prime Minister Winston Churchill began receiving crucial aid from the U.S. under the Lend-Lease Act , passed by Congress in early 1941.

Black Americans Who Served in WWII Faced Segregation Abroad and at Home

Some 1.2 million Black men served in the U.S. military during the war, but they were often treated as second‑class citizens.

World War II Battles: Timeline

Adolf Hitler’s invasion of Poland in September 1939 drove Great Britain and France to declare war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II. Over the next six years, the conflict took more lives and destroyed more land and property around the globe than any previous war.

How the Neutral Countries in World War II Weren’t So Neutral

Neutrality was often more complex than simply avoiding choosing sides.

Hitler vs. Stalin: Operation Barbarossa (1941-42)

By early 1941, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and German troops overran Yugoslavia and Greece that April. Hitler’s conquest of the Balkans was a precursor for his real objective: an invasion of the Soviet Union, whose vast territory would give the German master race the “Lebensraum” it needed. The other half of Hitler’s strategy was the extermination of the Jews from throughout German-occupied Europe. Plans for the “Final Solution” were introduced around the time of the Soviet offensive, and over the next three years more than 4 million Jews would perish in the death camps established in occupied Poland.

On June 22, 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed Operation Barbarossa . Though Soviet tanks and aircraft greatly outnumbered the Germans’, Russian aviation technology was largely obsolete, and the impact of the surprise invasion helped Germans get within 200 miles of Moscow by mid-July. Arguments between Hitler and his commanders delayed the next German advance until October, when it was stalled by a Soviet counteroffensive and the onset of harsh winter weather.

World War II in the Pacific (1941-43)

With Britain facing Germany in Europe, the United States was the only nation capable of combating Japanese aggression, which by late 1941 included an expansion of its ongoing war with China and the seizure of European colonial holdings in the Far East. On December 7, 1941, 360 Japanese aircraft attacked the major U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , taking the Americans completely by surprise and claiming the lives of more than 2,300 troops. The attack on Pearl Harbor served to unify American public opinion in favor of entering World War II, and on December 8 Congress declared war on Japan with only one dissenting vote. Germany and the other Axis Powers promptly declared war on the United States.

After a long string of Japanese victories, the U.S. Pacific Fleet won the Battle of Midway in June 1942, which proved to be a turning point in the war. On Guadalcanal, one of the southern Solomon Islands, the Allies also had success against Japanese forces in a series of battles from August 1942 to February 1943, helping turn the tide further in the Pacific. In mid-1943, Allied naval forces began an aggressive counterattack against Japan, involving a series of amphibious assaults on key Japanese-held islands in the Pacific. This “island-hopping” strategy proved successful, and Allied forces moved closer to their ultimate goal of invading the mainland Japan.

Toward Allied Victory in World War II (1943-45)

In North Africa , British and American forces had defeated the Italians and Germans by 1943. An Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy followed, and Mussolini’s government fell in July 1943, though Allied fighting against the Germans in Italy would continue until 1945.

On the Eastern Front, a Soviet counteroffensive launched in November 1942 ended the bloody Battle of Stalingrad , which had seen some of the fiercest combat of World War II. The approach of winter, along with dwindling food and medical supplies, spelled the end for German troops there, and the last of them surrendered on January 31, 1943.

On June 6, 1944–celebrated as “D-Day” –the Allies began a massive invasion of Europe, landing 156,000 British, Canadian and American soldiers on the beaches of Normandy, France. In response, Hitler poured all the remaining strength of his army into Western Europe, ensuring Germany’s defeat in the east. Soviet troops soon advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania, while Hitler gathered his forces to drive the Americans and British back from Germany in the Battle of the Bulge (December 1944-January 1945), the last major German offensive of the war.

An intensive aerial bombardment in February 1945 preceded the Allied land invasion of Germany, and by the time Germany formally surrendered on May 8, Soviet forces had occupied much of the country. Hitler was already dead, having died by suicide on April 30 in his Berlin bunker.

World War II Ends (1945)

At the Potsdam Conference of July-August 1945, U.S. President Harry S. Truman (who had taken office after Roosevelt’s death in April), Churchill and Stalin discussed the ongoing war with Japan as well as the peace settlement with Germany. Post-war Germany would be divided into four occupation zones, to be controlled by the Soviet Union, Britain, the United States and France. On the divisive matter of Eastern Europe’s future, Churchill and Truman acquiesced to Stalin, as they needed Soviet cooperation in the war against Japan.

Heavy casualties sustained in the campaigns at Iwo Jima (February 1945) and Okinawa (April-June 1945), and fears of the even costlier land invasion of Japan led Truman to authorize the use of a new and devastating weapon. Developed during a top secret operation code-named The Manhattan Project, the atomic bomb was unleashed on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. On August 15, the Japanese government issued a statement declaring they would accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, and on September 2, U.S. General Douglas MacArthur accepted Japan’s formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

African American Servicemen Fight Two Wars

World War II exposed a glaring paradox within the United States Armed Forces. Although more than 1 million African Americans served in the war to defeat Nazism and fascism, they did so in segregated units. The same discriminatory Jim Crow policies that were rampant in American society were reinforced by the U.S. military. Black servicemen rarely saw combat and were largely relegated to labor and supply units that were commanded by white officers.

There were several African American units that proved essential in helping to win World War II, with the Tuskegee Airmen being among the most celebrated. But the Red Ball Express, the truck convoy of mostly Black drivers were responsible for delivering essential goods to General George S. Patton ’s troops on the front lines in France. The all-Black 761st Tank Battalion fought in the Battle of the Bulge, and the 92 Infantry Division, fought in fierce ground battles in Italy. Yet, despite their role in defeating fascism, the fight for equality continued for African American soldiers after the World War II ended. They remained in segregated units and lower-ranking positions, well into the Korean War , a few years after President Truman signed an executive order to desegregate the U.S. military in 1948.

World War II Casualties and Legacy

World War II proved to be the deadliest international conflict in history, taking the lives of 60 to 80 million people, including 6 million Jews who died at the hands of the Nazis during the Holocaust . Civilians made up an estimated 50-55 million deaths from the war, while military comprised 21 to 25 million of those lost during the war. Millions more were injured, and still more lost their homes and property. 

The legacy of the war would include the spread of communism from the Soviet Union into eastern Europe as well as its eventual triumph in China, and the global shift in power from Europe to two rival superpowers–the United States and the Soviet Union–that would soon face off against each other in the Cold War .

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World War 2 Essay | Essay on World War 2 for Students and Children in English

February 14, 2024 by Prasanna

World War 2 Essay: World War 2 or the Second World War is the most extensive known global human warfare to date that lasted from the year 1939 to 1945. The war was waged between two opposing military alliances: Allies and Axis, involving the majority of the Global powers and many participating countries from across Europe and the world.

It was the first state of total war where every economic, scientific, and industrial resource and labour of the participating countries were dedicated to waging full-scale warfare, eliminating military and civilian resources. The war involved over 100 million military personnel from more than 30 countries resulting in 70 to 85 million fatal casualties.

You can also find more  Essay Writing  articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Long and Short Essays on World War 2 for Students and Kids in English

We provide children/ students with essay samples on a long essay of 500 words and a short essay of 150 words on the topic of World War 2 for reference.

Long Essay on World War 2 500 Words in English

Long Essay on World War 2 is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

The history of this world is incomplete without the inclusion of the Second World War or World War 2, the most vicious and gruelling warfare waged by humans against each other. It involved the vast majority of the countries and Global powers during the period 1939 to 1945. The war was primarily waged between two opposing military alliances: The Allies mainly comprising the United Kingdom & British Empire, the Third Republic of France, Soviet Union, United States of America and their allies, and the Axis Powers involving Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Empire of Japan and their allies.

It started on 1st September 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded Poland and placid support from the Soviet Union and the subsequent declaration of war on Germany by Poland’s allies, France and the United Kingdom. Germany’s Axis Powers had significant gains in the earlier years of the Second World war, mainly between 1939 to 1941 when it conquered and dominated much of continental Europe and parts of Africa.

