essay on leadership styles and theories

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

6 Common Leadership Styles — and How to Decide Which to Use When

• Rebecca Knight

Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances call for different approaches.

Research suggests that the most effective leaders adapt their style to different circumstances — be it a change in setting, a shift in organizational dynamics, or a turn in the business cycle. But what if you feel like you’re not equipped to take on a new and different leadership style — let alone more than one? In this article, the author outlines the six leadership styles Daniel Goleman first introduced in his 2000 HBR article, “Leadership That Gets Results,” and explains when to use each one. The good news is that personality is not destiny. Even if you’re naturally introverted or you tend to be driven by data and analysis rather than emotion, you can still learn how to adapt different leadership styles to organize, motivate, and direct your team.

Much has been written about common leadership styles and how to identify the right style for you, whether it’s transactional or transformational, bureaucratic or laissez-faire. But according to Daniel Goleman, a psychologist best known for his work on emotional intelligence, “Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances may call for different approaches.”

• RK Rebecca Knight is a journalist who writes about all things related to the changing nature of careers and the workplace. Her essays and reported stories have been featured in The Boston Globe, Business Insider, The New York Times, BBC, and The Christian Science Monitor. She was shortlisted as a Reuters Institute Fellow at Oxford University in 2023. Earlier in her career, she spent a decade as an editor and reporter at the Financial Times in New York, London, and Boston.

Partner Center

Exploring Different Leadership Styles: A Comprehensive Guide

The way leaders guide and influence their teams can significantly impact productivity, engagement, staff turnover, staff wellbeing, and overall morale.

In fact, Gallup (2023) estimates that 70% of team engagement is attributable to the team leader. And a study by CMI found that 28% of job leavers cited a negative relationship with their manager as a key reason for quitting.

It is thus fair to say that how we lead really matters, even more so than who we lead. This guide provides a comprehensive overview of different leadership styles and suggestions for further reading and development.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Leadership Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or others adopt positive leadership practices and help organizations thrive.

This Article Contains

Goleman’s leadership styles, the 4 most effective positive leadership styles, leadership coaching: improving your skills, 3 leadership programs to enhance your leadership style, 4 recommended leadership books, 4 recommended youtube videos, positivepsychology.com resources, a take-home message.

In their influential book Primal Leadership: Unleashing the Power of Emotional Intelligence , the psychologists Daniel Goleman, Richard E. Boyatzis, and Annie McKee (2002) turned the term “emotional intelligence” into a household concept. They also demonstrated the importance of emotionally intelligent leadership.

The authors champion leadership that is self-aware, empathic, motivating, and collaborative. These qualities are ever-more important in our increasingly economically volatile, fast-changing, and technologically complex world.

In the book, they also discuss the core features of six distinctive leadership styles. According to Goleman et al. (2002), each style has its own strengths and limitations. Ideally, effective leaders learn to adapt their style to the situation at hand.

1. The visionary leadership style

Goleman et al. (2002) define the visionary leadership style as the ability to move people toward a shared dream or vision.

Visionary leaders have a clear and compelling dream of the future, and they know how to communicate it. They inspire their team members with a sense of purpose and direction.

Their ability to articulate a compelling vision motivates and energizes their followers and fosters a sense of unity and shared commitment.

2. The coaching leadership style

The coaching leadership style is characterized by the leader’s focus on helping employees reach their full potential. Above all, coaching leaders seek to support personal development and growth.

By providing guidance and mentoring, offering constructive feedback, and promoting skill building, coaching leaders create an environment conducive to continuous learning and improvement. This style promotes employee engagement and generates long-term organizational success.

3. The affiliative leadership style

An affiliative leader prioritizes harmony and bonding among their team members. They emphasize building strong relationships, cultivating a sense of belonging, and creating a supportive work environment.

Goleman et al. (2002) argue that affiliative leaders aim to resolve conflicts and enhance team cohesion by focusing their energies on open communication, empathy, and trust.

4. The democratic leadership style

The democratic leadership style entails involving team members in decision-making processes and truly valuing their input and perspectives.

Goleman et al. (2002) suggest that democratic leaders seek to empower their teams. They foster a collaborative culture where everyone’s opinions are respected. This inclusive approach tends not only to result in high levels of job satisfaction , but also promotes creativity and innovation within an organization.

5. The pacesetting leadership style

The pacesetting leadership style is characterized by leaders who consistently set high standards and expect their team members to meet them. This style can be both inspiring and demanding.

Pacesetting leaders strive for excellence and inspire their team members through role modeling. However, although effective in the short term, this style may leave little room for creativity, development, and autonomy in the long run. It is also important to remember that a great challenge should ideally be accompanied by significant support.

6. The commanding leadership style

The commanding leadership style is assertive, direct, top-down, and expects immediate compliance. While commanding leaders may excel in crisis situations, they may create a negative work environment if they overuse that style in non-urgent settings.

This style can be effective for short-term results but may impede employee engagement and creativity over time.

Adjectives to describe more problematic leadership styles include autocratic, top-down, transactional, bureaucratic, laissez-faire, or military. We will now explore four well-known effective leadership styles in more detail.

The four positive leadership styles that are currently attracting the most interest among researchers and positive psychology practitioners are coaching leadership, transformational leadership, authentic leadership, and servant leadership. All of them are viewed as positive and constructive leadership styles that bring out the best in the people who are being led.

Coaching leadership

Coaching leaders focus on developing those whom they lead and seek to support their growth and learning. Coaching leadership revolves around cultivating a supportive and encouraging environment that promotes growth and excellence in team members.

Unlike traditional leadership styles that emphasize top-down decision-making and unquestioning compliance, coaching leaders adopt a facilitative approach. They focus on building strong relationships, fostering collaboration, and nurturing individual talents.

A coaching leader is in effect a powerful catalyst who reminds people of their own resources and strengths and encourages them to use and develop them.

Key principles of coaching leadership include:

1. Active listening

Effective coaching leaders actively listen to their team members, encouraging them freely to express their thoughts, feelings, and aspirations. This practice helps leaders gain a deeper understanding of their team’s needs and enables them to provide tailored guidance. Because they listen carefully to what others say, coaching leaders can also truly benefit from the collective intelligence of their teams and their team members’ insights.

2. Empowerment

Coaching leaders strive to empower individuals by fostering a culture of autonomy and accountability. They encourage their team members to take ownership of their work, to make informed decisions, and to learn from both their successes and their failures.

3. Growth mindset

Coaching leaders promote a growth mindset culture, in which mistakes are seen as learning opportunities and continuous improvement is valued. This mindset encourages individuals to step out of their comfort zones , explore and develop their skills, and embrace new challenges.

Benefits of coaching leadership include enhanced employee engagement and a focus on skill development and improved communication. By valuing people’s needs and aspirations, coaching leaders create a more engaged and motivated team.

This commitment leads to increased productivity and better overall team performance (van Woerkom et al., 2016). Through mentoring, skill-building exercises, and feedback, coaching leaders help their people develop new competencies and refine existing ones (Webb, 2019).

By listening actively and providing constructive feedback, leaders can foster trust, improve team interactions, and boost collaboration among team members (van Woerkom et al., 2016).

Transformational leadership

Transformational leaders inspire and motivate their teams by articulating a compelling vision and encouraging personal growth. They seek to create a sense of community and commitment, challenge existing norms, and drive positive change within their organization (Bass & Riggio, 2006).

At its core, transformational leadership is about empowering and inspiring individuals to transcend their limits by promoting a collective sense of purpose and growth. This leadership approach moves beyond traditional managerial practices by focusing on developing strong relationships, cultivating vision, and promoting personal and professional growth.

The four pillars of transformational leadership are:

1. Idealized influence

Transformational leaders serve as role models. They lead by example and demonstrate high ethical standards. By being charismatic visionaries, they inspire team members to trust, respect, and emulate their behavior.

2. Inspirational motivation

These leaders are adept at articulating a compelling vision and conveying it in a passionate way that instills inspiration within their teams. By sharing a clear purpose and setting high standards, they inspire employees to achieve their full potential and support the bigger-picture aims of their teams and organizations.

3. Intellectual stimulation

Transformational leaders value creativity and encourage innovative thinking in their teams. They challenge employees to question the status quo and build environments that are conducive to learning, curiosity, and growth.

4. Individualized consideration

Recognizing the diverse needs and aspirations of each team member, transformational leaders provide individual support, coaching, and mentoring . They genuinely care about their employees’ personal and professional development, fostering a sense of belonging and creating a supportive work culture.

Numerous studies have shown the positive influence of transformational leadership on both individual wellbeing and organizational outcomes (see, for example, Avolio et al., 2004; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Wang et al., 2011).

Through its emphasis on inspiration and personal growth, this leadership style has been linked to higher employee engagement, job satisfaction, and overall workplace wellbeing . Transformational leaders also tend to foster stronger commitment, loyalty, and organizational citizenship behavior among employees.

Transformational leadership can have a ripple effect throughout organizations, enhancing team performance and increasing overall productivity. By encouraging open communication, generating a shared vision, and valuing innovation, transformational leaders cultivate an environment that nurtures creativity, adaptability, and continuous improvement.

Authentic leadership

Authentic leaders seek to lead with integrity and transparency, inspiring trust and creating an environment where individuals can be their true selves. They prioritize being genuine, self-aware, and acting consistently according to one’s values (Avolio & Gardner, 2005).

Authentic leadership emphasizes genuine self-awareness, transparency, and a commitment to one’s core values. At the core of authentic leadership lies self-awareness, a deep understanding of our values, beliefs, strengths, and weaknesses.

These leaders cultivate awareness through introspection, reflection, and a sincere desire to learn and grow. A study by George et al. (2007) suggests that self-awareness helps leaders align their actions with their core values, which enhances their credibility and authenticity.

Authentic leaders are transparent about their intentions and decisions. They also risk being vulnerable in front of their teams. This transparency promotes trust and psychological safety , enabling followers to reciprocate with their own authenticity. Research by Luthans and Avolio (2003) describes authentic leaders as being down to earth, approachable, and actively engaged with their teams.

Their words and actions are aligned. In other words, they say what they think and do what they say. Even when faced with challenging situations, they uphold their values and ethics. Research by Avolio et al. (2004) suggests that leaders who demonstrate this kind of consistency and integrity are more likely to inspire and motivate their followers, cultivating a sense of trust, purpose, and commitment within their teams.

Authentic leaders possess a high degree of emotional intelligence, which enables them to truly understand and empathize with others. They leverage this empathy to connect with their team members. Positive psychology research conducted by Clapp-Smith et al. (2008) suggests that authentic leaders who display empathy can provide effective support, understanding, and compassion to their followers.

Servant leadership

Servant leaders prioritize the needs of their team members and work to help them reach their full potential, always placing the team’s success above their own. They demonstrate humility, empathy, and a strong commitment to serving others (Greenleaf, 1977).

