essay on internal migration

Essay on Migration

Students are often asked to write an essay on Migration in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Migration

Understanding migration.

Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another. It can be within a country (internal migration) or between different countries (international migration).

Reasons for Migration

People migrate for various reasons. Some move for better job opportunities, while others might move due to conflicts or natural disasters in their home region.

Effects of Migration

Migration can have both positive and negative effects. It can lead to cultural diversity and economic growth, but it can also cause overcrowding and strain on resources.

Migration is a complex issue with many facets. It’s important to understand why people migrate and its impact on societies.

250 Words Essay on Migration

Introduction.

Migration, an inherent human phenomenon, has shaped societies and cultures since the dawn of civilization. It is a complex process influenced by an intricate interplay of economic, political, social, and environmental factors.

Types of Migration

Migration can be categorized broadly into internal and international. Internal migration involves movement within a country, often from rural to urban areas, driven by the pursuit of better economic opportunities. International migration, on the other hand, involves crossing national borders, often influenced by factors like conflict, persecution, or economic disparity.

The Push-Pull Theory

The push-pull theory provides a framework to understand migration. ‘Push’ factors include poverty, political instability, or environmental disasters that compel people to leave their homes. Conversely, ‘pull’ factors attract individuals to new regions, such as better job opportunities, political stability, or higher living standards.

Impacts of Migration

Migration has profound implications on both the source and destination regions. While it can lead to brain drain and demographic imbalances in the source region, it can also alleviate poverty and foster development. In destination regions, it can stimulate economic growth but may also strain resources and potentially cause social tension.

Migration, an integral part of our globalized world, presents both challenges and opportunities. It is crucial to foster policies that maximize its benefits while mitigating its potential drawbacks. Understanding the dynamics of migration can pave the way for more inclusive, equitable, and sustainable societies.

500 Words Essay on Migration

The driving forces of migration.

The primary drivers of migration are often classified as push and pull factors. Push factors refer to the conditions that drive individuals to leave their homes, such as poverty, lack of opportunities, political instability, or environmental disasters. Pull factors, on the other hand, are the attractive aspects of the destination, like better economic opportunities, political stability, or higher living standards.

Migration can be categorized into different types based on various parameters. Internal migration refers to the movement within a country, while international migration involves crossing national borders. Migration can also be voluntary, where individuals choose to move, or forced, where individuals are compelled to leave due to circumstances beyond their control.

For the destination region, migration can lead to an increase in diversity and cultural richness. It can also fill labor gaps, contributing to economic growth. However, if not managed well, it can lead to social tensions.

Migration in the Age of Globalization

In the era of globalization, migration has become more accessible and prevalent. The interconnectedness of economies has led to increased labor mobility. However, it has also exposed the stark inequalities between regions, further motivating migration. The rise of transnational communities, where migrants maintain strong ties with their home countries while integrating into the host society, is another notable trend.

Challenges and Opportunities

In conclusion, migration is an inherent part of human society, driven by a complex interplay of factors. It has far-reaching impacts on individuals, communities, and nations. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the dynamics of migration will continue to evolve, presenting both challenges and opportunities. Understanding and managing migration effectively is crucial to building inclusive, diverse, and prosperous societies.

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Internal Migration in the United States

We review patterns in migration within the US over the past thirty years. Internal migration has fallen noticeably since the 1980s, reversing increases from earlier in the century. The decline in migration has been widespread across demographic and socioeconomic groups, as well as for moves of all distances. Although a convincing explanation for the secular decline in migration remains elusive and requires further research, we find only limited roles for the housing market contraction and the economic recession in reducing migration recently. Despite its downward trend, migration within the US remains higher than that within most other developed countries.

The analysis and conclusions set forth are those of the authors and do not indicate concurrence by other members of the research staff, the Board of Governors, or the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Global migration: causes and consequences.

• Benjamin Helms Benjamin Helms Department of Politics, University of Virginia
•  and  David Leblang David Leblang Department of Politics, Frank Batten School of Leadership and Public Policy, University of Virginia
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.631
• Published online: 25 February 2019

International migration is a multifaceted process with distinct stages and decision points. An initial decision to leave one’s country of birth may be made by the individual or the family unit, and this decision may reflect a desire to reconnect with friends and family who have already moved abroad, a need to diversify the family’s access to financial capital, a demand to increase wages, or a belief that conditions abroad will provide social and/or political benefits not available in the homeland. Once the individual has decided to move abroad, the next decision is the choice of destination. Standard explanations of destination choice have focused on the physical costs associated with moving—moving shorter distances is often less expensive than moving to a destination farther away; these explanations have recently been modified to include other social, political, familial, and cultural dimensions as part of the transaction cost associated with migrating. Arrival in a host country does not mean that an émigré’s relationship with their homeland is over. Migrant networks are an engine of global economic integration—expatriates help expand trade and investment flows, they transmit skills and knowledge back to their homelands, and they remit financial and human capital. Aware of the value of their external populations, home countries have developed a range of policies that enable them to “harness” their diasporas.

• immigration
• international political economy
• factor flows
• gravity models

Introduction

The steady growth of international labor migration is an important, yet underappreciated, aspect of globalization. 1 In 1970 , just 78 million people, or about 2.1% of the global population, lived outside their country of birth. By 1990 , that number had nearly doubled to more than 150 million people, or about 2.8% of the global population (United Nations Population Division, 2012 ). Despite the growth of populist political parties and restrictionist movements in key destination countries, the growth in global migration shows no signs of slowing down, with nearly 250 million people living outside their country of birth as of 2015 . While 34% of all global migrants live in industrialized countries (with the United States and Germany leading the way), 38% of all global migration occurs between developing countries (World Bank, 2016 ).