The largest gain on the Axis side came with the rapid defeat of France at the hands of Germany due to Germany’s advanced warfare technique of Blitzkrieg that involved multi-frontier attack using infantry and armoured divisions. Adolf Hitler, the Dictator/ Fuhrer of Germany during the war, is mainly attributed as the perpetrator of the war due to his Nationalist Fascist and Racial supremacy-based political ideology leading to Germany’s aggressive stance in much of continental Europe.

With France’s fall in 1940, the war was primarily waged between the Axis Powers and the British Empire, with minor gains and losses on both sides. It was a multi-frontier conflict with battles occurring in various regions, including mainland Europe, Eurasia, the Balkans, the Atlantic, and the Pacific Ocean, East Asia, and Northern and Central Africa, and Ariel attacks on the British Isles.

The war took a significant turn in 1941 with two significant events:

• The Invasion of Soviet Russia and its Union in June 1941
• Leading to the largest land warfare in human history
• The Pearl Harbour bombing by Japanese Kamikaze in December 1941

It forced the United States of America to enter the war on the Allies side. Following the US declaration of war on the Imperial Japanese Empire, Germany and Italy’s European Axis powers declared war against the US in solidarity with their Asian Ally.

The Axis Powers had significant strategic gains throughout 1941, including Imperial Japan. It captured and dominated much of the Western Pacific, Eastern China and Manchuria, and Southern Asia. However, its advances were obstructed after a significant naval defeat at the US navy’s hands at the Battle of Midway on the Pacific Ocean. Fascist Italy subsequently suffered significant defeats in North Africa and the Balkans and eventually surrendered to the Allies with their Fascist Dictator, Benito Mussolini, being publicly executed.

The collective Allied invasions of Sicily and the Italian Mainland in 1943, along with German defeat at the Eastern front, forced the Axis powers to retreat on all fronts strategically. The war was concluded in 1945 with the Allied invasion of German-controlled territories, the fall of Berlin at the Soviet Union’s hands, and the Nuclear Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan by the United States of America.

Short Essay on World War 2 150 Words in English

Short Essay on World War 2 is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

World War 2 was the largest war ever waged in human history lasting from 1939 to 1945 between two primary military alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It started with Poland’s invasion by Nazi Germany and Communist Soviet Union after the secret Molotov-Ribbentrop pact between the two powers that led France and the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany.

The war occurred on multiple battlefronts and involved more than 100 million soldiers from over 30 countries from across the globe. It resulted in a collective casualty of over 80 million military as well as civilian deaths.

It ended with the Axis defeat after the fall of Berlin and the Nuclear Bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States. It had a profound effect on the subsequent world politics and histories like the eventual fall of the British and French Empires and their colonies’ independence, significant shifts in global politics, and the United Nations’ formation.

10 Lines on World War 2 Essay in English

1. World War 2 or Second World War occurred between 1939 and 1945 and is considered the most massive known warfare in human history. Adolf Hitler was the Fuhrer/ Dictator of Germany. Benito Mussolini was the Duce/ Dictator of Italy during the war. 2. The symbolic tussle between the great powers started much before the war with Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan signing mutual defence treaties forming the Axis Powers. 3. The National Socialist Party (NAZI) of Totalitarian Germany murdered more than 60 million Jews, Slavs, and other European People based on the ideology of Aryan Racial Supremacy during the war, and this event is remembered as the Holocaust. 4. Russian’s were said to be instrumental in World War 2 with the fact that Soviet forces killed more than 76 percent of German soldiers. 5. The United States was placid in the war until the infamous 1941 surprise bombing of the Pearl Harbour by the Japanese, resulting in 2400 civilian and military casualties. 6. The Allied Big Four: United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and China and 22 exiled governments issued the Atlantic Charter at the Declaration of the United Nations in 1942, mutually agreeing not to sign any separate peace treaties with Axis powers. 7. The United Kingdom had a significant political change during the war with Sir Winston Churchill assuming the role of Prime Minister. 8. The most extensive known casualties of the war happened on the Eastern front, with Soviet Russia suffering the highest number of human fatalities. 9. Adolf Hitler committed suicide with his wife Eva Braun in their bunker during the Fall of Berlin. 10. Nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were termed “Little Boy” and “Fat Man.”

FAQ’s on World War 2 Essay

Question 1.  Who was the major belligerent of World War 2?

Answer: Nazi Germany under the leadership of Chancellor Adolf Hitler is considered the primary belligerent of World War 2.

Question 2. Why did Imperial Japan enter a primarily European war?

Answer: The Empire of Japan was a military state that primarily aimed to create resource colonies in Manchuria, Eastern China, and South Asia, which lead them to dominate the Pacific, eventually attacking the United States, the other great power in the region

Question 3. Why did Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union Ally during the Invasion of Poland?

Answer: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Soviet Russia entered into the secret Molotov-Ribbentrop pact in 1939, effectively portioning their European neighbors’ annexed territories, including Poland, Finland, the Baltic States, and Romania.

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World War II summary

Learn about the events leading to world war ii, the war’s major battles, and how the war ended.

World War II , or Second World War , (1939–45) International conflict principally between the Axis powers —Germany, Italy, and Japan—and the Allied powers—France, Britain, the U.S., the Soviet Union, and China.

Political and economic instability in Germany, combined with bitterness over its defeat in World War I and the harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles , allowed Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party to rise to power. In the mid-1930s Hitler began secretly to rearm Germany, in violation of the treaty. He signed alliances with Italy and Japan to oppose the Soviet Union and intervened in the Spanish Civil War in the name of anticommunism.

Capitalizing on the reluctance of other European powers to oppose him by force, he sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 (the Anschluss) and to annex Czechoslovakia in 1939. After signing the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact , Germany invaded Poland on Sept. 1, 1939. Two days later France and Britain declared war on Germany. Poland’s defeat was followed by a period of military inactivity on the Western Front, known as the Phony War.

At sea Germany conducted a damaging submarine campaign by U-boat against merchant shipping bound for Britain. By early 1940 the Soviet Union had divided Poland with Germany, occupied the Baltic states, and subdued Finland in the Russo-Finnish War. In April 1940 Germany overwhelmed Denmark and began its conquest of Norway. In May German forces swept through the Netherlands and Belgium on their blitzkrieg invasion of France, forcing it to capitulate in June and establish the Vichy France regime. Germany then launched massive bombing raids on Britain in preparation for a cross-Channel invasion, but, after losing the Battle of Britain , Hitler postponed the invasion indefinitely.

By early 1941 Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and German troops quickly overran Yugoslavia and Greece in April. In June Hitler abandoned his pact with the Soviet Union and launched Operation Barbarossa, a massive surprise invasion of Russia, reaching the outskirts of Moscow before Soviet counterattacks and winter weather halted the advance.

In East Asia Japan expanded its war with China and seized European colonial holdings. In December 1941 Japan attacked U.S. bases at Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines. The U.S. declared war on Japan, and the war became truly global when the other Axis powers declared war on the U.S. Japan quickly invaded and occupied most of Southeast Asia, Burma, the Netherlands East Indies, and many Pacific islands. After the crucial U.S. naval victory at the Battle of Midway (1942), U.S. forces began to advance up the chains of islands toward Japan.

In the North Africa campaigns the British and Americans defeated Italian and German forces by 1943. The Allies then invaded Sicily and Italy, forcing the overthrow of the Fascist government in July 1943, though fighting against the Germans continued in Italy until 1945. In the Soviet Union the Battle of Stalingrad (1943) marked the end of the German advance, and Soviet reinforcements in large numbers gradually pushed the German armies back.

The massive Allied invasion of western Europe began with the Normandy Campaign in western France (1944), and the Allies’ steady advance ended in the occupation of Germany in 1945.

After Soviet troops pushed German forces out of the Soviet Union, they advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Romania and had occupied the eastern third of Germany by the time the surrender of Germany was signed on May 8, 1945. In the Pacific an Allied invasion of the Philippines (1944) was followed by the successful Battle of Leyte Gulf and the costly Battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa (1945). The U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, and Japan’s formal surrender on September 2 ended the war.

An estimated 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 people died during World War II, including about 6,000,000 Jewish men, women, and children who died in the Holocaust . Millions more civilians were wounded and made homeless throughout Europe and East Asia.

Skip to Main Content of WWII

Research starters.