Servant leadership , as described by Robert K. Greenleaf (1977), centers on the idea that leaders should be driven by a deep-rooted desire to serve and support their team members and the organizations they work for. This counterintuitive approach presents an antidote to traditional leadership styles. It emphasizes the wellbeing, growth, and success of those within the leader’s sphere of influence.

Some key features of servant leadership include:

1. Empowerment rather than control

While many leaders exert their authority and micromanage their teams, servant leaders recognize the importance of empowering individuals to be creative and resourceful on their own terms (Laub, 1999).

By actively listening, providing guidance, and creating a culture of trust, they enable their team members to thrive, pursue innovative ideas, and take full ownership of their responsibilities and decisions (Laub, 1999).

2. Building trust and collaboration

One of the foundational pillars of servant leadership is the cultivation of trust and fostering collaboration among team members. Servant leaders seek to create an environment in which people feel safe, respected, and valued.

By promoting open communication, embracing diverse perspectives, and actively involving everyone in decision-making processes, servant leaders seek to create a cohesive and nurturing team culture.

3. Emotional intelligence

Servant leaders possess strong emotional intelligence, which enables them to empathize with their team members’ experiences, needs, and aspirations. This heightened understanding allows them to provide the necessary support, guidance, and motivation, which, in turn, leads to increased satisfaction and personal growth among team members (Van Dierendonck, 2011).

By practicing servant leadership, leaders not only enhance the wellbeing and productivity of their teams but also seed a legacy of ethical and compassionate leadership. Servant leadership creates a positive ripple effect, inspiring others to adopt a similar people-centric approach. In that way, servant leaders can create sustainable cultures of humility, empathy, and continuous learning in organizations (Greenleaf, 1977).

Download 3 Free Positive Leadership Exercises (PDF)

These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or others to adopt positive leadership practices to help individuals, teams and organizations to thrive.

Download 3 Free Positive Leadership Exercises Pack (PDF)

By filling out your name and email address below.

• Email Address *
• Your Expertise * Your expertise Therapy Coaching Education Counseling Business Healthcare Other
• Email This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged.

Whichever leadership style appeals to you, the good news is that leadership can be learned. It is a teachable skill, and the best way to develop as a leader is by opting for leadership coaching.

Leadership coaching (which differs from the coaching leadership style discussed above) focuses on developing leadership skills through one-on-one coaching and feedback sessions. This personalized and experiential approach helps leaders identify their strengths and areas for improvement and unlock their full potential (Grant et al., 2019).

Leadership coaching is a collaborative and personalized process aimed at improving leadership effectiveness. It can maximize potential and foster growth in individuals or groups (Hattrick & Scholz, 2020). Rather than dictating solutions, coaches empower leaders to discover their unique leadership style, overcome challenges, and achieve their professional and personal goals. They educate their coaches to help themselves and strengthen their own problem-solving capacities and resilience.

Leadership coaching has the following positive effects:

1. Enhanced self-awareness

Leadership coaching aids in fostering self-awareness , enabling leaders to understand their strengths, weaknesses, values, and areas where personal growth is required (Kumari et al., 2020). By recognizing and harnessing their unique qualities, leaders can guide and inspire their teams more effectively.

2. Improved communication and emotional intelligence

Leadership coaching emphasizes developing strong interpersonal skills, effective communication, and emotional intelligence. By honing these qualities, leaders can build better relationships, resolve conflicts with more equanimity, and create a positive work environment (Oakley et al., 2019).

3. Clarifying goals and strategies

Coaches assist leaders in clarifying their goals and defining strategies to achieve them. This process helps leaders focus on their vision and align their actions with their objectives (Salas-Vallina et al., 2021).

4. Increased resilience

Leadership coaching plays a crucial role in fostering resilience in leaders . By developing adaptive and coping strategies, leaders who are receiving coaching can better handle challenges, setbacks, and pressures (Passarelli et al., 2019). This resilience leads to improved decision-making and enhanced overall leadership performance.

World’s Largest Positive Psychology Resource

The Positive Psychology Toolkit© is a groundbreaking practitioner resource containing over 500 science-based exercises , activities, interventions, questionnaires, and assessments created by experts using the latest positive psychology research.

Updated monthly. 100% Science-based.

“The best positive psychology resource out there!” — Emiliya Zhivotovskaya , Flourishing Center CEO

To further develop your leadership skills, consider participating in the following leadership programs. Each program focuses on specific aspects of leadership, equipping individuals with the tools and knowledge to become more effective leaders.

Organizations such as the Harvard Business School, the Center for Creative Leadership, and the Henley Business School in the United Kingdom offer some of the most renowned leadership development programs.

1. Harvard Business School

The Harvard Business School is perhaps one of the most prestigious business schools. It offers four comprehensive leadership programs that offer business management and leadership curriculum and personalized coaching.

Find out more about their offerings to choose an option that appeals: Comprehensive leadership programs .

2. The Center for Creative Leadership

The Center for Creative Leadership offers numerous different and inspiring leadership development programs too, including one that focuses specifically on transformational leadership.

You can have a look at their options here: Leadership programs .

3. The Henley Business School

The Henley Business School, which is affiliated with the University of Reading, offers a comprehensive six-day in-person leadership program.

Find out more about The Leadership Programme .

To deepen your understanding of leadership and to develop new insights, you may enjoy reading one of the following books.

1. Leadership: A Very Short Introduction – Keith Grint

This book is a great comprehensive overview of leadership and leadership styles. No longer than a long essay, it is a perfect choice for those pressed for time and needing a good overview, and thereafter you can dive into styles and topics most appealing.

Keith Grint invites us to rethink our understanding of leadership in Leadership . His guide includes valuable reflections on how leadership has evolved over time and also considers the different contexts from which different leadership theories emerge.

Grint goes back all the way to the early reflections on leadership by writers including Plato, Sun Tzu, and Machiavelli.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. The Leadership Challenge: How to Make Extraordinary Things Happen in Organizations – James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner

This international bestseller, which is now in its seventh edition, offers valuable practical guidance for becoming an exemplary leader.

The two authors deliver an essential strategic playbook for effective leadership. They explore the five practices of exemplary leadership, providing real-life examples and actionable strategies.

Crucially, the authors also emphasize that leadership is a skill to be learned as well as a practice grounded in relationships. New sections include reflections on how to lead in hybrid environments and how to combat disengagement and cynicism.

3. Dare to Lead: Brave Work, Tough Conversations, Whole Hearts  – Brené Brown

In this famous book and number one New York Times bestseller, Brené Brown combines research, personal stories, and practical advice to explore the qualities that make courageous leaders.

Brown’s take on the topic is unique. Above all, she emphasizes vulnerability, as well as self-awareness, curiosity, and empathy, as the key qualities of a great leader. She invites us to see power not as something we should hoard but as something to share with others.

Brown writes:

From corporations, nonprofits, and public sector organizations to governments, activist groups, schools, and faith communities, we desperately need more leaders who are committed to courageous, wholehearted leadership and who are self-aware enough to lead from their hearts, rather than unevolved leaders who lead from hurt and fear.

(Brown, 2018, p. 4)

4. Leaders Eat Last: Why Some Teams Pull Together and Others Don’t – Simon Sinek

In Leaders Eat Last , the international bestselling author Simon Sinek investigates great leaders who sacrifice not just their place at the table, but often their own comfort and even their lives for those in their care.

They range from Marine Corps officers to the heads of big business and government. They all share that they put aside their own interests to protect their teams. For them, leadership is not a rank, but a responsibility.

If you do not have time to read a book on leadership, you may enjoy watching one of our four recommended YouTube videos instead.

In this short video, Brian Tracy explains five different leadership styles that people can use to lead their teams to success: structural, participative, servant, freedom, and transformational leadership.

Kurt Lewin describes different leadership styles in this slightly longer video. Lewin focuses on autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership. He discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each style as well as the situations in which each style is most useful.

In this much-watched TED talk, Peter Anderton argues that great leadership requires only two simple rules. Curious to find out what they are? Watch the video.

In this last video, Jenn, a career coach, shares insights into eight key leadership styles. Importantly, she also discusses how we can find out which style might be best suited for us. Many of us will have been wondering about this question. Jenn shares practical advice on how we can choose and develop our own natural leadership style.

PositivePsychology.com offers a range of resources to enhance your understanding of various leadership styles. On our website, you will find numerous in-depth articles on specific leadership theories and styles, many of which were only briefly discussed in this article.

In addition, there are a multitude of articles to assist in improving leadership as well as creating a positive working environment.

• How to Use the Johari Window to Improve Leadership
• Assertiveness in Leadership: 19 Techniques for Managers
• 15 Ways to Give Negative Feedback, Positively (+ Examples)
• Job Satisfaction Theory: 6 Factors for Happier Employees
• Why Team Building Is Important + 12 Exercises

Free tools and numerous inspiring activities to identify and enhance your leadership style can be found in our article offering leadership activities , games, and exercises.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others develop positive leadership skills, check out this collection of 17 validated positive leadership exercises . Use them to equip leaders with the skills needed to cultivate a culture of positivity and resilience.

17 Exercises To Build Positive Leaders

Use these 17 Positive Leadership Exercises [PDF] to help others inspire, motivate, and guide employees in ways that enrich workplace performance and satisfaction. Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

Perhaps the most important point about leadership is that leadership can be improved. Remember that great leadership is, after all, a combination of skills and qualities that we can work on, practice, and enhance.

As leadership expert Warren Bennis puts it:

“The most dangerous leadership myth is that leaders are born — that there is a genetic factor to leadership. This myth asserts that people simply either have certain charismatic qualities or not. That’s nonsense; in fact, the opposite is true. Leaders are made rather than born.”

(Bennis, as cited in Hunter 2004, p. 42)

Everyone can be a great leader — introverts as well as extroverts, feelers as well as thinkers, visionaries as well as people who care for detail and process.

What matters most is that we cultivate self-awareness, that we remain humble, that we truly care for those whom we lead, that we keep learning, and that we foster a growth mindset both in ourselves and others.

We hope you enjoy using these resources to advance your leadership journey and that they will help you unfold your true potential as a leader.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Leadership Exercises for free .

• Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly , 16 (3), 315–338.
• Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., & May, D. R. (2004). Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly , 15 (6), 801–823.
• Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational leadership (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.
• Brown, B. (2018). Dare to lead: Brave work, tough conversations, whole hearts. Random House.
• Clapp-Smith, R., Vogelgesang, G. R., & Avey, J. B. (2008). Authentic leadership and positive psychological capital: The mediating role of trust at the group level of analysis. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies , 15 (3), 227–240.
• Gallup. (2023). Gallup state of the global workplace report 2023 . Retrieved November 9, 2023, from https://www.gallup.com/workplace/349484/state-of-the-global-workplace.aspx.
• George, B., Sims, P., McLean, A. N., & Mayer, D. (2007). Discovering your authentic leadership. Harvard Business Review , 85 (2), 129–138.
• Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Unleashing the power of emotional intelligence . Harvard Business Review Press.
• Grant, A., Curtayne, L. & Burton, G. (2009). Executive coaching enhances goal attainment, resilience and workplace well-being: A randomised controlled study. The Journal of Positive Psychology , 4 , 396–407.
• Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness . Paulist Press.
• Hattrick, S. C., & Scholz, U. (2020). Beyond the dyad: Group-level patterns of change in leadership coaching. Frontiers in Psychology , 11 .
• Hunter, J. C. (2004). The world’s most powerful leadership principle: How to become a servant leader. Crown Business.
• Judge, T. A., & Piccolo, R. F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology , 89 (5), 755–768.
• Kumari, S., Chaturvedi, S. K., & Isaac, M. (2020). Leadership development in medical education: From knowledge gained to real-world implementation. Frontiers in Psychology , 11 .
• Laub, J. A. (1999). Assessing the servant organization: Development of the Servant Organizational Leadership Assessment (SOLA) instrument  [Doctoral dissertation, Florida Atlantic University].
• Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Authentic leadership: A positive developmental approach. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline (pp. 241–258). Berrett-Koehler.
• Oakley, C. A., Baker, V. L., Baca, L., & Rowland, K. R. (2019). A strategic approach to coaching leaders: Expanding aftercare models to include emotional intelligence and psychological capital. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 .
• Passarelli, A., Caroli, M. E., Caetano, A., & Correia, A. M. (2019). Effects of a cognitive-behavioral leadership coaching program on the stress levels of leaders. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 .
• Salas-Vallina, A., Salanova, M. Martínez, I. M., Bresó, E., Schaufeli, W. B., & García-Renedo, M. (2021). Truly understanding work engagement: Efficacy, discipline, and extraversion as burnout antidotes. Frontiers in Psychology , 12 .
• Van Dierendonck, D. (2011). Servant leadership: A review and synthesis. Journal of Management , 37 (4), 1228–1261.
• van Woerkom, M., Meyers, M. C., & Rutte, C. G. (2016). Coaching leadership style and employee work outcomes: The role of feedback and goal orientation. Journal of Business and Psychology , 31 (3), 339–354.
• Wang, D., Liu, J., Zhu, W., & Mao, J. (2011). The influence mechanism of transformational leadership on employee innovative behavior: A moderated mediation model. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 43 (10), 1121–1132.
• Webb, K. M. (2019). Coaching at work: Leveraging the science of coaching. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 .

Share this article:

Article feedback

What our readers think.

Powerful, inspirational, challenging, educational, and informative article that is indeed helpful in managing human resources.

Let us know your thoughts Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Related articles

8 Leadership Assessment Tools to Uncover Hidden Strengths

Leaders are everywhere: they help build organizations, steer institutions, and govern our societies. Yet recent governmental and organizational scandals across the globe highlight a worrying [...]

Theory X and Theory Y (& Z): Employee Motivation Explained

Most leaders and managers are aware of the importance of motivating their employees and creating an environment for them to perform at their best (Sennewald [...]

Contingency Theory: Mastering Leadership Flexibility

While most of us would recognize a great leader, few of us know what it takes to become one (Hill et al., 2022). And it’s [...]

Read other articles by their category

• Body & Brain (52)
• Coaching & Application (39)
• Compassion (23)
• Counseling (40)
• Emotional Intelligence (21)
• Gratitude (18)
• Grief & Bereavement (18)
• Happiness & SWB (40)
• Meaning & Values (26)
• Meditation (16)
• Mindfulness (40)
• Motivation & Goals (41)
• Optimism & Mindset (29)
• Positive CBT (28)
• Positive Communication (23)
• Positive Education (36)
• Positive Emotions (32)
• Positive Leadership (16)
• Positive Parenting (14)
• Positive Psychology (21)
• Positive Workplace (35)
• Productivity (16)
• Relationships (46)
• Resilience & Coping (38)
• Self Awareness (20)
• Self Esteem (37)
• Strengths & Virtues (29)
• Stress & Burnout Prevention (33)
• Theory & Books (42)
• Therapy Exercises (37)
• Types of Therapy (54)

• DOI: 10.18282/hrms.v6i3.3477
• Corpus ID: 270662755

Leadership theories and styles—A systematic literature review and the narrative synthesis

• T. S. Nanjundeswaraswamy , P. Nagesh , +1 author K. M. Vignesh
• Published in Human Resources Management… 20 June 2024
• Business, Psychology

One Citation

Unveiling charismatic leadership: catalysts of positive work attitude, job involvement, and work engagement, 63 references, model of complexity leadership development, leadership: research findings, practice, and skills, creating leaders or loyalists conflicting identities in a leadership development programme.

• Highly Influential

TRAIT AND BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP: AN INTEGRATION AND META-ANALYTIC TEST OF THEIR RELATIVE VALIDITY

Leadership and employee engagement, the influence of leadership styles on employees' job satisfaction in public sector organizations in malaysia, a systematic literature review of servant leadership theory in organizational contexts, employee engagement and leadership, examining the nature and significance of leadership in government organizations, a review of leadership theories: identifying a lack of growth in the hrd leadership domain, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

Log in using your username and password

• Search More Search for this keyword Advanced search
• Latest content
• Current issue
• Topic Collection
• BMJ Journals

You are here

• Volume 4, Issue 4
• Your leadership style: why understanding yourself matters
• Article Text
• Article info
• Citation Tools
• Rapid Responses
• Article metrics

• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0110-2378 Clare Felicity Jane Price-Dowd
• People Directorate , NHS England and Improvement , Leeds , West Yorkshire , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Clare Felicity Jane Price-Dowd, People Directorate, NHS Improvement, Leeds LS1 4HG, West Yorkshire, UK; clare.price-dowd{at}improvement.nhs.uk

Understanding of personal leadership style has been shown to be a key part of effective leadership practice. It has been a topic of interest for many decades as we have tried to understand, and replicate, what makes those considered to be ‘great leaders’ so successful. This article gives a brief introduction to different leadership ‘theories’, leadership ‘styles’ and the effect they have on the ‘climate’ in organisations. Having an understanding of the different approaches can help leaders be more effective through comprehending how and why they do what they do, as well as helping them identify where and when they need to adapt their style. By considering how our understanding of leadership has evolved, it is possible to show how effective leadership is not linked to one approach. It is a combination of knowledge, attitudes and behaviours with a focus on both the task in hand and concern for those undertaking that task. Furthermore this understanding supports impactful personal development, which creates positive climates in organisations where compassionate and inclusive leadership behaviours can, and do result in better outcomes for staff and patients.

• effectiveness
• leadership assessment
• role modeling

https://doi.org/10.1136/leader-2020-000218

Statistics from Altmetric.com

Request permissions.

If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

Introduction

Who, when flipping through a publication has not been tempted by the ‘personality quiz’, hoping to get the ‘mostly A, B or C’ that indicates we have the attributes for long and successful careers or lots of friends? While this level of ‘knowing how we are’ could be dismissed as flippant, when it comes to leadership, understanding our personal approach can be invaluable. If you asked people around you ‘what sort of leader do you think you are?’ they would most likely answer in the singular ‘I lead by example,’ ‘I build relationships with people,’ or ‘I don't tolerate underperformance’. They are unlikely to say ‘I do this here, and that on other occasions’ yet the most effective leaders are those who attune to their context, consciously adapt their practice and have an awareness of how their own style effects others. This article introduces the different theories and styles of leadership and how they can be used to create positive work climates. The key terms are given in table 1 .

• View inline

Evolution of leadership theory and understanding of style

A desire to understand what makes a successful leader is not new. For centuries there has been debate about what differentiated leaders from non-leaders, and leaders from followers. In a comprehensive review of leadership theories by Stogdill, 1 a number of categories were identified and in the 80+ years since Lewin et al 2 published their theory on patterns of behaviour in 1939, we have seen an evolution from trying to identify ‘common traits’ based on inherent characteristics of ‘great men and women’ through to the what we now understand to be the successful combination of person, place and approach. Looking further into this evolution, although this is not a comprehensive list, it is possible to group the stages of development as follows:

Trait theory—for example as seen in the work of Carlyle 3 and Stodgill 1 is concerned with the type of person that makes a good leader and the innate qualities and associated leadership traits they have. A meta-study by the Centre for Excellence in Management and Leadership 4 identified over 1000 leadership traits in the literature, which they distilled to 83 more or less distinct attributes. While no specific trait or combination was found to guarantee success, trait theory did help in identifying qualities that are helpful when leading others such as integrity and empathy.

Later, behavioural theory identified what good leaders do—effectively how they ‘lead well’. Examples include the Tannenbaum and Schmidt continuum 5 —seven stages of reducing control namely Tells, Sells, Suggests, Consults, Joins, Delegates and Abdicates; the Action-Centred Leadership Model of Adair 6 which sets out the three responsibilities of the leader—‘achieving the task, managing the team and managing individuals’ and the Blake Mouton Managerial Grid 7 also referred to as ‘The Power to Change’ which outlines two behavioural dimensions: Concern for Results and Concern for People.

Situational and contingency theory: looks at the leader in the context of where they lead. By considering how the leader’s success is directly influenced by their environment, it became possible to identify the conditions that support or constrain leaders as seen in work including Feidler 8 Vroom and Yetton 9 Yukl 10 ; Hersey and Blanchard 11 ; Thompson and Vecchio. 12

Transactional theories—as seen in the work of Weber 13 and later by Bass, 14 focuses on the leader getting results by using process and structures while applying reward and penalty in response. Within this are power and influence theory, exchange and path-goal theory by House 15 16 which concentrate on the relationship between leader and led as a series of trades or ‘leader-member exchanges’.

In more recent years, while the transactional and positive view of hero leadership has never entirely gone away, the notion of ‘Hero to Host’ 17 which describes the move to transformational and ‘new wave’ styles outlined by Burns 18 Bass 14 and Kouzes and Posner 19 among others. Transformational leadership not only serves to enhance the motivation, morale, satisfaction and performance of followers, but also sees the leader role model compassionate and inclusive behaviours, which are valued. In ‘Good to Great’ by Collins, 20 the Level 5 leader is described as possessing both indomitable will, but also humility and is often self effacing and shy, the opposite of what we might have previously described as leadership traits!

Relevance for leaders

Every day, leaders in healthcare must constantly analyse complex situations, engage, motivate, empower and delegate. Many leaders now operate within complex adaptive systems—organisations that are an interconnected whole of many parts, which may and may not function effectively together depending on changing circumstances. This calls for leadership skills and behaviours that can move between each required activity with seemingly effortless ease and without loss of effectiveness.