Identifying the causes and consequences of international labor migration is essential to our broader understanding of globalization. Scholars across diverse academic fields, including economics, political science, sociology, law, and demography, have attempted to explain why individuals voluntarily leave their homelands. The dominant thread in the labor migration literature is influenced by microeconomics, which posits that individuals contemplating migration are rational, utility-maximizing actors who carefully weigh the potential costs and benefits of leaving their country of origin (e.g., Borjas, 1989 ; Portes & Böröcz, 1989 ; Grogger & Hanson, 2011 ). The act of migration, from this perspective, is typically conceptualized as an investment from which a migrant expects to receive some benefit, whether it be in the form of increased income, political freedom, or enhanced social ties (Schultz, 1961 ; Sjaastad, 1962 ; Collier & Hoeffler, 2014 ).

In this article we go beyond the treatment of migration as a single decision and conceive of it as a multifaceted process with distinct stages and decision points. We identify factors that are relevant at different stages in the migration process and highlight how and when certain factors interact with others during the migration process. Economic factors such as the wage differential between origin and destination countries, for example, may be the driving factor behind someone’s initial decision to migrate (Borjas, 1989 ). But when choosing a specific destination, economic factors may be conditioned by political or social conditions in that destination (Fitzgerald, Leblang, & Teets, 2014 ). Each stage or decision point has distinguishing features that are important in determining how (potential) migrants respond to the driving forces identified by scholars.

This is certainly not a theoretical innovation; migration has long been conceived of as a multi-step process, and scholars often identify the stage or decision point to which their argument best applies. However, most interdisciplinary syntheses of the literature on international labor migration do not provide a systematic treatment of this defining feature, instead organizing theoretical and empirical contributions by field of study, unit or level of analysis, or theoretical tradition (e.g., Portes & Böröcz, 1989 ; Massey et al., 1993 ; European Asylum Support Office, 2016 ). Such approaches are undoubtedly valuable in their own right. Our decision to organize this discussion by stage allows us to understand this as a process, rather than as a set of discrete events. As a result, we conceptualize international labor migration as three stages or decision points: (a) the decision to migrate or to remain at home, (b) the choice of destination, and (c) the manner by which expatriates re-engage—or choose not to re-engage—with their country of origin once abroad. We also use these decision points to highlight a number of potential new directions for future research in this still-evolving field.

Figure 1. Global migration intentions by educational attainment, 2008–2017.

Should I Stay or Should I Go, Now?

The massive growth in international labor migration in the age of globalization is remarkable, but the fact remains that over 95% of the world’s population never leave their country of origin (United Nations Population Division, 2012 ). Figure 1 shows the percentage of people who expressed an intention to move abroad between 2008 and 2017 by educational attainment, according to data from the Gallup World Poll. Over this time period, it appears that those who were highly educated expressed intent to migrate in greater numbers than those who had less than a college education, although these two groups have converged in recent years. What is most striking, however, is that a vast majority of people, regardless of educational attainment, expressed no desire to move abroad. Even though absolute flows of migrants have grown at a near-exponential rate, relative to their non-migrating counterparts, they remain a small minority. What factors are important in determining who decides to migrate and who decides to remain at home? 2

From Neoclassical Economics to the Mobility Transition

Neoclassical economic models posit that the primary driving factor behind migration is the expected difference in wages (discounted future income streams) between origin and destination countries (Sjaastad, 1962 ; Borjas, 1989 ; Clark, Hatton, & Williamson, 2007 ). All else equal, when the wage gap, minus the costs associated with moving between origin and destination, is high, these models predict large flows of labor migrants. In equilibrium, as more individuals move from origin to destination countries, the wage differential narrows, which in turn leads to zero net migration (Lewis, 1954 ; Harris & Todaro, 1970 ). Traditional models predict a negative monotonic relationship between the wage gap and the number of migrants (e.g., Sjaastad, 1962 ). However, the predictions of neoclassical models are not well supported by the empirical record. Empirical evidence shows that, at least in a cross-section, the relationship between economic development and migration is more akin to an inverted U. For countries with low levels of per capita income, we observe little migration due to a liquidity constraint: at this end of the income distribution, individuals do not have sufficient resources to cover even minor costs associated with moving abroad. Increasing income helps to decrease this constraint, and consequently we observe increased levels of emigration as incomes rise (de Haas, 2007 ). This effect, however, is not monotonic: as countries reach middle-income status, declining wage differentials lead to flattening rates of emigration, and then decreasing rates as countries enter later stages of economic development. 3