Beginning a research paper on World War II can be daunting. With Research Starters, you can get a basic introduction to major WWII topics, see recommended secondary sources, and view primary sources you can use from the Museum’s collection.

Research Starters: Worldwide Deaths in World War II

See estimates for worldwide deaths, broken down by country, in World War II. 

Research Starters: D-Day

The Allied invasion of Western Europe was code named Operation Overlord. It required years of planning, training, and supplying by the United States and Great Britain, and was one of the most heavily guarded secrets of the war. 

Research Starters: US Military by the Numbers

See a breakdown of numbers in the US military, by branch and year, in World War II. 

Research Starters: The Draft and World War II

On September 16, 1940, the United States instituted the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, which required all men between the ages of 21 and 45 to register for the draft.

Research Starters: The GI Bill

Research Starters: Higgins Boats

In the late 1930s, the U.S. military began developing small boats that could carry troops from ships to open beaches.

Research Starters: The Battle of Midway

Fought between the U.S. and Japanese navies June 4-7, 1942, this battle turned the tide of the war in the Pacific in favor of the Americans.

Research Starters: Women in World War II

With ever-growing orders for war materials combined with so many men overseas fighting the war, women were called upon to work in ways previously reserved only for men.

Ration Books

Ask anyone who remembers life on the Home Front during World War II about their strongest memories and chances are they will tell you about rationing. You see, the war caused shortages of all sorts of things: rubber, metal, clothing, etc. But it was the shortages of various types of food that affected just about everyone on a daily basis.

Take A Closer Look: America Goes to War

America's isolation from war ended on December 7, 1941, when Japan staged a surprise attack on American military installations in the Pacific. 

History At a Glance: Women in World War II

American women played important roles during World War II, both at home and in uniform.

Home — Essay Samples — War — Aftermath of World War II — The Effects of World War Ii in the World

The Effects of World War Ii on The World

• Categories: Aftermath of World War II World History

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Published: Dec 18, 2018

Words: 1068 | Page: 1 | 6 min read

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World War II Research Essay Topics

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Students are often required to write a paper on a topic as broad as World War II , but you should know that the instructor will expect you to narrow your focus to a specific thesis. This is especially true if you are in high school or college. Narrow your focus by making a list of words, much like the list of words and phrases that are presented in bold type below. Then begin to explore related questions and come up with your own cool WWII topics. The answer to questions like these can become a good starting point for a thesis statement .

Culture and People

When the U.S. entered into war, everyday life across the country changed drastically. From civil rights, racism, and resistance movements to basic human needs like food, clothing, and medicine, the aspects of how life was impacted are immense.

• African-Americans and civil rights. What impact did the war years have on the rights of African-Americans? What were they allowed or not allowed to do?
• Animals. How were horses, dogs, birds, or other animals used? Did they play a special role?
• Art. What art movements were inspired by wartime events? Is there one specific work of art that tells a story about the war?
• Clothing. How was fashion impacted? How did clothing save lives or hinder movement? What materials were used or not used?
• Domestic violence. Was there an increase or decrease in cases?
• Families. Did new family customs develop? What was the impact on children of soldiers?
• Fashion. Did fashion change significantly for civilians? What changes had to be made during wartime?
• Food preservation. What new preservation and packaging methods were used during and after the war? How were these helpful?
• Food rationing. How did rationing impact families? Were rations the same for different groups of people? Were soldiers affected by rations?
• Love letters. What do letters tell us about relationships, families, and friendships? What about gender roles?
• New words. What new vocabulary words emerged during and after WWII?
• Nutrition. Were there battles that were lost or won because of the foods available? How did nutrition change at home during the war because of the availability of certain products?
• Penicillin and other medicine. How was penicillin used? What medical developments occurred during and after the war?
• Resistance movements. How did families deal with living in an occupied territory?
• Sacrifices. How did family life change for the worse?
• Women's work at home. How did women's work change at home during the war? What about after the war ended?

Economy and Workforce

For a nation that was still recovering from the Great Depression, World War II had a major impact on the economy and workforce. When the war began, the fate of the workforce changed overnight, American factories were repurposed to produce goods to support the war effort and women took jobs that were traditionally held by men, who were now off to war.

• Advertising. How did food packaging change during the war? How did advertisements change in general? What were advertisements for?
• Occupations. What new jobs were created? Who filled these new roles? Who filled the roles that were previously held by many of the men who went off to war?
• Propaganda. How did society respond to the war? Do you know why?
• Toys. How did the war impact the toys that were manufactured?
• New products. What products were invented and became a part of popular culture? Were these products present only during war times, or did they exist after?

Military, Government, and War

Americans were mostly against entering the war up until the bombing of Pearl Harbor, after which support for the war grew, as did armed forces. Before the war, the US didn't have the large military forces it soon became known for, with the war resulting in over 16 million Americans in service.   The role the military played in the war, and the impacts of the war itself, were vast.

• America's entry into the war. How is the timing significant? What factors are not so well known?
• Churchill, Winston. What role did this leader play that interests you most? How did his background prepare him for his role?
• Clandestine operations. Governments went to great lengths to hide the true date, time, and place of their actions.
• Destruction. Many historic cities and sites were destroyed in the U.K.—Liverpool, Manchester, London, and Coventry—and in other nations.
• Hawaii. How did events impact families or society in general?
• The Holocaust. Do you have access to any personal stories?
• Italy. What special circumstances were in effect?
• " Kilroy was here ." Why was this phrase important to soldiers? 
• Nationalist Socialist movement in America. What impact has this movement had on society and the government since WWII?
• Political impact. How was your local town impacted politically and socially?
• POW camps after the war. Where were they and what happened to them after the war? Here's a starting point: Some were turned into race tracks after the war!
• Prisoners of war. How many POWs were there? How many made it home safely? What were some long-lasting effects?
• Spies. Who were the spies? Were they men or women? What side were they on? What happened to spies that were caught?
• Submarines. Were there enemy submarines on a coast near you? What role did submarines play in the war?
• Surviving an attack. How were military units attacked? How did it feel to jump from a plane that was disabled?
• Troop logistics. How were troop movements kept secret? What were some challenges of troop logistics?
• Views on freedom. How was freedom curtailed or expanded?
• Views on government's role. Where was the government's role expanded? What about governments elsewhere?
• War crime trials. How were trials conducted? What were the political challenges or consequences? Who was or wasn't tried?
• Weather. Were there battles that were lost or won because of the weather conditions? Were there places where people suffered more because of the weather?
• Women in warfare. What roles did women play during the war? What surprises you about women's work in World War II?

Technology and Transportation

With the war came advancements in technology and transportation, impacting communications capabilities, the spread of news, and even entertainment.

• Bridges and roads. What transportation-related developments came from wartime or postwar policies?
• Communication. How did radio or other types of communication impact key events?
• Motorcycles. What needs led to the development of folding motorcycles? Why was there widespread use of military motorcycles by the government?
• Technology. What technology came from the war and how was it used after the war?
• TV technology. When did televisions start to appear in homes and what is significant about the timing? What TV shows were inspired by the war and how realistic were they? How long did World War II affect TV programming?
• Jet engine technology. What advances can be traced to WWII needs?
• Radar. What role did radar play, if any?
• Rockets. How important was rocket technology?
• Shipbuilding achievements. The achievements were quite remarkable during the war. Why and how did they happen?

"America's Wars Fact Sheet." U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, May 2017.

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Collection Military Legal Resources

World war ii.

The United States entered World War II in December 1941 and became fully engaged in the war, both in the European and Mediterranean Theater as well as the Pacific Theater. This collection focuses on military legal documents and trials in the aftermath of the war, including the Nuremberg Trials, the World War II Board of Review Decisions, the Malmedy Massacre Report, and the trial of General Yamashita, in roughly chronological order.

Martial Law in Hawaii: the Papers of Major General Thomas H. Green, Judge Advocate General's Corps, U.S. Army

On December 7, 1941, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas H. Green was Staff Judge Advocate, Hawaiian Department. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he became executive to the military governor and was responsible for countless daily operations of the American military government in the Territory of Hawaii. His personal papers—spanning his entire career from 1917 through his retirement in 1949—include notes, speeches and newspaper clippings, as well as correspondence with such historic figures as the secretaries of War, Navy, and Interior, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Generals Walter Short and Delos Emmons, and Admirals William D. Leahy and Chester Nimitz.