Having an appreciation of different theories and styles also helps us identify our reaction to these changing situations. In considering the global COVID-19 pandemic, the leadership behaviours required, and experienced, may be different to anything encountered before. The effect of leadership in this situation is profound and will have a lasting impact. Displaying command behaviours may be necessary but uncomfortable, while teams may not be used to being directed with minimal consultation. Sustained pressure may have a negative effect, but it does not follow that leadership behaviours slide into being disrespectful or non-inclusive—it is about the leaders focusing on the task and ensuring individuals and teams are clearly instructed on the part they have to play; consulted where possible and informed of when and when they need to do as instructed.

However, knowing about ‘how we are’ is only part of the picture, equally important is understanding the effect we have on other. Goleman 21 found that the one of the biggest mistakes leaders make was to default to a style of personal choice rather than responding with the most appropriate in the situation, while Blanchard 22 suggests that 54% of leaders only ever apply one preferred leadership style regardless of the situation. The result is that almost half of the time, leaders are using the wrong style to meet their current objective or lead the people around them well.

The danger here is trying to be the most popular leader and everyone’s favourite, rather than developing an authentic repertoire of skills. If you have never considered your leadership style or the types of leadership behaviours you have there are a number of tools to help such as the National health Service Healthcare Leadership Model. Based on research of the behaviours of effective leaders, Storey and Holti 23 defined nine domains (Inspiring shared purpose: leading with care: evaluating information: connecting our service: sharing the vision: engaging the team: holding to account: developing capability and influencing for results) against which can leaders can self assess and gain pointers on how to strengthen their style.

Relevance for the work environment

Research by KornFerry Hay Group 24 shows an up to 70% of variance in climate and an up to 30% increase business performance can be directly attributable to the climate leaders create through their style of leadership. This includes feeling included, supported and having a role that is meaningful. To help leaders create a positive climate, Goleman 21 defined six leadership styles—see table 2 —which he then correlated with the type of climate each created for those around them. Those able to deploy the styles in the left column have been shown to create high performing teams in positive climates.

Leadership Styles and the climate they support (adapted from Goleman 21 )

These are not the only leadership styles: others include Autocratic leadership where leaders/managers make the decisions and employees follow orders as previously stated; laissez-faire leadership where the manager empowers employees but gives them few rules to follow with little oversight or direction: bureaucratic leadership where hierarchies and job titles to determine responsibilities and rules and servant leadership which focuses on the needs of employees, seeing them as the organisation’s most important resources and often treating them as clients, but only the six here were included by Goleman.

The effects of the leadership styles displayed and the effects they have on the climate within organisations has far reaching impact for team members. The ability to flex your leadership style and create a positive climate has been shown to create greater job satisfaction and pride in work, greater collaboration and creativity. Having an awareness of the effects of personal style, is therefore an essential part of a leaders toolkit and something every leader should have awareness of

In practice

Delivering health and care is highly complex and effective leadership calls for a match of style and approach to context and presenting challenge. Leadership styles is not a neat category of things, the increasingly interconnected world with ever-evolving technology has dictated a need for leaders who can adapt effortlessly as the situation dictates. Daniel Goleman 21 likens leading to being a golfer—one game but choosing the right club, at the right moment, for the next shot. Lets think about what this could look like: again, thinking about the COVID-19 pandemic the deteriorating clinical condition requires a leader who draws on all their experience, interprets the situation, takes control and ‘tells’ in order to get the best outcome for the patient—transactional and it’s wholly appropriate. At other times, that same leader will need to take time to build relationships and coach others in order to give the best care possible.

We all have a natural tendency towards our preferred style and when under pressure, there is evidence that we ‘revert to type’, relying on the most comfortable part of our personality to see us though. Unfortunately this means using fewer of the leadership skills that usually provide balance. Skilful, mature leadership is about leading ourselves as much as leading others. This level of understanding our style helps us recognise triggers that support adopting the right style for the given situation.

Express checkout

Different situations require different leadership style and each style can be considered a tool in itself. How we lead needs to be a combination of concern for the task in hand and also the people undertaking it, as both individuals and collectively as teams. We have looked briefly at small number of the plethora theories and styles that can help us understand how we lead. Leaders who understand themselves and can move effortlessly between a range of styles in response to changing situations have been found to have more positive outcomes for their teams and patients.

• Stogdill RM
• Lippitt R ,
• Carlyle T ,
• Tannenbaum R ,
• Blanchard K
• Thompson G ,
• Wheatley M ,
• KornFerry Hay Group
• Newstrom JW ,
• Griffin MA ,

Twitter @clarepricedowd

Contributors CFJP-D completed all part of this paper:

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

Patient consent for publication Not required.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Read the full text or download the PDF:

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Leadership: A Comprehensive Review of Literature, Research and Theoretical Framework

2020, Leadership: A Comprehensive Review of Literature, Research and Theoretical Framework. In: Journal of Economics and Business, Vol.3, No.1, 44-64.

This paper provides a comprehensive literature review on the research and theoretical framework of leadership. The author illuminates the historical foundation of leadership theories and then clarifies modern leadership approaches. After a brief introduction on leadership and its definition, the paper mentions the trait theories, summarizes the still predominant behavioral approaches, gives insights about the contingency theories and finally touches the latest contemporary leadership theories. The overall aim of the paper is to give a brief understanding of how effective leadership can be achieved throughout the organization by exploring many different theories of leadership, and to present leadership as a basic way of achieving individual and organizational goals. The paper is hoped to be an important resource for the academics and researchers who would like to study on the leadership field.

Related Papers

Sonali Sharma

Shanlax International Journal of Commerce

vivek deshwal

Journal of Leadership and Management; 2391-6087

Betina Wolfgang Rennison

The theoretical field of leadership is enormous-there is a need for an overview. This article maps out a selection of the more fundamental perspectives on leadership found in the management literature. It presents six perspectives: personal, functional, institutional, situational, relational and positional perspectives. By mapping out these perspectives and thus creating a theoretical cartography, the article sheds light on the complex contours of the leadership terrain. That is essential, not least because one of the most important leadership skills today is not merely to master a particular management theory or method but to be able to step in and out of various perspectives and competently juggle the many possible interpretations through which leadership is formed and transformed.

Fila Bertrand, Ph.D.

Leadership and the numerous concepts on leadership styles have been subjects of both study and debate for years. Every leader approaches challenges differently, and his or her personality traits and life experiences greatly influence his or her leadership style and the organizations they lead. Furthermore, leadership is a notion resulting from the interaction between a leader and followers, and not a position or title within the organization. This essay examines some of the contemporary theories of leadership, the leadership qualities and traits necessary to be successful in today's competitive environment, the impact of leadership to the organization, and the importance of moral leadership in today's world.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH AND KNOWLEDGE

Vivian A . Ariguzo , Michael okoro

Diverse views have emerged on leadership definitions, theories, and classification in academic discourse. The debate and conscious efforts made to clarify leadership actively has generated socio-cultural and organizational research on its styles and behaviours. This study seeks to identify the theoretical views of various academic scholars on some of the main theories that emerged during the 20 th century include: the Thomas Carlyle's Great Man theory, Gordon Allport's Trait theory, Fred Fiedler's Contingency theory, Hersey and Blanchard Situational Theory, Max Weber's Transactional theory, MacGregor Burns' Transformational theory, Robert Houses' Path-goal theory, and Vroom and Yetton's Participative theory. Empirical discourse that revealed findings of academic scholars have enshrined the import of leadership in organizations. Various academic literature that already have been subject to validity and reliability tests were reviewed and used to arrive at the findings. The study postulated the Mystical-man theory after a rich discourse and recommended it as the ideal theory for all Christian leaders to adopt as it is assumed to provide above average performance at all times, irrespective of followership behaviour.

Neil D . Walshe

The three topics of this volume—leadership, change, and organization development (OD)—can be viewed as three separate and distinct organizational topics or they can be understood as three distinct lenses viewing a common psycho-organizational process. We begin the volume with a comprehensive treatment of leadership primarily because we view leadership as the fulcrum or crucible for any significant change in human behavior at the individual, team, or organizational level. Leaders must apply their understanding of how to effect change at behavioral, procedural, and structural levels in enacting leadership efforts. In many cases, these efforts are quite purposeful, planned, and conscious. In others, leadership behavior may stem from less-conscious understandings and forces. The chapters in Part I: Leadership provide a comprehensive view of what we know and what we don’t know about leadership. Alimo-Metcalfe (Chapter 2) provides a comprehensive view of theories and measures of leadershi...

Transylvanian review of administrative sciences

Cornelia Macarie

The paper endeavors to offer an overview of the major theories on leadership and the way in which it influences the management of contemporary organizations. Numerous scholars highlight that there are numerous overlaps between the concepts of management and leadership. This is the reason why the first section of the paper focuses on providing an extensive overview of the literature regarding the meaning of the two aforementioned concepts. The second section addresses more in depth the concept of leadership and managerial leadership and focuses on the ideal profile of the leader. The last section of the paper critically discusses various types of leadership and more specifically modern approaches to the concept and practices of leadership.

An organization constitute of a diverse group of individuals, working together towards a specified common goal. A robust organizational framework is based upon specified values, believes and positive culture accompanied by effective leaders and managers that are expected to understand their roles and responsibilities towards both the employees and the management of the organization. Culture is recognized as "the glue" that binds a group of people together (Martin and Meyerson, 1988). Therefore, organizational culture entails intelligent and great leaders who value and believe in nurturing employees and appreciate their active participation in the progression of the company (Balain & Sparrow 2009). With that said, management is also one of the crucial organisational activities that is necessary to ensure the coordination of individual efforts as well as the organization's resources and activities. Lastly, leadership in itself is a vital bond that connects effective management and splendid organizational culture. However, for a long time, there has been a disconnect and inconsistency on what entails leadership and management. We identify with scholars who questioned the overlying issues regarding the significant concepts of leadership and management (Schedlitzki & Edwards,2014). It is therefore paramount to understand how leadership and management play critical roles in shaping up contemporary organizations, fundamentally appreciating the applicability that arises with the various leadership styles and management theories while apprehending their link to organization culture.

International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development

Prof. Dr. Satya Subrahmanyam

This research article was motivated by the premise that no corporate grows further without effective corporate leaders. The purpose of this theoretical debate is to examine the wider context of corporate leadership theories and its effectiveness towards improving corporate leadership in the corporate world. Evolution of corporate leadership theories is a comprehensive study of leadership trends over the years and in various contexts and theoretical foundations. This research article presents the history of dominant corporate leadership theories and research, beginning with Great Man thesis and Trait theory to Decision process theory to various leadership characteristics. This article also offers a convenient way to utilize theoretical knowledge to the practical corporate situation.