Some research explains this curvilinear relationship by focusing on the interaction between emigration incentives and constraints : for example, increased income initially makes migration more affordable (reduces constraints), but also simultaneously reduces the relative economic benefits of migrating as the wage differential narrows (as potential migrants now have the financial capacity to enhance local amenities) (Dao, Docquier, Parsons, & Peri, 2016 ). The theoretical underpinnings of this interaction, however, are not without controversy. Clemens identifies several classes of theory that attempt to explain this curvilinear relationship—a relationship that has been referred to in the literature as the mobility transition (Clemens, 2014 ). These theories include: demographic changes resulting from development that also favor emigration up to a point (Easterlin, 1961 ; Tomaske, 1971 ), the loosening of credit restraints on would-be migrants (Vanderkamp, 1971 ; Hatton & Williamson, 1994 ), a breakdown of information barriers via the building of transnational social networks (Epstein, 2008 ), structural economic changes in the development process that result in worker dislocation (Zelinsky, 1971 ; Massey, 1988 ), the dynamics of economic inequality and relative deprivation (Stark, 1984 ; Stark & Yitzhaki, 1988 ; Stark & Taylor, 1991 ), and changing immigration policies in destination countries toward increasingly wealthy countries (Clemens, 2014 ). While each of these play some role in the mobility transition curve, Dao et al. ( 2016 ) run an empirical horse race between numerous explanations and find that changing skill composition resulting from economic development is the most substantively important driver. Economic development is correlated with an increase in a country’s level of education; an increase in the level of education, in turn, is correlated with increased emigration. However, traditional explanations involving microeconomic drivers such as income, credit constraints, and economic inequality remain important factors (Dao et al., 2016 ). The diversity of explanations offered for the mobility transition curve indicates that while most research agrees the inverted-U relationship is an accurate empirical portrayal of the relationship between development and migration, little theoretical agreement exists on what drives this relationship. Complicating this disagreement is the difficulty of empirically disentangling highly correlated factors such as income, skill composition, and demographic trends in order to identify robust causal relationships.

Political Conditions at the Origin

While there is a scholarly consensus around the mobility transition and the role of economic conditions, emerging research suggests that the political environment in the origin country may also be salient. We do not refer here to forced migration, such as in the case of those who leave because they are fleeing political persecution or violent conflict. Rather, we focus on political conditions in the homeland that influence a potential migrant’s decision to emigrate voluntarily. Interpretations of how, and the extent to which, political conditions in origin countries (independent of economic conditions) influence the decision to migrate have been heavily influenced by Hirschman’s “Exit, Voice, and Loyalty” framework (Hirschman, 1970 , 1978 ). Hirschman argues that the opportunity to exit—to exit a firm, an organization, or a country—places pressure on the local authorities; voting with one’s feet forces organizations to reassess their operations.

When applied to the politics of emigration, Hirschman’s framework generates two different hypotheses. On the one hand, politicians may allow, encourage, or force the emigration of groups that oppose the regime as a political safety valve of sorts. This provides the government with a mechanism with which to manage potential political challengers by encouraging their exit. On the other hand, politicians—especially those in autocracies—may actively work to prevent exit because they fear the emigration of economic elites, the highly skilled, and others who have resources vital to the survival of the regime. 4

A small number of studies investigate how local-level, rather than national, political circumstances affect a potential migrant’s calculus. The limited empirical evidence currently available suggests that local conditions are substantively important determinants of the emigration decision. When individuals are highly satisfied with local amenities such as their own standard of living, quality of public services, and overall sense of physical security, they express far less intention to migrate compared with highly dissatisfied individuals (Dustmann & Okatenko, 2014 ). Furthermore, availability of public transport and access to better education facilities decreases the propensity to express an intention to emigrate (Cazzuffi & Modrego, 2018 ). This relationship holds across all levels of wealth and economic development, and there is some evidence that satisfaction with local amenities matters as much as, or even more than, income or wealth (Dustmann & Okatenko, 2014 ).

Political corruption, on both national and local levels, also has substantively important effects on potential migrants, especially those who are highly skilled. Broadly defined as the use of public office for political gain, political corruption operates as both a direct and an indirect factor promoting emigration. 5 Firstly, corruption may have a direct effect on the desire to emigrate in that it can decrease the political and economic power of an individual, leading to a lower standard of living and poorer quality of life in origin countries. If the reduction in life satisfaction resulting from corruption is sufficiently high—either by itself or in combination with other “push” factors—then the exit option becomes more attractive (Cooray & Schneider, 2016 ). Secondly, corruption also operates through indirect channels that influence other push factors. Given the large literature on how political corruption influences a number of development outcomes, it is conceivable that corruption affects the decision-making process of a potential migrant through its negative effect on social spending, education, and public health (Mo, 2001 ; Mauro, 1998 ; Gupta, Davoodi, & Thigonson, 2001 ).

The combination of its direct and indirect impacts means that corruption could be a significant part of a migrant’s decision-making process. At present there is limited work exploring this question, and the research does not yield a consensus. Some scholars argue that political corruption has no substantive effect on total bilateral migration, but that it does encourage migration among the highly skilled (Dimant, Krieger, & Meierrieks, 2013 ). This is the case, the argument goes, because corruption causes the greatest relative harm to the utility of those who have invested in human capital, who migrate to escape the negative effect on their fixed investment. In contrast, others find that a high level of corruption does increase emigration at the aggregate level (Poprawe, 2015 ). More nuanced arguments take into account the intensity of corruption: low to moderate levels of corruption lead to increased emigration of all groups, and especially of the highly skilled. But at high levels of corruption, emigration begins to decrease, indicating that intense corruption can act as a mobility constraint (Cooray & Schneider, 2016 ). All of these existing accounts, however, employ state-level measures of corruption by non-governmental organizations, such as those produced by Transparency International. Scholars have yet to harness micro-level survey data to explore the influence of personal corruption perception on the individual’s decision-making process.

The Land of Hopes and Dreams

Given that an individual has decided to emigrate, the next decision point is to choose a destination country. Advanced industrial democracies, such as those in the OECD, are major migrant-receiving countries, but so are Russia and several Gulf countries including Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (World Bank, 2016 ). A country’s constellation of political, economic, and social attributes is crucial to understanding an emigrant’s choice of destination. Potential migrants weigh all of these factors simultaneously when choosing a destination: will the destination allow political rights for the migrant and their children, is access to the labor market possible, and does the destination provide an opportunity for reunification with friends and family? In this section we focus on the non-economic factors that draw migrants to certain countries over others. In addition, we emphasize how skill level adds layers of complexity to a migrant’s calculus.