Martial Law in Hawaii : December 7, 1941 – April 4, 1943. Major General Green's complete, unpublished manuscript.

Nazi Saboteurs Trial

In mid-June 1942, eight German saboteurs — Ernest Peter Burger, George John Dasch, Herbert Hans Haupt, Henry Harm Heinck, Edward John Kerling, Hermann Otto Neubauer, Richard Quirin, and Werner Thiel — entered the United States by submarine in two groups, one landing on the coast of Long Island, New York, and the other at Ponte Vedra, near Jacksonville, Florida. Per the instructions of the German High Command, both groups of men carried a supply of explosives, fuses and incendiary and timing devices, to be used to destroy vital infrastructure, war-related industries, and various commercial locations in the United States. Within two weeks, George John Dasch turned himself in to the Federal Bureau of Investigation and divulged critical information that led to the arrest of the other seven saboteurs in New York City and Chicago. On July 2, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, as commander in chief of the army and navy, issued two orders that empowered a military commission to prosecute the eight saboteurs. The first, Proclamation No. 2561 — “Denying Certain Enemies Access to the Courts of the United States” — states at the outset that all enemies of the United States who commit certain acts “should be promptly tried in accordance with the law of war.” Specifically, citizens and residents of nations at war with the United States “who during time of war enter or attempt to enter the United States … through coastal or boundary defenses, and are charged with committing or attempting or preparing to commit sabotage, espionage, hostile or warlike acts, or violations of the law of war,” were to be “subject to the law of war and to the jurisdiction of military tribunals” and prohibited from seeking remedy in the federal or state courts. The second order, issued by President Roosevelt under authority of Article of War 38, appointed a military commission to try the eight Germans “for offenses against the law of war and the Articles of War.” The commission was given “power to make such rules for the conduct of the proceeding, consistent with the powers of military commissions under the Articles of War, as it shall deem necessary for a full and fair trial of the matters before it.” The order also prescribed regulations for review of the record of the trial and of any judgment or sentence of the commission.

The commission was convened on July 8, 1942. The eight saboteurs sought to file a writ of habeas corpus with the U.S District Court for the District of Columbia, but their motion was denied. In late July, while the military commission was in session, defense counsel persuaded the U.S. Supreme Court to hear oral arguments on defense challenges to the commission. The Supreme Court’s decision, Ex parte Quirin , issued on July 31, 1942, considered the petitioners’ “contention that the President is without any statutory or constitutional authority to order the petitioners to be tried by military tribunal for offenses with which they are charged” — violation of the law of war, violation of Articles 81 and 82 of the Articles of War, and conspiracy to commit these violations — and that they are consequently entitled to be tried in civil courts. The Court rejected these arguments, and ruled that the German saboteurs were “plainly within the ultimate boundaries of the jurisdiction of military tribunals, and were held in good faith for trial by military commission, charged with being enemies who, with the purpose of destroying war materials and utilities, entered or after entry remained in our territory without uniform — an offense against the law of war. Those particular acts constitute an offense against the law of war which the Constitution authorizes to be tried by military commission.” The military tribunal concluded on August 1, with a guilty verdict for all eight defendants. On August 8, 1942 Haupt, Heinck, Kerling, Neubauer, Quirin, and Thiel were executed. Burger and Dasch received prison sentences. The full text of Ex parte Quirin , linked below, is the electronic version of the final, official opinion of the Supreme Court, which is printed in the bound volumes of the United States Reports . As other documents related to the Nazi saboteurs case are converted to digital format, they will be added to this site.

Nazi Saboteurs Trial , Washington, D.C., 1942

Enactments and Approved Papers of the Control Council and Coordinating Committee, Allied Control Authority, Germany (1945-1948)

The Control Council and Coordinating Committee of the Allied Control Authority in post-World War II-occupied Germany issued a series of enactments and approved papers. This nine-volume series, compiled and printed by the Legal Division of the Office of the U.S. Military Government for Germany, represents the effort to rule an occupied country by unanimous agreement of representatives of the four occupying powers: The United Kingdom, the U.S.S.R., France, and the United States. The collection is not only of historical value, but is an important resource for current military legal scholarship.

• Volume VIII
• Legislative History, Law Index
• Legsilative History, Subject Index

Nuremberg Trials

24 major political and military leaders of Nazi Germany, indicted for aggressive war, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, were brought to trial before the International Military Tribunal. More than 100 additional defendants, representing many sectors of German society, were tried before the United States Nuremberg Military Tribunals in a series of 12 trials known as “Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings.” The four major publications linked below contain: the official proceedings of the trial of the major war criminals (The Blue Series), documentary evidence and guide materials from that trial (The Red Series), the official condensed record of the subsequent trials (The Green Series), and a final report on all the war crimes trials held in Nuremberg, Germany, from 1945 to 1949.

Nurnberg Military Tribunals: Indictments, Case No. 1-12

Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal ("Blue Series") Nuremberg, 14 November 1945 - 1 October 1946

This 42-volume series, also known as “ The Blue Series ,” is the official record of the trial of the major civilian and military leaders of Nazi Germany who were accused of war crimes. The accused were: Hermann Wilhelm Göring, Rudolf Hess, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Robert Ley, Wilhelm Keitel, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Alfred Rosenberg, Hans Frank, Wilhelm Frick, Julius Streicher, Walter Funk, Hjalmar Schacht, Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, Karl Dönitz, Erich Raeder, Baldur von Schirach, Fritz Sauckel, Alfred Jodl, Martin Bormann, Franz von Papen, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Albert Speer, Constantin von Neurath, and Hans Fritzsche. The International Military Tribunal, under the jurisdiction of the Allied Control Authority for Germany, directed the publication of this series.  The London Agreement of 8 August 1945 established the tribunal, which was composed of one member and an alternate from each of the four Allied countries: the French Republic, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America.  English, French, German, and Russian were the languages used throughout the hearings. Documents entered into evidence were reproduced in this series only in the original language, but as the result of the absence of a Soviet editorial staff, none of the Russian-language documents were published.

• Volume XIII
• Volume XVII
• Volume XVIII
• Volume XXII
• Volume XXIII
• Volume XXIV
• Volume XXVI
• Volume XXVII
• Volume XXVIII
• Volume XXIX
• Volume XXXI
• Volume XXXII
• Volume XXXIII
• Volume XXXIV
• Volume XXXV
• Volume XXXVI
• Volume XXXVII
• Volume XXXVIII
• Volume XXXIX
• Volume XLII

Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Office of the United States Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality ("Red Series") Nuremberg, Germany (1945-1946)

This eight-volume, 12-book series, also known as “ The Red Series ,” is a “Collection of Documentary Evidence and Guide Materials Prepared by the American and British Prosecuting Staffs for Presentation before the International Military Tribunal at Nurnberg, Germany.”  The Red Series makes available an indexed sampling of the evidence used to support the charges made against the major Nazi war criminals in their trial at Nuremberg, Germany, 1945-1946.  Volumes I and II serve as an overarching guide for the Red Series. They contain essays that summarize and link together the documents that follow.  Volume II also contains a glossary along with short biographies of the German defendants, as well as summaries of the individual cases against them.

• Opinion and Judgment
• Supplement A
• Supplement B

Trials of War Criminals Before the Nurenberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10 ("Green Series") October 1946 - April 1949

This 15-volume series, also known as “ The Green Series ,” focuses on the 12 trials of almost 200 defendants. The defendants included: diplomats, politicians and jurists, such as Ernst von Weizsaecker, the State Secretary of the Foreign Office, cabinet ministers Schwerin von Krosigk and Hans Lammers, and the Acting Minister of Justice Franz Schlegelberger; military leaders, including Field Marshals Wilhelm von Leeb, Wilhelm List, and Georg von Küchler; SS (Schutzstaffel) leaders, such as Otto Ohlendorf and Oswald Pohl; leading industrialists, such as Friedrich Flick, Alfred Krupp, and the directors of I. G. Farben; and physicians, such as Gerhard Rose. The trial proceedings, conducted in English and German, were carried out under the direct authority of the Allied Control Council, Law No. 10, the text of which is included in Volume I of “the Green Series.”  The trials lasted two and a half years, and produced more than 300,000 pages of testimony and evidence. This publication by the United States Government Printing Office is the official abridged record of the individual indictments and judgments, as well as the administrative materials that were common to all the trials.