Public Administration Review

Montgomery Van Wart

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Artur Victoria

Human Resource and Leadership Journal

John Githui

Open Journal of Leadership

Emmanuel Mango

Haftu Equar , John Antonakis

Douglas Zubka

International Journal of Research

Africa Development and Resources Research Institute ADRRI

Business Ethics and Leadership

Sivanathan Sivaruban

John Antonakis

Choice Reviews Online

Strategy & Leadership

Robert Allio

ijbssnet.com

Wan Khairuzzaman Wan Ismail

International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research (IJFMR)

bhawna somani

FOREX Publication

Public Policy and Administration Research

Prof. David Minja

Afsaneh Nahavandi

Sinu Ezhumalai

Central Asian Journal of Literature, Philosophy and Culture

Central Asian Studies

The International Journal of Business & Management

Ogbonna Goodluck

Dr. Kamran Yeganegi ( PH.D.)

Amsalu Emiru

Ritika Sinha

Carlos Aguila

Procedia of Economics and Business Administraion

Elena Doval

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Leadership, Its Theories, Models and Styles Analytical Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Factors of leadership, application of leadership skills in the university, what should be changed, own opinion, list of references.

In the study of leadership, a number of theories, models, and styles exist. All these help scholars to evaluate the skills of leaders. Some scholars have proved through research that good leaders are usually made. This is contrary to the popular belief that leaders are born. In fact, effective leaders develop through a continuous process of self-study, education, training, and experience (Jago, 1982, p. 315).

Research shows that a leader must be knowledgeable if he or she wishes to inspire followers. Moreover, a leader should adopt certain traits in order to win the trust of followers. Finally, a leader should always do something unique in order to win the confidence of followers.

The good qualities of a leader are not acquired naturally but instead an individual must learn them. Therefore, excellent leaders are expected to work hard and conduct research in their fields in order to develop strong managerial skills.

Scholars tend to agree on the meaning of leadership. Northouse (2007, p. 3) observes that leadership is a process through which an individual influences others to perform certain tasks. Through this influence, the leader can direct the organization in a way that makes it solid and consistent. In leadership, skills and knowledge are important aspects that a leader must possess.

Process leadership means that a leader must apply skills and knowledge in issuing directions. On the other hand, Jago (1982, p. 322) notes that process leadership cannot be successful without complimenting it with trait leadership. In the modern world, leadership is usually learned in the institutions of high learning.

However, personal attributes, such as attitudes, principles, moral values, and personality, influence an individual’s skills and knowledge. Knowledge and skills are very important because they are needed in the process of leadership. Other factors, such as beliefs and values classify leaders into various categories. In other words, they make leaders unique.

Scholars note that there are four major factors influencing leadership. The factors are interrelated implying that a leader must know how to link them up. One of the factors is the leader himself. The leader must understand his position in the organization clearly. For instance, the leader must know his strengths and weakness. Moreover, a good leader must be knowledgeable in order to interpret events accurately.

Members of the institution are charged with the responsibility of categorizing good leaders. This means that leaders must wait to be praised instead of praising themselves. Followers would most probably lose trust in their leader, particularly when the leader fails to offer direction. Therefore, the leader must always convince followers to believe in his leadership style. Another important factor is the follower.

In this regard, the leader must come up with different leadership styles, which are to be applied differently. This is because people respond differently to different leadership styles. In the university, a fresher would need more supervision as compared to a finalist. Similarly, a poorly motivated student requires a special leadership approach as compared to a highly motivated student.

For a leader to understanding his followers, he must first understand the human nature. This would entail understanding human desires, feelings, and inspirations. The third factor pertains to communication. The leader must embrace a two-way communication system. In organizations, communication takes non-verbal forms. In this regard, the leader must come up with a communication channel that satisfies each student.

The last factor of leadership is the situation. In the organization, situations are usually different. A style applied in one situation would not function in the other. Therefore, the leader must employ special skills in addressing certain matters. For instance, a leader may want to confront a student who is perceived to be going against the university rules. The leader must know the best time to approach the student, as well as the style to apply.

Approaching the student in a timely manner would solve the problem while approaching him or her inappropriately would cause more problems. Scholars of psychology claim that an individual’s trait changes with the situation.

Therefore, the leader should always try as much as possible to use the process theory as opposed to the trait theory. Apart from the four factors, other aspects affect the relationship between the leader and students. For instance, the relationship of the leader with his or her seniors would affect his managerial style.

According to Baas, an individual must go through various processes before becoming a leader. According to Baas, three events could force people to develop leadership skills. One of the events is a crisis (great event). People are forced to rise up to the occasion to solve urgent problems. The event brings out unique leadership qualities in an individual.

The second aspect is the individual’s personality (traits). Some people possess extra ordinary qualities that put them in better positions to leader others. Finally, people can decide to learn leadership in the institutions of high learning. This form of leadership is referred to as transformational or process leadership. Crisis form of leadership takes place when an individual volunteers to offer leadership during unusual events.

It takes place during events such as political violence, revolutions, and wars. Such leaders are usually outspoken and are good orators. Martin Luther King was one such leader. Transformational leadership focuses on bringing change to the organization. It is usually compared to transactional leadership, which is the worst form of leadership as far as change is concerned (Bass Bass 2008, p. 19).

In the institution, I may use leadership skills to influence other students. In other words, other students may emulate my leadership skills for them to succeed in their academic endeavors. In most cases, other students tend to think that I have a clear sense of direction. Therefore, the I must always be ethical in order to serve as an example to other students.

Furthermore, I must be visionary implying that I should have the power to predict future events. In the institution, other students would always conduct an evaluation on me based on my capabilities. In most cases, my personal attributes would not be taken into consideration.

By conducting a critical review, other students would definitely know the type of the leader am I and would wish to emulate. Students would tend to select a leader who has the interest of the majority at heart. In most institutions, leaders seem to be self-centered. This implies that they will do everything in order to be praised. For such leaders, students will never respect them but instead they will simply obey them.

Therefore, junior students would not follow such leaders. In other words, self-centered leaders are never role models in the institutions of higher learning. In the institution, some leaders tend to misuse the power and authority bestowed to them by university. Such leaders would easily be praised since they would be serving the interests of the school administration.

Therefore, as a student leader, I must possess an admirable character. Moreover, I must serve the institution without considering selfish interests. This is upon realization that the behavior of the leader affects the running of the institution in many ways. Therefore, strong leaders must concentrate on strengthening their character. In this case, I must evaluate my beliefs and typesets.

Moreover, I must analyze my skills to determine whether they are of benefit to other students. In other words, I must try to assess my role, tasks, and the surrounding environment. Finally, I must evaluate the system of administration. As a good leader, I need to establish the effectiveness of decision-making tools.

A study conducted by Hay Group revealed that a leader must apply at least seventy-five keys in order to achieve institutional objectives. It was established that members of the institution are more comfortable working with trustworthy and confident leaders. Again, students enjoy working with leaders who communicate effectively.

In particular, students believe that leaders who help them in understanding the University rules are more effective. In fact, students would tend to appreciate leaders who designate specific roles to them. This would only happen through communication. The university fraternity would believe that it belongs to the institution in case I delegate roles to each member.

Information sharing is another aspect of management that strengthens the relationship between the students and leaders in the institution. Students must be informed amicably as regards to the performance of the university. If the university achieves its mission, students would be proud to be associated with the success. In most organizations, leaders would rarely congratulate students for their hard work.

In the institution, leaders should strive to achieve high standards. For this to happen, leaders must be willing to embrace change. Change in many universities is inevitable. This means that it will take place one day. However, resistance to change is the major problem facing many leaders in the world. New ways of doing things are more effective and efficient. In the university, I need to challenge the exiting academic system.

This means that I must try to find out the new way of dealing with problems. Therefore, I should analyze the processes in the organization and identify the areas that need improvement. However, I should not implement policies without informing other students. In fact, I should consult widely before coming up with a policy.

Whenever I feel like adjusting the school schedule, all students must be informed in time. I must provide mechanisms through which students would fulfill their dreams. Students should be provided with sufficient methods and tools that would help them in resolving internal and external conflicts. In some instances, the university might be facing a great challenge. It is my responsibility to take precautionary actions.

In this case, consulting would not be needed. I need to show some bravery by encouraging members of the institution to work hard. The university cannot achieve its objectives without students. Therefore, students must be rewarded whenever the university makes a substantial progress. Leaders must be willing to appreciate students.

Bass, B & Bass, R 2008, The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications , New York, Simon & Schuster.

Jago, A G 1982, “Leadership: Perspectives in theory and research”, Management Science , Vol. 28, no. 3, pp 315-336.

Northouse, G 2007, Leadership theory and Practice , Thousand Oak, London.

• Multicultural Teams and Their Leadership
• Management Issues: Subjective Reflection on Commerce
• Complexity Theory Models of Leadership with Other Models of Leadership
• Change in the Concept of the Warrior in Literature: Anglo-Saxon and Middle English Period
• Traits Theory in Leadership
• Personal Skills Development in the Teamwork
• Management Issues: Effective Team Formation
• Classical Management Function and Managerial Work
• Organization Control System Assessment
• Contract Creation and Management Assignment
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, June 27). Leadership, Its Theories, Models and Styles. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-its-theories-models-and-styles/

"Leadership, Its Theories, Models and Styles." IvyPanda , 27 June 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-its-theories-models-and-styles/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'Leadership, Its Theories, Models and Styles'. 27 June.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Leadership, Its Theories, Models and Styles." June 27, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-its-theories-models-and-styles/.

1. IvyPanda . "Leadership, Its Theories, Models and Styles." June 27, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-its-theories-models-and-styles/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Leadership, Its Theories, Models and Styles." June 27, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-its-theories-models-and-styles/.

• A-Z Publications

Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior

Volume 9, 2022, review article, the science of leadership: a theoretical model and research agenda.

• Andrew M. Carton 1
• View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: Management Department, The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA; email: [email protected]
• Vol. 9:61-93 (Volume publication date January 2022) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-091227
• First published as a Review in Advance on November 10, 2021
• Copyright © 2022 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved

I review the empirical literature on leadership, focusing on papers published since 2010. To do so, I introduce a framework composed of two features: whether theories ( a ) involve the study of leaders or leading (i.e., the person versus the process) and ( b ) conceptualize leadership as a cause or a consequence (i.e., an independent versus dependent variable). This framework can enable future research to accumulate in a more programmatic fashion and help scholars determine where their own studies are located within the landscape of leadership research. I end the review by critically evaluating existing work, arguing that the most popular subcategory of leadership research—lumped conceptualizations of leading, in which scholars examine multiple leader behaviors within a single construct—has significant limitations and may need to be replaced by a greater focus on split conceptualizations of leading, wherein scholars isolate single leader behaviors.

Article metrics loading...

Full text loading...