Political Environment, Both Formal and Informal

As noted earlier, traditional neoclassical models and their extensions place wage differentials and associated economic variables at the heart of a migrant’s choice. Gravity models posit that migrants choose a destination country based on their expected income—which itself is a function of the wage rate and the probability of finding employment in the destination—less the costs associated with moving (Ravenstein, 1885 ; Todaro, 1969 ; Borjas, 1989 ). A rigid focus on economic factors, however, blinds us to the empirical reality that a destination country’s political environment influences what destination a migrant chooses (Borjas, 1989 ). A country’s legal and political rights structure for migrants, as well as its level of tolerance for newcomers, is critical to migrants discriminating between an array of potential destinations. Fitzgerald, Leblang, and Teets ( 2014 ) argue, for example, that states with restrictive citizenship policies and strong radical right anti-immigrant parties will receive fewer migrants, while states with relatively liberal citizenship requirements and weak radical right political movements will receive more migrants. In the rational actor framework, migrants seek countries with hospitable political environments to maximize both their political representation in government and their access to labor market opportunities as a result of citizenship rights and social acceptance (Fitzgerald et al., 2014 ).

Using a broad sample of origin countries and 18 destination countries, they find that relative restrictiveness of citizenship policies and level of domestic support for the radical right are substantively important determinants of global migratory flows. Further, they find that these political variables condition a migrant’s choice of destination: the relative importance of economic factors such as the unemployment rate or the wage differential diminishes as a destination country’s political environment becomes more open for migrants. In other words, when migrants are choosing a destination country, political considerations may trump economic ones—a finding that is an important amendment to the primarily economics-focused calculus of the initial stage of the immigration decision.

However, prior to choosing and entering a destination country, a migrant must also navigate a country’s immigration policy—the regulation of both migrant entry and the rights and status of current migrants. While it is often assumed that a relatively more restrictive immigration policy deters entry, and vice versa, a lack of quantitative data has limited the ability of scholars to confirm this intuition cross-nationally. Money ( 1999 ) emphasizes that the policy output of immigration politics does not necessarily correlate with the outcome of international migrant flows. There are a number of unanswered questions in this field, including: is immigration policy a meaningful determinant of global flows of migration? Do certain kinds of immigration policies matter more than others? How does immigration policy interact with other political and economic factors, such as unemployment and social networks?

Only a handful of studies analyze whether or not immigration policy is a significant determinant of the size and character of migratory flows. Perhaps the most prominent answer to this question is the “gap hypothesis,” which posits that immigration rates continue to increase despite increasingly restrictive immigration policies in advanced countries (Cornelius & Tsuda, 2004 ). Some subsequent work seems to grant support to the gap hypothesis, indicating that immigration policy may not be a relevant factor and that national sovereignty as it relates to dictating migrant inflows has eroded significantly (Sassen, 1996 ; Castles, 2004 ). The gap hypothesis is not without its critics, with other scholars arguing that the existing empirical evidence actually lends it little or no support (Messina, 2007 ).

A more recent body of literature does indicate that immigration policy matters. Brücker and Schröder ( 2011 ), for example, find that immigration policies built to attract highly skilled migrants lead to higher admittance rates. They also show that diffusion processes cause neighboring countries to implement similar policy measures. Ortega and Peri ( 2013 ), in contrast to the gap hypothesis literature, find that restrictive immigration policy indeed reduces migrant inflows. But immigration policy can also have unintended effects on international migration: when entry requirements increase, migrant inflows decrease, but migrant outflows also decrease (Czaika & de Haas, 2016 ). This indicates that restrictive immigration policy may also lead to reduced circular migrant flows and encourage long-term settlement in destination countries.

Disaggregating immigration policy into its different components provides a clearer picture of how immigration policy may matter, and whether certain components matter more than others. Immigration policy is composed of both external and internal regulations. External regulations refer to policies that control migrant entry, such as eligibility requirements for migrants and additional conditions of entry. Internal regulations refer to policies that apply to migrants who have already gained status in the country, such as the security of a migrant’s legal status and the rights they are afforded. Helbling and Leblang ( 2017 ), using a comprehensive data set of bilateral migrant flows and the Immigration Policies in Comparison (IMPIC) data set, find that, in general, external regulations prove slightly more important in understanding migrant inflows (Helbling, Bjerre, Römer, & Zobel, 2017 ). This indicates that potential migrants focus more on how to cross borders, and less on the security of their status and rights once they settle. They do find, however, that both external and internal components of immigration are substantively important to international migrant flows.

The effects of policy, however, cannot be understood in isolation from other drivers of migration. Firstly, poor economic conditions and restrictive immigration policy are mutually reinforcing: when the unemployment rate is elevated, restrictive policies are more effective in deterring migrant flows. An increase in policy effectiveness in poor economic conditions suggests that states care more about deterring immigration when the economy is performing poorly. Secondly, a destination country’s restrictive immigration policy is more effective when migrants come from origin countries that have a common colonial heritage. This suggests that cultural similarities and migrant networks help to spread information about the immigration policy environment in the destination country. Social networks prove to be crucial in determining how much migrants know about the immigration policies of destination countries, regardless of other cultural factors such as colonial heritage or common language (Helbling & Leblang, 2017 ). In summary, more recent work supports the idea that immigration policy of destination countries exerts a significant influence on both the size and character of international migration flows. Much work remains to be done in terms of understanding the nuances of specific immigration policy components, the effect of policy change over time, and through what mechanisms immigration policy operates.