The OCCWC (Office, Chief of Counsel for War Crimes) was officially established on October 24, 1946 and formally deactivated on June 20, 1949. The OCCWC was established in the Office of Military Government for Germany (U.S.) [OMGUS], by General Order 301, Headquarters U.S. Forces in Europe, and was the successor to the Subsequent Proceedings Division of the Office of the U.S. Chief of Counsel for the Prosecution of Axis Criminality. In this report on the Nuremberg war crimes trials, which were conducted under the authority of Control Council Law No. 10, Brigadier General Telford Taylor, Chief of Counsel for War Crimes, also describes the creation, organization, and functioning of the OCCWC. His report covers the period from the beginnings of the OCCWC in October 1945 to its deactivation in 1949.

Final Report to the Secretary of the Army on the Nuernberg War Crimes Trials Under Control Council Law No. 10 Telford Taylor, Brigadier General, Chief of Counsel for War Crimes Washington, D.C., 15 August 1949

World War II Board of Review Decisions

European Theatre : includes Volumes 1-34, index digests 1-2, and Index Supplement Digest 1

North African/Mediterranean Theatre of Operations : includes Volumes 1-7 and Digest of Opinions

Pacific Ocean Areas : includes Volume 1

Southwest Pacific Asia/Pacific : includes Volumes 1-4, Appendix, and Index

China, Burma, India/India-Burma Theater : includes Volumes 1-3

Malmedy Massacre Investigation and Record of Trial

Malmedy massacre investigation and report, malmedy, belgium, 17 december 1944.

On December 16, 1944, the German Army began the Ardennes offensive known as the Battle of the Bulge.  On December 17, 113 American soldiers surrendered to a German armored column under the command of SS Colonel Joachim Peiper [variant: Piper]. After the American prisoners were disarmed, they were assembled in a field near Malmedy, Belgium, and shot. The German soldiers involved in this massacre of the American prisoners were later prosecuted by the U.S. Army for war crimes in 1946 in what is known as the Malmedy Massacre Trial.

In March 1949, in response to charges concerning the unfair conduct of the prosecution in the Malmedy cases, the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services appointed a subcommittee to review the Army’s investigative and trial procedures. The Hon. Raymond E. Baldwin, chairman, presided over the subcommittee hearings, which were held in April, May, June, and September 1949. The subcommittee report was released by the full committee on October 13, 1949. The full text of these hearings as well as the subcommittee report are linked below.

Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services

• Part 1: April 18, 20, 22, 29; May 4, 5, 6 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24; June 1, 2, 3, and 6, 1949
• Part 2: September 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, and 28, 1949
• Report, October 13, 1949

Malmedy Massacre Record of Trial: United States v. Valentin Bersin et al., Dachau, Germany, 16 May - 16 July 1946

Following the end of World War II, the attention of the entire world was focused on the proceedings of the International Military Tribunal, which had begun in Nuremberg, Germany, in November 1945, and the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, which had begun in Tokyo, Japan, in April 1946. Both trials saw the countries’ leaders charged with, among other things, war crimes and crimes against humanity.

On May 16, 1946, an equally important, though lesser known, war crimes trial began in a courtroom at the former Dachau concentration camp. A general military government court of seven U.S. Army officers began to try members of Battle Group Pieper (so named after its commander, SS Colonel Joachim Pieper), former Waffen SS soldiers who were accused of murdering 84 American prisoners of war on December 17, 1944 at a road intersection near Malmedy, Belgium, during the Battle of the Bulge. As survivors of the massacre reached American lines, word of the killings quickly circulated among American troops and steeled their determination to halt the German offensive.

American newspapers and magazines immediately began calling these killings “the Malmedy Massacre,” the name by which these war crimes will forever be known. Army war crimes investigators immediately began collecting evidence, but it was not until mid-January 1945 that the bodies of those killed were recovered and given proper burials.

Following a two-month trial, during which survivors identified many of the accused in court and testified that many wounded Americans had been shot in the head at close range, all 73 of the accused SS soldiers were found guilty on July 11, 1946. For an excellent summary of the trial and its aftermath, see The Malmedy Massacre Trial: The Military Government Court Proceedings and the Controversial Legal Aftermath (page 22) by Fred L. Borch, III, Regimental Historian and Archivist for the U.S. Army Judge Advocate General’s Corps.

Trial of the major war criminals before the International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 14 November 1945-1 October 1946

• Volume I | Volume II | Volume III
• Volume IV | Volume V | Volume VI
• Volume VII | Volume VIII | Volume IX
• Volume X | Volume XI | Volume XII
• Volume XIII | Volume XIV | Volume XV
• Volume VII includes Additional Content and appendices B-F, G-J, K-P, R-S, T-Z

*The additional content is a book presented to Ellis F. Burton, Assistant Army Judge Advocate and chief prosecutor on the Malmedy Massacre War Crimes Trial. This book is available in the Library of Congress Law Library Rare Book Room .

General Yamashita Trial and International Military Tribunal of the Far East

The case of general yamashita: a memorandum.

In September 1945, Tomoyuki Yamashita, in his capacity as commanding general of the Japanese Fourteenth Army Group in the Philippines, became a prisoner of war of the United States Army Forces and was charged with violations of the law of war. The official charge from the Judge Advocate General’s Department of the Army states that between October 9, 1944 and September 2, 1945, General Yamashita “unlawfully disregarded and failed to discharge his duty as commander to control the operations of the members of his command, permitting them to commit brutal atrocities and other high crimes against people of the United States and of its allies and dependencies, particularly the Philippines.” On December 7, 1945, a military commission found General Yamashita guilty as charged, and sentenced him to death. Yamashita filed a petition for a writ of habeas corpus to the United States Supreme Court, challenging the commission’s lawful authority and jurisdiction to try him. On February 4, 1946 the Court denied the general’s petition, and he was executed shortly thereafter.

The Case of General Yamashita: A Memorandum was written in November 1949 by U.S. Army Brigadier General Courtney Whitney to refute the arguments presented in a book written, but not at that time published, by one of Yamashita’s six defense counsels, Captain A. Frank Reel. In support of its rebuttals to Reel’s book, the memorandum cites as authorities the Supreme Court opinion, In re Yamashita , 327 U.S. 1 (1946); the United Nations War Crimes Commission Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals ; and the Judge Advocate review of the record of trial, all of which are included as appendices to the memorandum.

The memorandum takes exception to Capt. Reel’s use of the dissenting opinions in the Yamashita decision to “support his post-judicial contention that Yamashita was irregularly tried and unjustly executed.” It affirms the three major findings of the Court: the military commission which tried and convicted Yamashita was lawfully created and lawfully convened; the allegations of the charge against Yamashita adequately alleged a violation of the laws of war; and the regulations governing the procedures to be followed by the commission were not in conflict with the Articles of War and did not deprive Yamashita of due process. The memorandum notes that General MacArthur, who served as the final reviewing authority prior to ordering the execution of sentence, supported the majority opinion of the Court. The memorandum includes in its entirety General MacArthur’s statement of record enumerating his reasons for approving the military commission’s judgment.

The commentary written by the United Nations War Crimes Commission discusses at length the Yamashita decision, focusing on the questions of international law which were involved in that case. Specifically, this document addresses “the legality of the trial of war criminals after the termination of hostilities; the finding that an alleged war criminal is not entitled to the protection of the Geneva Prisoner of War Convention relating to trial; the types of evidence admitted in war crime trial proceedings; the stress placed by the Commission on the need for expeditious procedure; and the responsibility of a commander for offences committed by his troops.” The Memorandum finds the commentary’s “discussion of the validity of that part of the regulations governing the procedure to be followed by the military commission in the admissibility of evidence” to be of particular interest.