Literature Cited

• Alvesson M , Einola K 2019 . Warning for excessive positivity: authentic leadership and other traps in leadership studies. Leadersh. Q. 30 : 4 383– 95 [Google Scholar]
• Amundsen S , Martinsen ØL 2014 . Empowering leadership: construct clarification conceptualization and validation of a new scale. Leadersh. Q. 25 : 3 487– 511 [Google Scholar]
• Antonakis J , Bastardoz N , Jacquart P , Shamir B 2016 . Charisma: an ill-defined and ill-measured gift. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 3 : 292– 319 [Google Scholar]
• Antonakis J , House RJ , Simonton DK. 2017 . Can super smart leaders suffer from too much of a good thing? The curvilinear effect of intelligence on perceived leadership behavior. J. Appl. Psychol. 102 : 7 1003– 21 [Google Scholar]
• Ashford SJ , Sitkin SB 2019 . From problems to progress: a dialogue on prevailing issues in leadership research. Leadersh. Q. 30 : 4 454– 60 [Google Scholar]
• Ashford SJ , Wellman N , Sully de Luque M , De Stobbeleir KE , Wollan M 2018 . Two roads to effectiveness: CEO feedback seeking vision articulation and firm performance. J. Organ. Behav. 39 : 1 82– 95 [Google Scholar]
• Badura KL , Grijalva E , Galvin BM , Owens BP , Joseph DL. 2020 . Motivation to lead: a meta-analysis and distal-proximal model of motivation and leadership. J. Appl. Psychol. 105 : 4 331– 54 [Google Scholar]
• Balkundi P , Kilduff M , Harrison DA 2011 . Centrality and charisma: comparing how leader networks and attributions affect team performance. J. Appl. Psychol. 96 : 6 1209– 22 [Google Scholar]
• Bass BM , Avolio BJ. 1994 . Improving Organizational Effectiveness Through Transformational Leadership Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage [Google Scholar]
• Bedeian AG , Hunt JG. 2006 . Academic amnesia and vestigial assumptions of our forefathers. Leadersh. Q. 17 : 2 190– 205 [Google Scholar]
• Bedi A , Alpaslan CM , Green S. 2016 . A meta-analytic review of ethical leadership outcomes and moderators. J. Bus. Ethics 139 : 3 517– 36 [Google Scholar]
• Brands RA , Menges JI , Kilduff M. 2015 . The leader-in-social-network schema: perceptions of network structure affect gendered attributions of charisma. Organ. Sci. 26 : 4 1210– 25 [Google Scholar]
• Breevaart K , Zacher H. 2019 . Main and interactive effects of weekly transformational and laissez-faire leadership on followers’ trust in the leader and leader effectiveness. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 92 : 2 384– 409 [Google Scholar]
• Burns JM. 1978 . Leadership . New York: Harper and Row [Google Scholar]
• Carton AM. 2018 .. “ I'm not mopping the floors, I'm putting a man on the moon”: how NASA leaders enhanced the meaningfulness of work by changing the meaning of work. Adm. Sci. Q. 63 : 2 323– 69 [Google Scholar]
• Carton AM , Lucas BJ. 2018 . How can leaders overcome the blurry vision bias? Identifying an antidote to the paradox of vision communication. Acad. Manag. J. 61 : 6 2106– 29 [Google Scholar]
• Carton AM , Murphy C , Clark JR 2014 . A (blurry) vision of the future: how leader rhetoric about ultimate goals influences performance. Acad. Manag. J. 57 : 6 1544– 70 [Google Scholar]
• Carton AM , Rosette AS. 2011 . Explaining bias against black leaders: integrating theory on information processing and goal-based stereotyping. Acad. Manag. J. 54 : 6 1141– 58 [Google Scholar]
• Chatterjee A , Hambrick DC 2011 . Executive personality, capability cues, and risk taking: how narcissistic CEOs react to their successes and stumbles. Admin. Sci. Q. 56 : 2 202– 37 [Google Scholar]
• Chang D , Johnson RE 2010 . Not all leader–member exchanges are created equal: importance of leader relational identity. Leadersh. Q. 21 : 5 796– 808 [Google Scholar]
• Chen G , Sharma PN , Edinger SK , Shapiro DL , Farh JL. 2011 . Motivating and demotivating forces in teams: cross-level influences of empowering leadership and relationship conflict. J. Appl. Psychol. 96 : 3 541– 57 [Google Scholar]
• Chen J , Nadkarni S. 2017 . It's about time! CEOs’ temporal dispositions temporal leadership and corporate entrepreneurship. Adm. Sci. Q. 62 : 1 31– 66 [Google Scholar]
• Chen Z , Zhu J , Zhou M. 2015 . How does a servant leader fuel the service fire? A multilevel model of servant leadership, individual self identity, group competition climate, and customer service performance. J. Appl. Psychol. 100 : 2 511– 21 [Google Scholar]
• Cheong M , Yammarino FJ , Dionne SD , Spain SM , Tsai CY. 2019 . A review of the effectiveness of empowering leadership. Leadersh. Q. 30 : 1 34– 58 [Google Scholar]
• Chiu CYC , Balkundi P , Weinberg FJ. 2017 . When managers become leaders: the role of manager network centralities, social power, and followers' perception of leadership. Leadersh. Q. 28 : 2 334– 48 [Google Scholar]
• Colbert AE , Witt LA. 2009 . The role of goal-focused leadership in enabling the expression of conscientiousness. J. Appl. Psychol. 94 : 3 790– 96 [Google Scholar]
• Cronbach LJ , Gleser GC. 1957 . Psychological Tests and Personnel Decisions Champaign: Univ. Ill. Press [Google Scholar]
• Day DV. 2000 . Leadership development: a review in context. Leadersh. Q. 11 : 4 581– 613 [Google Scholar]
• Day DV , Dragoni L. 2015 . Leadership development: an outcome-oriented review based on time and levels of analyses. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2 : 133– 56 [Google Scholar]
• Day DV , Sin HP. 2011 . Longitudinal tests of an integrative model of leader development: charting and understanding developmental trajectories. Leadersh. Q. 22 : 3 545– 60 [Google Scholar]
• Den Hartog DN 2015 . Ethical leadership. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2 : 409– 34 [Google Scholar]
• DeRue DS , Ashford SJ. 2010 . Who will lead and who will follow? A social process of leadership identity construction in organizations. Acad. Manag. Rev. 35 : 4 627– 47 [Google Scholar]
• DeRue DS , Nahrgang JD , Ashford SJ. 2015 . Interpersonal perceptions and the emergence of leadership structures in groups: a network perspective. Organ. Sci. 26 : 4 1192– 1209 [Google Scholar]
• DeRue DS , Nahrgang JD , Hollenbeck JR , Workman K. 2012 . A quasi-experimental study of after-event reviews and leadership development. J. Appl. Psychol. 97 : 5 997– 1015 [Google Scholar]
• DeRue DS , Nahrgang JD , Wellman E , Humphrey SE 2011 . Trait and behavioral theories of leadership: an integration and meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Pers. Psychol. 64 : 1 7– 52 [Google Scholar]
• Dinh JE , Lord RG. 2012 . Implications of dispositional and process views of traits for individual difference research in leadership. Leadersh. Q. 23 : 4 651– 69 [Google Scholar]
• Eisenberger R , Karagonlar G , Stinglhamber F , Neves P , Becker TE et al. 2010 . Leader–member exchange and affective organizational commitment: the contribution of supervisor's organizational embodiment. J. Appl. Psychol. 95 : 6 1085– 1103 [Google Scholar]
• Emrich CG , Brower HH , Feldman JM , Garland H. 2001 . Images in words: presidential rhetoric, charisma, and greatness. Adm. Sci. Q. 46 : 3 527– 57 [Google Scholar]
• Epitropaki O , Martin R. 2004 . Implicit leadership theories in applied settings: factor structure, generalizability, and stability over time. J. Appl. Psychol. 89 : 2 293– 310 [Google Scholar]
• Feng JM , Liu SS , Wu KJ , Wang HC. 2014 . A review of the literature of humble leadership. Foreign Econ. Manag. 36 : 38– 48 [Google Scholar]
• Foti RJ , Hansbrough TK , Epitropaki O , Coyle PT 2017 . Dynamic viewpoints on implicit leadership and followership theories: approaches, findings, and future directions. Leadersh. Q. 28 : 2 261– 67 [Google Scholar]
• Foulk TA , Lanaj K , Tu MH , Erez A , Archambeau L 2018 . Heavy is the head that wears the crown: an actor-centric approach to daily psychological power, abusive leader behavior, and perceived incivility. Acad. Manag. J. 61 : 2 661– 84 [Google Scholar]
• Gabriel AS , Lanaj K , Jennings RE. 2020 . Is one the loneliest number? A within-person examination of the adaptive and maladaptive consequences of leader loneliness at work. J. Appl. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000838 . In press [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
• Gardner WL , Cogliser CC , Davis KM , Dickens MP. 2011 . Authentic leadership: a review of the literature and research agenda. Leadersh. Q. 22 : 6 1120– 45 [Google Scholar]
• Gary MS , Yang MM , Yetton PW , Sterman JD. 2017 . Stretch goals and the distribution of organizational performance. Organ. Sci. 28 : 3 395– 410 [Google Scholar]
• Gerpott FH , Lehmann-Willenbrock N , Voelpel SC , Van Vugt M. 2019 . It's not just what is said but when it's said: a temporal account of verbal behaviors and emergent leadership in self-managed teams. Acad. Manag. J. 62 : 3 717– 38 [Google Scholar]
• Glynn MA , Raffaelli R. 2010 . Uncovering mechanisms of theory development in an academic field: lessons from leadership research. Acad. Manag. Ann. 4 : 1 359– 401 [Google Scholar]
• Gobet F. 2005 . Chunking models of expertise: implications for education. Appl. Cogn. Psychol. 19 : 2 183– 204 [Google Scholar]
• Gottfredson RK , Wright SL , Heaphy ED 2020 . A critique of the Leader-Member Exchange construct: Back to square one. Leadersh. Q. 31 : 6 101385 [Google Scholar]
• Grant AM. 2012 . Leading with meaning: beneficiary contact, prosocial impact, and the performance effects of transformational leadership. Acad. Manag. J. 55 : 2 458– 76 [Google Scholar]
• Grant AM , Gino F , Hofmann DA 2011 . Reversing the extroverted leadership advantage: the role of employee proactivity. Acad. Manag. J. 54 : 3 528– 50 [Google Scholar]
• Gravetter FJ , Forzano LAB. 2011 . Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. , 4th ed.. [Google Scholar]
• Griffin MA , Parker SK , Mason CM 2010 . Leader vision and the development of adaptive and proactive performance: a longitudinal study. J. Appl. Psychol. 95 : 1 174– 82 [Google Scholar]
• Guillén L , Mayo M , Korotov K. 2015 . Is leadership a part of me? A leader identity approach to understanding the motivation to lead. Leadersh. Q. 26 : 5 802– 20 [Google Scholar]
• Gündemir S , Carton AM , Homan AC. 2019 . The impact of organizational performance on the emergence of Asian American leaders. J. Appl. Psychol. 104 : 1 107– 22 [Google Scholar]