Transnational Social Networks

None of this should be taken to suggest that only political and economic considerations matter when a potential migrant contemplates a potential destination; perhaps one of the biggest contributions to the study of bilateral migration is the role played by transnational social networks. Migrating is a risky undertaking, and to minimize that risk, migrants are more likely to move to destinations where they can “readily tap into networks of co-ethnics” (Fitzgerald et al., 2014 , p. 410). Dense networks of co-ethnics not only help provide information about economic opportunities, but also serve as a social safety net which, in turn, helps decrease the risks associated with migration, including, but not limited to, finding housing and integrating into a new community (Massey, 1988 ; Portes & Böröcz, 1989 ; Portes, 1995 ; Massey et al., 1993 ; Faist, 2000 ; Sassen, 1995 ; Light, Bernard, & Kim, 1999 ). Having a transnational network of family members is quite important to destination choice; if a destination country has an immigration policy that emphasizes family reunification, migrants can use their familial connections to gain economically valuable permanent resident or citizenship status more easily than in other countries (Massey et al., 1993 , p. 450; Helbing & Leblang, 2017 ). When the migrant is comparing potential destinations, countries in which that migrant has a strong social network will be heavily favored in a cost–benefit analysis.

Note, however, that even outside of a strict rational actor framework with perfect information, transnational social networks still may be quite salient to destination choice. An interesting alternative hypothesis for the patterns we observe draws on theories from financial market behavior which focus on herding. Migrants choosing a destination observe the decisions of their co-ethnics who previously migrated and assume that those decisions were based on a relevant set of information, such as job opportunities or social tolerance of migrants. New migrants then choose the same destination as their co-ethnics not based on actual exchanges of valuable information, but based solely on the assumption that previous migration decisions were based on rational calculation (Epstein & Gang, 2006 ; Epstein, 2008 ). This is a classic example of herding, and the existing empirical evidence on the importance of transnational social networks cannot invalidate this alternative hypothesis. One could also explain social network effects through the lens of cumulative causation or feedback loops: the initial existence of connections in destination countries makes the act of migration less risky and attracts additional co-ethnics. This further expands migrant networks in a destination, further decreasing risk for future waves of migrants, and so on (Massey, 1990 ; Fussel & Massey, 2004 ; Fussel, 2010 ).

No matter the pathway by which social networks operate, the empirical evidence indicates that they are one of the most important determinants of destination choice. Potential migrants from Mexico, for example, who are able to tap into existing networks in the United States face lower direct, opportunity, and psychological costs of international migration (Massey & Garcia España, 1987 ). This same relationship holds in the European context; a study of Bulgarian and Italian migrants indicates that those with “social capital” in a destination community are more likely to migrate and to choose that particular destination (Haug, 2008 ). Studies that are more broadly cross-national in nature also confirm the social network hypothesis across a range of contexts and time periods (e.g., Clark et al., 2007 ; Hatton & Williamson, 2011 ; Fitzgerald et al., 2014 ).

Despite the importance of social networks, it is, again, important to qualify their role in framing the choice of destinations. It seems that the existence of co-ethnics in destination countries most strongly influences emigration when they are relatively few in number. Clark et al. ( 2007 ), in their study of migration to the United States, find that the “friends and relatives effect” falls to zero once the migrant stock in the United States reaches 8.3% of the source-country population. In addition, social networks alone cannot explain destination choice because their explanatory power is context-dependent. For instance, restrictive immigration policies limiting legal migration channels and family reunification may dampen the effectiveness of networks (Böcker, 1994 ; Collyer, 2006 ). Social networks are not an independent force, but also interact with economic and political realities to produce the global migration patterns we observe.

The Lens of Skill

For ease of presentation, we have up to now treated migrants as a relatively homogeneous group that faces similar push and pull factors throughout the decision-making process. Of course, not all migrants experience the same economic, political, and social incentives in the same way at each stage of the decision-making process. Perhaps the most salient differentiating feature of migrants is skill or education level. Generally, one can discuss a spectrum of skill and education level for current migrants, from relatively less educated (having attained a high school degree or less) to relatively more educated (having attained a college or post-graduate degree). The factors presented here that influence destination choice interact with a migrant’s skill level to produce differing destination choice patterns.

A migrant’s level of education, or human capital, often serves as a filter for the political treatment he or she anticipates in a particular destination country. For instance, the American public has a favorable view of highly educated migrants who hold higher-status jobs, while simultaneously having an opposite view of migrants who have less job training and do not hold a college degree (Hainmueller & Hiscox, 2010 ; Hainmueller & Hopkins, 2015 ). Indeed, the political discourse surrounding migration often emphasizes skill level and education as markers of migrants who “should be” admitted, across both countries and the ideological spectrum. 6 While political tolerance may be a condition of entry for migrants in the aggregate, the relatively privileged status of highly educated and skilled migrants in most destination countries may mean that this condition is not as salient.