The memorandum provides a lengthy recitation of the “specifications to the charge on which Yamashita was tried, convicted, and executed,” and states that it “established a pattern of the ... misconduct of the troops under Yamashita’s command.” The memorandum also quotes extensively from the Judge Advocate General’s review of the trial record to illustrate “the voluminous evidence before the military commission pointing to full knowledge by the high command of this reign of terror instituted against non-combatants and prisoners over a wide area.” The Judge Advocate’s review of the trial concluded that the military commission was legally constituted, and had jurisdiction of Yamashita and the offense with which he was charged. It also found that the evidence in that case supported the finding of guilty, that the trial record disclosed no errors in violation of the rights of the accused, and that the sentence was legal.

The Case of General Yamashita: A Memorandum , Brig. Gen. Courtney Whitney (1949).

See also "Trial of General Tomoyuki Yamashita" in volume 4 of the U.S. Crimes Commission's Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals (1948), Case No. 21 (Page 1).

United States of America v. Tomoyuki Yamashita: Record of Trial Manila, Philipines 8 October - 7 December 1945

On October 8, 1945, a military commission—acting under authority from Gen. Douglas MacArthur—began the trial of Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita on the charge that between October 9, 1944 and September 2, 1945,

at Manila and at other places in the Philippine Islands, while a commander of [the] armed forces of Japan at war with the United States of America and its allies, [he] unlawfully disregarded and failed to discharge his duty as commander to control the operations of the members of his command, permitting them to commit brutal atrocities and other high crimes against people of the United States and of its allies and dependencies, particularly the Philippines; and he, General Tomoyuki Yamashita, thereby violated the laws of war.

Two bills of particulars, consisting of 123 distinct paragraphs alleging Yamashita’s violations of the laws of war, were introduced into evidence by the prosecution. The commission heard from 286 persons and received a total of 423 exhibits. The record of trial totaled 4,055 pages.

On December 7, 1945, the fourth anniversary of the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, the military commission found Gen. Yamashita guilty as charged and sentenced him to death by hanging. Yamashita petitioned the Supreme Court of the United States for writs of habeas corpus and prohibition. The opinion of the court, which rejected Yamashita’s petition, was delivered by Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone on February 4, 1946 ( 327 U.S. 1 ). President Harry S. Truman likewise rejected Yamashita’s plea for clemency. Gen. MacArthur reviewed the record of trial and affirmed the death sentence recommended by the commission. Yamashita was executed by hanging on February 23, 1946.

Before the Miliary Commission convened by the Commanding General, United states Army Forces, Western Pacific. United States of America vs. Tomoyuki Yamaskita. [Proceedings].

• Public Trial - 29 October 1945
• Public Trial - 30 October 1945
• Public Trial - 31 October 1945
• Public Trial - 1 November 1945
• Public Trial - 2 November 1945
• Public Trial - 3 November 1945
• Public Trial - 5 November 1945
• Public Trial - 6 November 1945
• Public Trial - 7 November 1945
• Public Trial - 8 November 1945
• Public Trial - 9 November 1945
• Public Trial - 12 November 1945
• Public Trial - 13 November 1945
• Public Trial - 14 November 1945
• Public Trial - 15 November 1945
• Public Trial - 16 November 1945
• Public Trial - 17 November 1945
• Public Trial - 19 November 1945
• Public Trial - 20 November 1945
• Public Trial - 21 November 1945
• Public Trial - 22 November 1945
• Public Trial - 23 November 1945
• Public Trial - 24 November 1945
• Public Trial - 26 November 1945
• Public Trial - 27 November 1945
• Public Trial - 28 November 1945
• Public Trial - 29 November 1945
• Public Trial - 30 November 1945
• Public Trial - 1 December 1945
• Public Trial - 3 December 1945
• Public Trial - 5 December 1945
• Public Trial - 7 December 1945
• Exhibits Volume 1 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 2 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 3 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 4 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 5 - Defense Exhibits

Judgment of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East Tokyo, Japan; 1946-1948

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) was established by a special proclamation issued January 19, 1946, by Gen. Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. The first meeting of the IMTFE was held in Tokyo, Japan, on April 29, 1946. By the time the tribunal ended over two and a half years later, 419 witnesses had appeared in 818 court sessions and 779 affidavits and depositions had been presented. The IMTFE rendered its judgment November 4–12, 1948, in an opinion that took seven months to prepare and was 1,218 pages long. Maj. Gen. Myron C. Cramer, who served as Judge Advocate General of the Army during World War II, represented the United States at the tribunal.

Judgment of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East

• Volume I, Part A: Chapter I | Chapter II | Chapter III
• Volume I, Part B: Chapter IV | Chapter V
• Volume II, Part B, continued: Chapter VI | Chapter VII | Chapter VIII
• Volume II, Part C: Chapter IX | Chapter X | Annexes and Appendices

Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals

Law reports of trials of war criminals selected and prepared by the united nations war crimes commission (1947-1949).

This 15-volume series summarizes the course of the more important proceedings taken against individuals accused of war crimes during World War II, excluding the major war criminals tried by the Nuremberg and Tokyo International Military Tribunals. These representative trials of war criminals were selected for this series based on the major points of municipal and international law that were raised and settled during the trials as well as the potential for the greatest legal interest. Each volume begins with a unique introduction by the Right Honorable Lord Wright of Durley, Chairman of the United Nations War Crimes Commission.

Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, Volumes 1-15

Nazi War Crimes & Japanese Imperial Government Records

In October 1998, President Clinton signed into law the Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act (NWCDA), which required the U.S. Government to locate, declassify, and release in their entirety, with few exceptions, remaining classified records about war crimes committed by Nazi Germany and its allies. The act required the President to establish an Interagency Working Group to oversee its implementation, which became the largest congressionally mandated, single-subject declassification effort in history, resulting in over 8 million pages of records being opened. This report is concerned with the process of implementing the Disclosure Acts and with the effectiveness of the acts, including the extent to which the acts resulted in the release of relevant records, the extent to which records were not released, and why. The report does not attempt to assess the historical value of the documentation covered by the acts; nor does it describe or present historical analyses or interpretations of declassified documentation. These interpretive tasks are appropriately left to historians and others with the expertise to study the raw sources made available by the Disclosure Acts. (excerpted from the introduction)

Nazi War Crimes & Japanese Imperial Government Records (April 2007)

Report of the Deputy Judge Advocate Report on War Crimes, European Command

This report was submitted by Lieutenant Colonel Clio Edwin Straight, Deputy Judge Advocate for War Crimes, European Command, to Colonel James L. Harbaugh, Jr., Judge Advocate, European Command. It covers pre-trial and trial phases of the war crimes program that dealt with so-called conventional war crimes cases, which were conducted by the United States Military Forces in Europe, from June 1944 to July 1948.

Report of the Deputy Judge Advocate Report on War Crimes, European Command June 1944 to July 1948

Report of Robert H. Jackson, United States Representative to the International Conference on Military Trials

In December 1947 Justice Robert H. Jackson submitted a “documentary record of negotiations,” which he had conducted from June to August 1945 as U.S. representative to the International Conference on Military Trials with representatives of the United Kingdom, France, and the USSR. The purpose of this conference, held in London, was to establish “methods of procedure for the prosecution and trial of the major European war criminals,” and resulted in the adoption of an agreement and charter of London, signed by representatives of the four conferring powers on August 8, 1945.

The Jackson report includes numerous preparatory documents for the 1945 conference: minutes of conference sessions; reports of the drafting committee regarding the agreement and charter; redrafts of the definitions of key terms; and amendments and other proposals submitted by the American, British, French, and Soviet delegations.

In his preface to this report, Justice Jackson highlights the difficulties in reconciling the “divergence in legal concepts and traditions” among the four delegate nations. A consistent point of separation was the difference between the Soviet practice of judicial inquiry, and the Anglo-American theory of criminal trials, coupled with opposite views of the function of the judiciary. Jackson describes these discords as “stubborn and deep,” noting the failure to include in the final charter the American proposal to define “aggression.” There was a significant “difference of viewpoint concerning the principles of conspiracy as developed in Anglo-American law,” and the most serious disagreement concerned the definition of crimes.