• Gupta A , Misangyi VF. 2018 . Follow the leader (or not): the influence of peer CEOs’ characteristics on interorganizational imitation. Strateg. Manag. J. 39 : 5 1437– 72 [Google Scholar]
• Hall RJ , Lord RG , Foster KE. 2009 . Considerations in applying the social relations model to the study of leadership emergence in groups: a leadership categorization perspective. Multi-Level Issues in Organizational Behavior and Leadership Bingley, UK: Emerald Group [Google Scholar]
• Heath C , Heath D. 2007 . Made to Stick: Why Some Ideas Survive and Others Die New York: Random House [Google Scholar]
• Hogg MA , van Knippenberg D , Rast DE III 2012 . The social identity theory of leadership: theoretical origins, research findings, and conceptual developments. Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 23 : 1 258– 304 [Google Scholar]
• Hollenbeck JR , Beersma B , Schouten ME. 2012 . Beyond team types and taxonomies: a dimensional scaling conceptualization for team description. Acad. Manag. Rev. 37 : 1 82– 106 [Google Scholar]
• House RJ. 1996 . Path-goal theory of leadership: lessons legacy and a reformulated theory. Leadersh. Q. 7 : 3 323– 52 [Google Scholar]
• Hu J , Erdogan B , Jiang K , Bauer TN , Liu S. 2018 . Leader humility and team creativity: the role of team information sharing, psychological safety, and power distance. J. Appl. Psychol. 103 : 3 313– 23 [Google Scholar]
• Hu J , Liden RC. 2011 . Antecedents of team potency and team effectiveness: an examination of goal and process clarity and servant leadership. J. Appl. Psychol. 96 : 4 851– 62 [Google Scholar]
• Hunt JG. 1999 . Transformational/charismatic leadership's transformation of the field: an historical essay. Leadersh. Q. 10 : 2 129– 44 [Google Scholar]
• Jackson EM , Johnson RE 2012 . When opposites do (and do not) attract: interplay of leader and follower self-identities and its consequences for leader–member exchange. Leadersh. Q. 23 : 3 488– 501 [Google Scholar]
• Johnson MK , Rowatt WC , Petrini L. 2011 . A new trait on the market: Honesty–Humility as a unique predictor of job performance ratings. Pers. Individ. Differ. 50 : 6 857– 62 [Google Scholar]
• Johnson RE , King DD , Lin SHJ , Scott BA , Walker EMJ , Wang M. 2017 . Regulatory focus trickle-down: how leader regulatory focus and behavior shape follower regulatory focus. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 140 : 29– 45 [Google Scholar]
• Johnson RE , Venus M , Lanaj K , Mao C , Chang CH 2012 . Leader identity as an antecedent of the frequency and consistency of transformational consideration and abusive leadership behaviors. J. Appl. Psychol. 97 : 6 1262– 72 [Google Scholar]
• Judge TA , Bono JE , Ilies R , Gerhardt MW 2002 . Personality and leadership: a qualitative and quantitative review. J. Appl. Psychol. 87 : 4 765– 80 [Google Scholar]
• Judge TA , Piccolo RF , Ilies R. 2004 . The forgotten ones? The validity of consideration and initiating structure in leadership research. J. Appl. Psychol. 89 : 1 36– 51 [Google Scholar]
• Kalshoven K , Den Hartog DN , De Hoogh AH 2011 . Ethical leadership at work questionnaire (ELW): development and validation of a multidimensional measure. Leadersh. Q. 22 : 1 51– 69 [Google Scholar]
• Kearney E , Shemla M , van Knippenberg D , Scholz FA. 2019 . A paradox perspective on the interactive effects of visionary and empowering leadership. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 155 : 20– 30 [Google Scholar]
• Kenny DA , Livi S. 2009 . A componential analysis of leadership using the social relations model. Multi-Level Issues in Organizational Behavior and Leadership Bingley, UK: Emerald Group [Google Scholar]
• Kenny DA , Zaccaro SJ. 1983 . An estimate of variance due to traits in leadership. J. Appl. Psychol. 68 : 4 678– 85 [Google Scholar]
• Kim Y. 2018 . Enhancing employee communication behaviors for sensemaking and sensegiving in crisis situations: strategic management approach for effective internal crisis communication. J. Commun. Manag. 22 : 4 451– 75 [Google Scholar]
• Kniffin KM , Detert JR , Leroy HL. 2020 . On leading and managing: synonyms or separate (and unequal)?. Acad. Manag. Discov. 6 : 4 544– 71 [Google Scholar]
• Koenig AM , Eagly AH , Mitchell AA , Ristikari T. 2011 . Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms. Psychol. Bull. 137 : 4 616– 42 [Google Scholar]
• Kozlowski SWJ , Klein KJ 2000 . A multilevel approach to theory and research in organizations: contextual, temporal, and emergent processes. Multilevel Theory, Research, and Methods in Organizations: Foundations, Extensions, and New Directions KJ Klein, SWJ Kozlowski 3– 90 San Francisco: Jossey-Bass [Google Scholar]
• Kozlowski SWJ , Mak S , Chao GT. 2016 . Team-centric leadership: an integrative review. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 3 : 21– 54 [Google Scholar]
• Kwok N , Hanig S , Brown DJ , Shen W. 2018 . How leader role identity influences the process of leader emergence: a social network analysis. Leadersh. Q. 29 : 6 648– 62 [Google Scholar]
• Lacerenza CN , Reyes DL , Marlow SL , Joseph DL , Salas E 2017 . Leadership training design delivery and implementation: a meta-analysis. J. Appl. Psychol. 102 : 12 1686– 1718 [Google Scholar]
• Lam W , Lee C , Taylor MS , Zhao HH 2018 . Does proactive personality matter in leadership transitions? Effects of proactive personality on new leader identification and responses to new leaders and their change agendas. Acad. Manag. J. 61 : 1 245– 63 [Google Scholar]
• Lanaj K , Hollenbeck JR. 2015 . Leadership over-emergence in self-managing teams: the role of gender and countervailing biases. Acad. Manag. J. 58 : 5 1476– 94 [Google Scholar]
• Landay K , Harms PD , Credé M. 2019 . Shall we serve the dark lords? A meta-analytic review of psychopathy and leadership. J. Appl. Psychol. 104 : 1 183– 96 [Google Scholar]
• Latham GP , Pinder CC. 2005 . Work motivation theory and research at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 56 : 485– 516 [Google Scholar]
• Lemoine GJ , Blum TC , Roman PM. 2016 . Detrimental effects of “stretch” goals in specialty substance use disorder treatment organizations. J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 64 : 13– 23 [Google Scholar]
• Lepisto D. 2021 . Ritual work and the formation of a shared sense of meaningfulness. Acad. Manag. J. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2018.0854 . In press [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
• Leslie LM , Manchester CF , Dahm PC. 2017 . Why and when does the gender gap reverse? Diversity goals and the pay premium for high potential women. Acad. Manag. J. 60 : 2 402– 32 [Google Scholar]
• Lewis A , Clark J 2020 . Dreams within a dream: multiple visions and organizational structure. J. Organ. Behav. 41 : 1 50– 76 [Google Scholar]
• Li WD , Li S , Feng JJ , Wang M , Zhang H , Frese M , Wu CH 2020 . Can becoming a leader change your personality? An investigation with two longitudinal studies from a role-based perspective. J. Appl. Psychol. 106 : 6 882– 902 [Google Scholar]
• Liberman N , Trope Y. 1998 . The role of feasibility and desirability considerations in near and distant future decisions: a test of temporal construal theory. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 75 : 1 5– 18 [Google Scholar]
• Liden RC , Anand S , Vidyarthi P. 2016 . Dyadic relationships. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 3 : 139– 66 [Google Scholar]
• Liden RC , Wayne SJ , Liao C , Meuser JD. 2014 . Servant leadership and serving culture: influence on individual and unit performance. Acad. Manag. J. 57 : 5 1434– 52 [Google Scholar]
• Lin SHJ , Ma J , Johnson RE. 2016 . When ethical leader behavior breaks bad: how ethical leader behavior can turn abusive via ego depletion and moral licensing. J. Appl. Psychol. 101 : 6 815– 30 [Google Scholar]
• Liu H , Chiang JTJ , Fehr R , Xu M , Wang S. 2017 . How do leaders react when treated unfairly? Leader narcissism and self-interested behavior in response to unfair treatment. J. Appl. Psychol. 102 : 11 1590– 99 [Google Scholar]
• Locke EA. 1999 . The Essence of Leadership: The Four Keys to Leading Successfully Washington, DC: Lexington Books [Google Scholar]
• Lord RG , Brown DJ. 2001 . Leadership values and subordinate self-concepts. Leadersh. Q. 12 : 2 133– 52 [Google Scholar]
• Lord RG , Epitropaki O , Foti RJ , Hansbrough TK. 2020 . Implicit leadership theories, implicit followership theories, and dynamic processing of leadership information. . Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 7 : 49– 74 [Google Scholar]
• Lord RG , Foti RJ , De Vader CL. 1984 . A test of leadership categorization theory: internal structure information processing and leadership perceptions. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 34 : 3 343– 78 [Google Scholar]
• Lord RG , Gatti P , Chui SL. 2016 . Social-cognitive relational and identity-based approaches to leadership. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 136 : 119– 34 [Google Scholar]
• Lorinkova NM , Pearsall MJ , Sims HP Jr 2013 . Examining the differential longitudinal performance of directive versus empowering leadership in teams. Acad. Manag. J. 56 : 2 573– 96 [Google Scholar]
• Lyness KS , Grotto AR. 2018 . Women and leadership in the United States: Are we closing the gender gap?. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 5 : 227– 65 [Google Scholar]
• MacCallum R , Browne MW. 1993 . The use of causal indicators in covariance structure models: some practical issues. Psychol. Bull. 114 : 533– 41 [Google Scholar]
• MacLaren NG , Yammarino FJ , Dionne SD , Sayama H , Mumford MD et al. 2020 . Testing the babble hypothesis: Speaking time predicts leader emergence in small groups. Leadersh. Q. 31 : 5 101409 [Google Scholar]
• Macrae CN , Bodenhausen GV. 2000 . Social cognition: thinking categorically about others. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 51 : 93– 120 [Google Scholar]
• Marinova SV , Moon H , Kamdar D 2013 . Getting ahead or getting along? The two-facet conceptualization of conscientiousness and leadership emergence. Organ. Sci. 24 : 4 1257– 76 [Google Scholar]
• Martin SR , Côté S , Woodruff T 2016 . Echoes of our upbringing: how growing up wealthy or poor relates to narcissism leader behavior and leader effectiveness. Acad. Manag. J. 59 : 6 2157– 77 [Google Scholar]