While it is still an open question to what extent immigration policy influences international migration, it is clear that not all migrants face evenly applied migration restrictions. Most attractive destination countries have policies that explicitly favor highly skilled migrants, since these individuals often fill labor shortages in advanced industries such as high technology and applied science. Countries such as Australia, Canada, and New Zealand all employ so-called “points-based” immigration systems in which those with advanced degrees and needed skills are institutionally favored for legal entry (Papademetriou & Sumption, 2011 ). Meanwhile, the United States maintains the H-1B visa program, which is restricted by educational attainment and can only be used to fill jobs in which no native talent is available (USCIS). Even if destination countries decide to adopt more restrictive immigration policies, the move toward restriction has typically been focused on low-skilled migrants (Peters, 2017 ). In other words, even if immigration policy worldwide becomes more restrictive, this will almost certainly not occur at the expense of highly skilled migrants and will not prevent them choosing their most preferred destination.

Bring It on Home to Me

This article began by asserting that international labor migration is an important piece of globalization, as significant as cross-border flows of capital, goods, and services. This section argues that migrant flows enhance flows of capital and commodities. Uniquely modern conditions such as advanced telecommunications, affordable and efficient international travel, and the liberalization of financial flows mean that diasporas—populations of migrants living outside their countries of origin—and home countries often re-engage with each other (Vertovec, 2004 ; Waldinger, 2008 ). This section reviews some of the newest and most thought-provoking research on international labor migration, research that explores diaspora re-engagement and how that re-engagement alters international flows of income, portfolio and foreign direct investment (FDI), trade, and migratory flows themselves.

Remittances

As previously argued, migration is often driven by the prospect of higher wages. Rational, utility-maximizing migrants incur the cost of migration in order to earn increased income that they could not earn at home. But when migrants obtain higher wages, this additional increment to income is not always designated for individual consumption. Often, migrants use their new income to send remittances, direct transfers of money from one individual to another across national borders. Once a marginal financial flow, in 2015 remittances totaled $431 billion, far outpacing foreign aid ($135 billion) and nearly passing private debt and portfolio equity ($443 billion). More than 70% of total global remittances flow into developing countries (World Bank, 2016 ). In comparison with other financial flows such as portfolio investment and FDI, remittances are more impervious to economic crises, suggesting that they may be a countercyclical force to global downturns (Leblang, 2017 ).

Remittances represent one of the most common ways in which migrants re-engage with their homeland and alter both global income flows and distribution. Why do migrants surrender large portions of their new income, supposedly the very reason they migrated in the first place, to their families back home? New economics of labor migration (NELM) theory argues that immigration itself is motivated by a family’s need or demand for remittances—that remittances are an integral part of a family’s strategy for diversifying household financial risk (Stark & Bloom, 1985 ). Remittances “are a manifestation of informal contractual agreements between migrants and the households from which they move,” indicating that remitting is not an individual-level or purely altruistic action but rather occurs in a larger social context, that of one’s immediate or extended family (European Asylum Support Office, 2016 , p. 15).

The impact of migrant remittances on countries of origin is multifaceted yet somewhat ambiguous. Most scholarly work focuses on whether remittances positively or negatively influence existing economic conditions. A number of studies find that remittances modestly reduce poverty levels in developing countries (Adams & Page, 2005 ; Yang & Martinez, 2006 ; Acosta, Calderon, Fajnzybler, & Lopez, 2008 ; Lokshin, Bontch-Osmolovski, & Glinskaya, 2010 ). On other measures of economic well-being, such as growth, inequality, and health, the literature is quite mixed and no definitive conclusions can be drawn. For instance, some studies find that remittances encourage investment in human capital (Yang, 2008 ; Adams & Cuecuecha, 2010 ), while others find no such effect and suggest that families typically spend remittances on non-productive consumption goods (Chami, Fullenkamp, & Jahjah, 2003 ). Here we can only scratch the surface of the empirical work on remittances and economic outcomes. 7

Some of the most recent research in the field argues that remittances have a distinct political dimension, affecting regime support in developing countries and altering the conditions in which elections are held. Ahmed ( 2012 ), grouping remittances with foreign aid, argues that increased remittances allow autocratic governments to extend their tenure in office. These governments can strategically channel unearned government and household income to finance political patronage networks, which leads to a reduced likelihood of autocratic turnover, regime collapse, and mass protests against the regime. More recent research posits nearly the exact opposite: remittances are linked to a greater likelihood of democratization under autocratic regimes. Escriba-Folch, Meseguer, and Wright ( 2015 ) argue that since remittances directly increase household incomes, they reduce voter reliance on political patronage networks, undermining a key tool of autocratic stability.

Remittances may also play an important role in countries with democratic institutions, yet more research is needed to fully understand the conditions under which they matter and their substantive impact. Particularly, remittances may alter the dynamics of an election as an additional and external financial flow. There is evidence of political remittance cycles : the value of remittances spikes in the run-up to elections in developing countries. The total value of remittances to the average developing country increases by 6.6% during election years, and by 12% in elections in which no incumbent or named successor is running (O’Mahony, 2012 ). The effect is even larger in the poorest of developing countries. Finer-grained tests of this hypothesis provide additional support: using monthly and quarterly data confirms the existence of political remittance cycles, as well as using subnational rather than cross-national data (Nyblade & O’Mahony, 2014 ). However, these studies do not reveal why remittances spike, or what the effects of that spike are on electoral outcomes such as vote share, campaign financing, and political strategy.

Remittances represent a massive international financial flow that warrants more scholarly attention. While there are numerous studies on the relationship between remittances and key economic indicators, there remains much room for further work on their relationship to political outcomes in developing countries. Do remittances hasten the downfall of autocratic regimes, or do they contribute to autocratic stability? In democratic contexts, do remittances substantively influence electoral outcomes, and if so, which outcomes and how? Finally, do remittances prevent even more migration because they allow one “breadwinner from abroad” to provide for the household that remains in the homeland? While data limitations are formidable, these questions are important to the study of both international and comparative political economy.