The charter was, however, in many respects a success. It defines three broad categories of acts as criminal—crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. It also “enacts the principle that individuals rather than states are responsible for criminal violations of international law and applies to such lawbreakers the principle of conspiracy by which one who joins in a common plan to commit crime becomes responsible for the acts of any other conspirator in executing the plan.” The procedural provisions of the charter are significant because they “represent the first tried and successful effort by lawyers from nations having profoundly different legal systems, philosophies, and traditions to amalgamate their ideas of fair procedure so as to permit a joint inquiry of judicial character into criminal charges.”

This document also includes two reports to the President of the United States submitted by Justice Jackson in June 1945 and October 1946. The 1945 report, which was widely published in the United States and throughout Europe, “was accepted by other governments as an official statement of the position of the United States and as such was placed before all of the delegations to the London Conference.” In this report Jackson outlines the basic features of the plan of prosecution on which the United States was proceeding in preparing its case. The case would begin with the assumption that “an inescapable responsibility” rested on the U.S. “to conduct an inquiry, preferably in association with others, but alone if necessary, into the culpability of those whom there is a probable cause to accuse of atrocities and other crimes.” A fair hearing would be conducted to determine the guilt or innocence of the accused, employing procedures not necessarily consistent with those of a trial under the U.S. system of justice. The hearings would bar “obstructive and dilatory tactics” by the defense, and would disallow the defense from arguing the doctrines that “a head of state is immune from legal liability, and that orders from an official superior protect one who obeys them. It will be noticed that the combination of these two doctrines means that nobody is responsible.” The defendants would consist of a large number of persons who were in authority in the German government and the military establishment, as well as in the financial and industrial sectors, “who by all civilized standards are provable to be common criminals.” Voluntary organizations such as the Gestapo, whose criminal activities subjugated the German people and their neighbors, would be accused as well, with the intent of demonstrating “their declared and covert objectives, and methods of recruitment and effectuating their programs.” The report notes that the U.S. case would need to be “factually authentic and constitute a well-documented history of” what the U.S was convinced was “a grand, concerted pattern to commit aggressions and barbarities which have shocked the world.” The report enumerates the atrocities and offenses, and violations of international law, with which the top Nazi leaders and voluntary associations were being charged. The basic premise of liability would be that “all who participate in the formulation or execution of a criminal plan involving multiple crimes are liable for each of the offenses committed and responsible for the acts of each other.” The United States “proposes to charge that a war of aggression is a crime, and that modern International Law has abolished the defense that those who incite or wage it are engaged in legitimate business. Thus may the forces of the law be mobilized on the side of peace.”

The 1946 report to the President summarizes the judgments of the International Military Tribunal sitting at Nurnberg (Nuremberg), Germany that were rendered on September 30 and October 1, 1946. It also provides statistics regarding testimony and other evidentiary material presented at this lengthy trial, which began on November 20, 1945. The report notes the subsequent war crimes work that would be supervised by Brigadier General Telford Taylor, specifically the prosecution of “representatives of all the important segments of the Third Reich including a considerable number of industrialists and financiers, leading cabinet ministers, top SS and police officials, and militarists.” The core of this report is Justice Jackson’s summary of the accomplishments of the four delegate nations. He states that the Agreement negotiated and concluded by these parties “made explicit and unambiguous that to prepare, incite, or wage a war of aggression, or to conspire with others to do so, is a crime against international society, and that to persecute, oppress, or do violence to individuals or minorities on political, racial, or religious grounds in connection with such a war, or to exterminate, enslave, or deport civilian populations, is an international crime, and that for the commission of such crimes individuals are responsible.” This agreement “is a basic charter in the International Law of the future. Its principles have been incorporated into a judicial precedent,” because from this point forward no one would be able to “deny or fail to know that the principles on which the Nazi leaders” were adjudged to have committed capital offenses “constitute law—and law with a sanction.” The Agreement is also noteworthy because it “devised a workable procedure for the trial of crimes which reconciled the basic conflicts in Anglo-American, French, and Soviet procedures.” The documentation of Nazi aggressions, persecutions, and atrocities, documented from German sources “with such authenticity and in such detail,” would preclude any “responsible denial of these crimes in the future.” Jackson concludes by stating that the Agreement and the military tribunal together have “put International Law squarely on the side of peace as against aggressive warfare, and on the side of humanity as against persecution.”

Report of Robert H. Jackson, United States Representative to the International Conference on Military Trials London, 1945

Essay on World War 2

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World War II, spanning from 1939 to 1945, was a global conflict that involved most of the world’s nations and marked one of the deadliest and most pivotal events in human history. It reshaped the geopolitical landscape, led to significant technological advancements, and set the stage for the Cold War. This essay aims to provide a comprehensive overview of World War II, its causes, major battles, consequences, and the lessons it imparts for future generations.

The Prelude to War

The roots of World War II can be traced back to the aftermath of World War I and the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The treaty imposed harsh penalties on Germany, fostering a sense of injustice and economic hardship. This environment paved the way for the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, who promised to restore Germany’s former glory. Meanwhile, the expansionist ambitions of Japan in Asia and Mussolini’s fascist regime in Italy contributed to global tensions. The failure of the League of Nations to prevent aggression and the policy of appeasement adopted by Western powers further emboldened Axis powers.

The Outbreak of War

World War II officially began on September 1, 1939, with Germany’s invasion of Poland, prompting Britain and France to declare war on Germany. This conflict quickly expanded as Axis powers, including Germany, Italy, and Japan, sought to extend their influence across Europe, Asia, and the Pacific. The war was characterized by two major theaters: the European Theater and the Pacific Theater, each with distinct campaigns and battles.

Major Battles and Turning Points

• Battle of Britain (1940): A significant early battle where the British Royal Air Force defended the United Kingdom against the German Luftwaffe’s extensive bombing campaign, marking the first major defeat of Hitler’s military forces.
• Operation Barbarossa (1941): Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union, which ultimately failed due to harsh winter conditions and staunch Soviet defense, marking a crucial turning point in the war in favor of the Allies.
• Pearl Harbor (1941): Japan’s surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, which led to the United States formally entering the war against the Axis powers.
• D-Day (1944): The Allied invasion of Normandy, which was the largest seaborne invasion in history and began the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control.
• Battle of Midway (1942): A pivotal naval battle in the Pacific Theater, where the United States Navy decisively defeated the Imperial Japanese Navy, marking a turning point in the Pacific War.

The Holocaust

One of the most horrific aspects of World War II was the Holocaust, the systematic genocide of six million Jews, along with millions of others, including Poles, Soviet prisoners of war, Romani people, and disabled individuals, by Nazi Germany. The Holocaust remains a stark reminder of the dangers of unchecked hatred, racism, and totalitarian regimes.

The Home Front

World War II significantly impacted civilian life, with entire societies mobilized for the war effort. Rationing, war bonds, and propaganda campaigns became common. Women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers to replace men who had gone to fight, leading to significant social changes. The war also spurred scientific and technological advancements, including the development of radar, jet engines, and the atomic bomb.

The End of the War and Its Aftermath

World War II concluded with the unconditional surrender of the Axis powers. In Europe, the war ended with Germany’s surrender in May 1945, while in the Pacific, Japan surrendered in September 1945 after the United States dropped atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The war had profound consequences, including the loss of millions of lives, the destruction of entire cities, and the displacement of millions of people. It led to the establishment of the United Nations, aimed at preventing future global conflicts. The geopolitical landscape was dramatically altered, with the United States and the Soviet Union emerging as superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War.

Lessons Learned

World War II teaches us the importance of vigilance against the rise of totalitarian regimes, the necessity of international cooperation for peace, and the devastating consequences of nationalism and racism. It also highlights the resilience of the human spirit and the capacity for innovation and adaptation in the face of adversity.

In conclusion, World War II was a defining moment in history, influencing the modern world in countless ways. It was a testament to the destructiveness of war and the importance of striving for peace and understanding among nations. As we reflect on the lessons of World War II, it is our responsibility to ensure that such a conflict never occurs again, honoring the memory of those who suffered and died.

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World War II: A Resource Guide

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• Databases and External Websites
• Print Resources

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This page lists resources on the Library of Congress website that will be useful for researchers looking for information about World War II.