• Mayer DM , Nurmohamed S , Treviño LK , Shapiro DL , Schminke M. 2013 . Encouraging employees to report unethical conduct internally: It takes a village. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 121 : 1 89– 103 [Google Scholar]
• McClean EJ , Martin SR , Emich KJ , Woodruff CT. 2018 . The social consequences of voice: an examination of voice type and gender on status and subsequent leader emergence. Acad. Manag. J. 61 : 5 1869– 91 [Google Scholar]
• McClean ST , Barnes CM , Courtright SH , Johnson RE. 2019 . Resetting the clock on dynamic leader behaviors: a conceptual integration and agenda for future research. Acad. Manag. Ann. 13 : 2 479– 508 [Google Scholar]
• Meindl JR. 1995 . The romance of leadership as a follower-centric theory: a social constructionist approach. Leadersh. Q. 6 : 3 329– 41 [Google Scholar]
• Miscenko D , Guenter H , Day DV. 2017 . Am I a leader? Examining leader identity development over time. Leadersh. Q. 28 : 5 605– 20 [Google Scholar]
• Ones DS , Viswesvaran C. 1996 . Bandwidth–fidelity dilemma in personality measurement for personnel selection. J. Organ. Behav. 17 : 6 609– 26 [Google Scholar]
• Ou AY , Tsui AS , Kinicki AJ , Waldman DA , Xiao Z , Song LJ 2014 . Humble chief executive officers’ connections to top management team integration and middle managers’ responses. Adm. Sci. Q. 59 : 1 34– 72 [Google Scholar]
• Ouchi WG. 1980 . Markets, bureaucracies, and clans. Adm. Sci. Q. 25 : 1 129– 41 [Google Scholar]
• Owens BP , Johnson MD , Mitchell TR 2013 . Expressed humility in organizations: implications for performance teams and leadership. Organ. Sci. 24 : 5 1517– 38 [Google Scholar]
• Park SH , Westphal JD. 2013 . Social discrimination in the corporate elite: how status affects the propensity for minority CEOs to receive blame for low firm performance. Adm. Sci. Q. 58 : 4 542– 86 [Google Scholar]
• Paustian-Underdahl SC , Walker LS , Woehr DJ 2014 . Gender and perceptions of leadership effectiveness: a meta-analysis of contextual moderators. J. Appl. Psychol. 99 : 6 1129– 45 [Google Scholar]
• Pearce CL , Wassenaar CL , Berson Y , Tuval-Mashiach R. 2019 . Toward a theory of meta-paradoxical leadership. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 155 : 31– 41 [Google Scholar]
• Petriglieri G , Stein M. 2012 . The unwanted self: projective identification in leaders’ identity work. Organ. Stud. 33 : 9 1217– 35 [Google Scholar]
• Pfeffer J. 1977 . The ambiguity of leadership. Acad. Manag. Rev. 2 : 1 104– 12 [Google Scholar]
• Podsakoff PM , MacKenzie SB , Lee JY , Podsakoff NP 2003 . Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 88 : 5 879– 903 [Google Scholar]
• Qin X , Chen C , Yam KC , Huang M , Ju D. 2020 . The double-edged sword of leader humility: investigating when and why leader humility promotes versus inhibits subordinate deviance. J. Appl. Psychol. 105 : 7 693– 712 [Google Scholar]
• Rosette AS , Leonardelli GJ , Phillips KW. 2008 . The White standard: racial bias in leader categorization. J. Appl. Psychol. 93 : 4 758– 77 [Google Scholar]
• Rosette AS , Tost LP 2010 . Agentic women and communal leadership: how role prescriptions confer advantage to top women leaders. J. Appl. Psychol. 95 : 2 221– 35 [Google Scholar]
• Ryan MK , Haslam SA , Hersby MD , Bongiorno R. 2011 . Think crisis–think female: the glass cliff and contextual variation in the think manager–think male stereotype. J. Appl. Psychol. 96 : 3 470– 84 [Google Scholar]
• Ryan RM , Deci EL. 2000 . Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 25 : 1 54– 67 [Google Scholar]
• Schaubroeck JM , Hannah ST , Avolio BJ , Kozlowski SWJ , Lord RG et al. 2012 . Embedding ethical leadership within and across organization levels. Acad. Manag. J. 55 : 5 1053– 78 [Google Scholar]
• Schilpzand P , Houston L , Cho J 2018 . Not too tired to be proactive: daily empowering leadership spurs next-morning employee proactivity as moderated by nightly sleep quality. Acad. Manag. J. 61 : 6 2367– 87 [Google Scholar]
• Schlenker BR , Weigold MF 1989 . Goals and the self-identification process: constructing desired identities. Goal Concepts in Personality and Social Psychology LA Pervin 243– 90 Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum [Google Scholar]
• Shao Y , Nijstad BA , Täuber S. 2019 . Creativity under workload pressure and integrative complexity: the double-edged sword of paradoxical leadership. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 155 : 7– 19 [Google Scholar]
• Shondrick SJ , Lord RG 2010 . Implicit leadership and followership theories: Dynamic structures for leadership perceptions, memory, and leader-follower processes. Int. Rev. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 25 : 1– 33 [Google Scholar]
• Sluss D , Ployhart RE , Cobb MG , Ashforth BE. 2012 . Generalizing newcomers' relational and organizational identifications: processes and prototypicality. Acad. Manag. J. 55 : 4 949– 75 [Google Scholar]
• Stam D , Lord RG , Knippenberg DV , Wisse B. 2014 . An image of who we might become: vision communication, possible selves, and vision pursuit. Organ. Sci. 25 : 4 1172– 94 [Google Scholar]
• Staw BM , DeCelles KA , de Goey P. 2019 . Leadership in the locker room: how the intensity of leaders’ unpleasant affective displays shapes team performance. J. Appl. Psychol. 104 : 12 1547– 57 [Google Scholar]
• Steffens NK , Haslam SA. 2013 . Power through ‘us’: leaders’ use of we-referencing language predicts election victory. PLOS ONE 8 : 10 e77952 [Google Scholar]
• Sy T , Shore LM , Strauss J , Shore TH , Tram S et al. 2010 . Leadership perceptions as a function of race–occupation fit: the case of Asian Americans. J. Appl. Psychol. 95 : 5 902– 19 [Google Scholar]
• Tepper BJ , Simon L , Park HM. 2017 . Abusive supervision. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 4 : 123– 52 [Google Scholar]
• Tost LP , Gino F , Larrick RP 2013 . When power makes others speechless: the negative impact of leader power on team performance. Acad. Manag. J. 56 : 5 1465– 86 [Google Scholar]
• Van Dierendonck D. 2011 . Servant leadership: a review and synthesis. J. Manag. 37 : 4 1228– 61 [Google Scholar]
• van Dijke M , De Cremer D , Mayer DM , Van Quaquebeke N. 2012 . When does procedural fairness promote organizational citizenship behavior? Integrating empowering leadership types in relational justice models. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 117 : 2 235– 48 [Google Scholar]
• van Knippenberg D , Hogg MA. 2003 . A social identity model of leadership effectiveness in organizations. Res. Organ. Behav. 25 : 243– 95 [Google Scholar]
• van Knippenberg D , Sitkin SB. 2013 . A critical assessment of charismatic—transformational leadership research: Back to the drawing board?. Acad. Manag. Ann. 7 : 1 1– 60 [Google Scholar]
• Vroom VH , Jago AG. 2007 . The role of the situation in leadership. Am. Psychol. 62 : 1 17– 24 [Google Scholar]
• Wang AC , Chiang JTJ , Tsai CY , Lin TT , Cheng BS 2013 . Gender makes the difference: the moderating role of leader gender on the relationship between leadership styles and subordinate performance. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 122 : 2 101– 13 [Google Scholar]
• Wang G , Oh IS , Courtright SH , Colbert AE. 2011 . Transformational leadership and performance across criteria and levels: a meta-analytic review of 25 years of research. Group Organ. Manag. 36 : 2 223– 70 [Google Scholar]
• Wang G , Van Iddekinge CH , Zhang L , Bishoff J. 2019 . Meta-analytic and primary investigations of the role of followers in ratings of leadership behavior in organizations. J. Appl. Psychol. 104 : 1 70– 106 [Google Scholar]
• Wang L , Restubog S , Shao B , Lu V , Van Kleef GA 2018 . Does anger expression help or harm leader effectiveness? The role of competence-based versus integrity-based violations and abusive supervision. Acad. Manag. J. 61 : 3 1050– 72 [Google Scholar]
• Wang XHF , Howell JM. 2010 . Exploring the dual-level effects of transformational leadership on followers. J. Appl. Psychol. 95 : 6 1134– 44 [Google Scholar]
• Yammarino FJ , Dionne SD , Chun JU , Dansereau F 2005 . Leadership and levels of analysis: a state-of-the-science review. Leadersh. Q. 16 : 6 879– 919 [Google Scholar]
• Yukl G. 2008 . How leaders influence organizational effectiveness. Leadersh. Q. 19 : 6 708– 22 [Google Scholar]
• Yukl G , Gordon A , Taber T 2002 . A hierarchical taxonomy of leadership behavior: integrating a half century of behavior research. J. Leadersh. Organ. Stud. 9 : 1 15– 32 [Google Scholar]
• Zapata CP , Carton AM , Liu JT. 2016 . When justice promotes injustice: why minority leaders experience bias when they adhere to interpersonal justice rules. Acad. Manag. J. 59 : 4 1150– 73 [Google Scholar]
• Zhang C , Nahrgang JD , Ashford SJ , DeRue DS. 2020 . The risky side of leadership: conceptualizing risk perceptions in informal leadership and investigating the effects of their over-time changes in teams. Organ. Sci. 31 : 5 1138– 58 [Google Scholar]
• Zhang X , Bartol KM. 2010 . Linking empowering leadership and employee creativity: the influence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and creative process engagement. Acad. Manag. J. 53 : 1 107– 28 [Google Scholar]
• Zhang Y , LePine JA , Buckman BR , Wei F. 2014 . It's not fair… or is it? The role of justice and leadership in explaining work stressor–job performance relationships. Acad. Manag. J. 57 : 3 675– 97 [Google Scholar]
• Zhang Y , Waldman DA , Han YL , Li XB 2015 . Paradoxical leader behaviors in people management: Antecedents and consequences. Acad. Manag. J. 58 : 2 538– 66 [Google Scholar]

Data & Media loading...

• Article Type: Review Article

Most Read This Month

Most cited most cited rss feed, conservation of resources in the organizational context: the reality of resources and their consequences, self-determination theory in work organizations: the state of a science, burnout and work engagement: the jd–r approach, psychological safety: the history, renaissance, and future of an interpersonal construct, employee voice and silence, psychological capital: an evidence-based positive approach, how technology is changing work and organizations, research on workplace creativity: a review and redirection, abusive supervision, alternative work arrangements: two images of the new world of work.