Bilateral Trade

The argument that migrant or co-ethnic networks play an important role in international economic exchange is not novel. Greif ( 1989 , 1993 ) illustrates the role that the Maghrebi traders of the 11th century played in providing informal institutional guarantees that facilitated trade. This is but a single example. Cowen’s historical survey identifies not only the Phoenicians but also the “Spanish Jews [who] were indispensable for international commerce in the Middle Ages. The Armenians controlled the overland route between the Orient and Europe as late as the nineteenth century . Lebanese Christians developed trade between the various parts of the Ottoman empire” (Cowen, 1997 , p. 170). Rauch and Trindade ( 2002 ) provide robust empirical evidence linking the Chinese diaspora to patterns of imports and exports with their home country.

A variety of case studies document the importance of migrant networks in helping overcome problems of information asymmetries. In his study of Indian expatriates residing in the United States, Kapur ( 2014 ) documents how that community provides U.S. investors with a signal of the work ethic, labor quality, and business culture that exists in India. Likewise, Weidenbaum and Hughes ( 1996 ) chronicle the Bamboo Network—the linkages between ethnic Chinese living outside mainland China and their homeland—and how these linkages provide superior access to information and opportunities for investment.

Connections between migrant communities across countries affect cross-national investment even when these connections do not provide information about investment opportunities. In his work on the Maghrebi traders of the 11th century , Greif argues that this trading network was effective because it was able to credibly threaten collective punishment by all merchants if even one of them defected (Greif, 1989 , 1993 ). Grief shows that this co-ethnic network was able to share information regarding the past actions of actors (they could communicate a reputation)—something that was essential for the efficient functioning of markets in the absence of formal legal rules. Weidenbaum and Hughes reach a similar conclusion about the effectiveness of the Bamboo Network, remarking that “if a business owner violates an agreement, he is blacklisted. This is far worse than being sued, because the entire Chinese networks will refrain from doing business with the guilty party” (Hughes, 1996 , p. 51).

Migrants not only alter the flow of income by remitting to their countries of origin, but also influence patterns of international portfolio investment and FDI. Most existing literature on international capital allocation emphasizes monadic factors such as the importance of credible commitments and state institutional quality, failing to address explicitly dyadic phenomena that may also drive investment. Diaspora networks, in particular, facilitate cross-border investment in a number of ways. They foster a higher degree of familiarity between home and host countries, leading to a greater preference for investment in specific countries. Diaspora networks can also decrease information asymmetries in highly uncertain international capital markets in two ways. Firstly, they can provide investors with salient information about their homeland, such as consumer tastes, that can influence investment decision-making. Secondly, they can share knowledge about investment opportunities, regulation and procedures, and customs that decrease transaction costs associated with cross-border investment (Leblang, 2010 ). This place of importance for migrants suggests to the broader international political economy literature the importance of non-institutional mechanisms for channeling economic activity.

Although the hypothesized link between migrants and international investment has only recently been identified, the quantitative evidence available supports that hypothesis. Leblang ( 2010 ), using dyadic cross-sectional data, finds that diaspora networks “have both a substantively significant effect and a statistically significant effect on cross-border investment,” including international portfolio investment and FDI (p. 584). The effect of bilateral migratory flows correlates positively with the degree of information asymmetry: when informational imperfections are more pervasive in a dyad, migrants (especially the highly skilled) play a disproportionately large role in international capital allocation (Kugler, Levinthal, & Rapoport, 2017 ). Other quantitative studies find substantively similar results for FDI alone (e.g., Javorcik, Özden, Spatareanu, & Neagu, 2011 ; Aubry, Rapoport, & Reshef, 2016 ).

Many questions still remain unanswered. Firstly, does the effect of migrants on investment follow the waves of the global economy, or is it countercyclical as remittances have been shown to be? Secondly, how does this additional investment, facilitated by migrants, affect socioeconomic outcomes such as inequality, poverty, and economic development (Leblang, 2010 )? Does the participation of migrants lead to more successful FDI projects in developing countries because of their ability to break down information barriers? Within portfolio investment, do migrants lead to a preference for certain asset classes over others, and if so, what are the effects on bilateral and international capital markets? These are just a few directions in an area ripe for additional research.

Return Migration and Dual Citizenship

Besides financial flows, migrants themselves directly contribute to global flows of capital by returning to their countries of origin in large numbers. This phenomenon of return migration—or circular migration—can come in a few temporal forms, including long-term migration followed by a permanent return to a country of origin, or repeat migration in which a migrant regularly moves between destination and origin countries (Dumont & Spielvogel, 2008 ). While comparable data on return migration is scarce, some reports suggest that 20% to 50% of all immigrants leave their destination country within five years after their arrival (e.g., Borjas & Bratsberg, 1996 ; Aydemir & Robinson, 2008 ; Bratsberg, Raaum, & Sørlie, 2007 ; Dustmann & Weiss, 2007 ). An independent theoretical and empirical account of return migration does not yet exist in the literature and is beyond the scope of this paper. But in the rational actor framework, motivations to return home include a failure to realize the expected benefits of migration, changing preferences toward a migrant’s home country, achievement of a savings or other economic goal, or the opening of additional employment opportunities back home due to newly acquired experience or greater levels of economic development (Dumont & Spielvogel, 2008 ).