Digital Collections

American Folklife Center

• Finding Aid for World War II Collections in the Archive of Folk Culture The Archive of Folk Culture mainly consists of the collections of the American Folklife Center. Today the Archive includes over three million photographs, manuscripts, audio recordings, and moving images, consisting of documentation of traditional culture from all around the world. It is America's first national archive of traditional life, and one of the oldest and largest of such repositories in the world.

Exhibitions

• American Treasures of the Library of Congress - World War II This online exhibition contains notable examples of World War II era materials from different areas of the Library, including photographs, posters, newspapers, and original documents.
• Dresden: Treasures from the Saxon State Library This exhibition includes photographs of twentieth century Dresden, including View from the Georgen Gate showing the ruins of the Frauenkirche and surrounding buildings, summer 1947 and View of Dresden's Neumarkt and the Frauenkirche, August 1949.
• Herblock's History: Political Cartoons from the Crash to the Millennium This exhibit includes a number of editorial cartoons from the World War II era by Pulitzer Prize-winning editorial cartoonist Herbert L. Block (1909-2001).
• John Bull and Uncle Sam: Four Centuries of British-American Relations The section of this exhibition titled "From Enemy to Ally" contains a variety of World War II materials, including examples of sheet music, photographs, and speeches.
• Women Come to the Front: Journalists, Photographers, and Broadcasters During WWII This exhibition spotlights eight women who succeeded in "coming to the front" during the war--Therese Bonney, Toni Frissell, Marvin Breckinridge Patterson, Clare Boothe Luce, Janet Flanner, Esther Bubley, Dorothea Lange, and May Craig. Their stories--drawn from private papers and photographs primarily in Library of Congress collections--open a window on a generation of women who changed American society forever by securing a place for themselves in the workplace, in the newsroom, and on the battlefield.

Journeys and Crossings

• Anne Hoog on Pearl Harbor Oral Histories Ann Hoog ( Folklife Specialist, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress) discusses After the Day of Infamy: 'Man-on-the-Street' Interviews Following the Attack on Pearl Harbor.
• Sheridan Harvey on Rosie the Riveter Sheridan Harvey (former Women's Studies Specialist, Humanities and Social Sciences Division, Library of Congress) explores the evolution of "Rosie the Riveter"and discusses the lives of real women workers in World War II.

Prints and Photographs Division Guides

• Ansel Adams's Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar The same images as presented on the Library of Congress American Memory site. This site contains background information, and a few selected images are included here as a quick sample of the collection.
• Farm Security Administration/Office of War Information Black-and-White Negatives The photographs of the Farm Security Administration (FSA)-Office of War Information (OWI), transferred to the Library of Congress in 1944, form an extensive pictorial record of American life between 1935 and 1943. As the scope of the project expanded, the photographers turned to recording rural and urban conditions throughout the United States and mobilization efforts for World War II.
• Farm Security Administration/Office of War Information Color Photographs Photographers working for the U.S. government's Farm Security Administration (FSA) and later the Office of War Information (OWI) between 1939 and 1944 made approximately 1,600 color photographs that depict life in the United States, including Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. The pictures focus on rural areas and farm labor, as well as aspects of World War II mobilization, including factories, railroads, aviation training, and women working.
• Rosie Pictures: Select Images Relating to American Women Workers During World War II The Prints & Photographs Division holds hundreds of images relating to American women workers in World War II. These selected images were issued by the U.S. government or by commercial sources during World War II, often to encourage women to join the work force or to highlight other aspects of the war effort.

Today In History

• February 4 The United Service Organizations, popularly known as the USO, was chartered on February 4, 1941, in order to provide recreation for on-leave members of the U.S. armed forces and their families.
• June 6 D-Day: Operation Overlord, The Allies invaded Normandy on June 6, 1944.
• June 13 On June 13, 1942, seven months after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the Office of War Information (OWI) was created. An important U.S. government propaganda agency during World War II, the OWI supported American mobilization for the war effort by recording the nation's activities.
• June 21 On June 21, 1945, Japanese troops surrendered the Pacific Island of Okinawa to the United States after one of the longest and bloodiest battles of World War II.
• August 13 On August 13, 1942, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin drafted a memorandum to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and American President Franklin Roosevelt opposing their decision not to invade Western Europe at that time.
• September 29 In 1942, John F. Kennedy entered the United States Navy to join American forces fighting in World War II. Prior to his departure, playwright Clare Boothe Luce, a close friend of the Kennedy family, sent the young naval officer a good luck coin that once belonged to her mother. On September 29, 1942, Kennedy wrote to Luce thanking her for sharing such an important token with him.
• October 23 The Senate passed the $5.98 billion supplemental Lend-Lease Bill on October 23, 1941, bringing the United States one step closer to direct involvement in World War II.
• October 24 The United Nations was established by charter on October 24, 1945. Initially, the United Nations included only the twenty-six countries that had signed the 1942 Declaration by United Nations, a statement of war against the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) in World War II.
• November 26 Rick's Place: World War II military code for the city of Casablanca. The film Casablanca premiered in New York City on November 26, 1942, as Allied Expeditionary Forces (AEF) secured their hold on North Africa during World War II.
• December 2 At 3:25 P.M. on December 2, 1942, the Atomic Age began inside an enormous tent on a squash court under the stands of the University of Chicago's Stagg Field.
• December 7 On December 7, 1941, Japanese planes attacked the United States Naval Base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory killing more than 2,300 Americans.

Veterans History Project

• Veterans History Project home page Provides information about this oral history project, as will as links to information about how to participate, a database of participating veterans, and digitized materials from the collection.
• Veterans History Project Guide to Oral History sites A guide to (predominantly WWII) oral history sites online.
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• URL: https://guides.loc.gov/ww2

Propaganda During World War II Essay

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The Second World War was a complicated time for both the general public and the authorities since while the former worried for their safety, family, and homeland, the latter needed to maintain the national spirit and support the soldiers at the front. For such purposes, posters were implemented involving colorful images with strong words. However, while some might think that posters from the 20th century served as inspiration or plea, they were aimed to influence people psychologically.

The first propaganda poster Every minute counts! represents the influence of lost time on the battlefield failures of their soldiers. The technique used in this poster involves fear, through which the authorities strive to scare individuals working at manufacturing factories, urging them to work harder. In this sense, the poster incorporates statistics and figures, implying that every ten minutes that are lost will lead to less ammunition and weaponry, which will, in turn, postpone the victory.

Another poster, Air defense is home defense uses the technique of connecting with the audience. In their attempt to recruit as many individuals into air defense, the authorities aim to incorporate a heart-warming illustration of a family that looks in the sky and admires the national military plane. In a way, stereotypes in posters were common during wartime (Brewer 26). Here, the objective is to emphasize the pride in national defense and show the general public endorsement of the air forces.

The last poster, England expects, incorporates the technique of calling to action via bright colors, illustration of the national flag, and words. The phrase national service is written in bold red color that is contrasted by the dark blue background, which is used to catch the attention of the audience. Moreover, the number of people illustrated in the poster serves to show the national spirit, urging others to join the forces.

Hence, while some individuals might mistakenly believe that 20th-century posters acted as calls to action or acts of inspiration, their true purpose was to affect the audience psychologically. Every minute counts! is a propaganda poster that employs the technique of fear to illustrate the impact of wasted time on their soldiers’ failures on the battlefield. Another poster, Air defense is home defense , employs the audience-connection strategy. The final poster, England expects , employs the strategy of urging action via the use of bold colors, an image of the national flag, and text.

Brewer, Susan A. To Win the Peace: British Propaganda in the United States During World War II . Cornell University Press, 2019.

• German Strategy During the Beginning of WWII
• Cold War Impact on Germany
• American Homefront During World War II
• Media Propaganda: Poster Advertisement
• War on Terror: Propaganda and Freedom of the Press in the US
• The Office of Strategic Services Operational Groups in World War II
• Warfare: Ethical and Moral Issues
• The Role of Propaganda During World War II
• The Effectiveness of WWII Bombing Campaigns
• Wartime Conferences of World War II
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IvyPanda . 2023. "Propaganda During World War II." September 21, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/propaganda-during-world-war-ii/.

1. IvyPanda . "Propaganda During World War II." September 21, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/propaganda-during-world-war-ii/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Propaganda During World War II." September 21, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/propaganda-during-world-war-ii/.