While most migration literature treats the country of origin as a passive actor that only provides the conditions for migration, new literature on return migration gives home country policies pride of place. Origin countries can craft policies that encourage diaspora re-engagement, incentivizing individuals to return home. Dual citizenship, for example, is an extension of extraterritorial rights, allowing migrants to retain full legal status in their home country. Dual citizenship “decreases the transaction costs associated with entering a host country’s labor market and makes it easier for migrants to return home” (Leblang, 2017 , p. 77). This leads migrants to invest their financial resources in the form of remittances back home as well as their valuable human capital. When states provide such extraterritorial rights, expatriates are 10% more likely to remit and 3% more likely to return home. Dual citizenship is also associated with a doubling of the dollar amount of remittances received by a home country (Leblang, 2017 ). These striking results suggest that in addition to the power of migrants to affect cross-border flows of money and people, countries of origin can also play a significant role.

Conclusion and Future Directions

This brief article has attempted to synthesize a broad range of literature from political science, economics, sociology, migration studies, and more to construct an account of international labor migration. To do so, the migratory process was broken down into distinct stages and decision points, focusing particularly on the decision to migrate, destination choice, and the re-engagement of migrants with their homeland. In doing so, the article also discussed the interlinkages of international migration with other fields of study in international political economy, including cross-border financial flows, trade, and investment. Through a multiplicity of approaches, we have gained a greater understanding of why people decide to move, why they decide to move to one country over another, and how and why they engage with the global economy and their homeland. Despite this intellectual progress, there remain many paths for future research at each stage of the migratory process; we highlight just a few of them here.

We know that income differentials, social ties, and local political conditions are important variables influencing the migration process. Yet the question remains: why do a small but growing number of people choose to leave while the overwhelming majority of people remain in their country of birth? Here, individual- or family-level subjective characteristics may be significant. There are a handful of observational studies that explore the relationship between subjective well-being or life satisfaction and the intention to migrate, with the nascent consensus being that life dissatisfaction increases the intention to migrate (Cai, Esipova, Oppenheimer, & Feng, 2014 ; Otrachshenko & Popova, 2014 ; Nikolova & Graham, 2015 ). But more research on intrinsic or subjective measures is needed to understand (a) their independent importance more fully and (b) how they interact with objective economic, political, and social factors. For instance, do those who are more optimistic migrate in larger numbers? Do minority individuals who feel they live in an environment in which diversity is not accepted feel a greater urge to leave home? Synthesizing these types of subjective variables and perceptions with the more prominent gravity-style models could result in a more complete picture of the international migration process.

For the “typical” migrant, one who is relatively less educated than the population in the chosen destination and does not have specialized skills, social networks are key to minimizing the risk of migrating and quickly tapping into economic opportunities in destination countries. Does this remain true for those who are highly educated? Although little empirical research exists on the topic, greater human capital and often-accompanying financial resources may operate as a substitute for the advantages offered by social networks, such as housing, overcoming linguistic barriers, and finding gainful employment. This would indicate that the “friends and family effect” is not as influential for this subset of migrants. Economic considerations, such as which destination offers the largest relative wage differential, or political considerations, such as the ease of quickly acquiring full citizenship rights, may matter more for the highly skilled. Neoclassical economic models of migration may best capture the behavior of migrants who hold human capital and who have the financial resources to independently migrate in a way that maximizes income or utility more broadly.

Since we have focused on international migration as a series of discrete decision points in this article, we have perhaps underemphasized the complexity of the physical migration process. In reality, migrants often do not pick a country and travel directly there, but travel through (perhaps several) countries of transit such as Mexico, Morocco, or Turkey along the way (Angel Castillo, 2006 ; Natter, 2013 ; Icduygu, 2005 ). There is little existing theoretical work to understand the role of transit countries in the migratory process, with much of it focusing on the potential for cooperation between destination and transit countries in managing primarily illegal immigration (Kahana & Lecker, 2005 ; Djajic & Michael, 2014 ; Djajic & Michael, 2016 ). Another related strand of the literature focuses on how wealthy destination countries are “externalizing” their immigration policy, encompassing a broader part of the migratory process than simply crossing a physically demarcated border (Duvell, 2012 ; Menjivar, 2014 ). But many questions remain, such as the following: how do we understand those who desire to enter, say, the United States, but instead relocate permanently to Mexico along the way? How do countries of transit handle the pressure of transit migrants, and how does this affect economic and political outcomes in these countries?

Finally, the focus of nearly all literature on international migration (and this article as a byproduct) implicitly views advanced economies as the only prominent destinations. However, this belies the fact that 38% of all migration stays within the “Global South” (World Bank, 2016 ). While there is certainly some literature on this phenomenon (see Ratha & Shaw, 2007 ; Gindling, 2009 ; Hujo & Piper, 2007 ), international political economy scholars have yet to sufficiently tackle this topic. The overarching research question here is: do the same push and pull factors that influence the decision to migrate and destination choice apply to those who migrate within the Global South? Do we need to construct new theories of international migration with less emphasis on factors such as wage differentials and political tolerance, or are these sufficient to understand this facet of the phenomenon? If we fail to answer these questions, we may miss explaining a significant proportion of international migration with its own consequences and policy implications.

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• Rapoport, H. , & Docquier, F. (2006). The Economics of Migrants’ Remittances. In S.-C. Kolm & J. M. Ythier (Eds.), Handbook on the Economics of Giving, Altruism and Reciprocity . New York: Elsevier-North Holland.
• Ratha, D. , & Shaw, W. (2007). South-South Migration and Remittances . World Bank WP 102.
• Rauch, J. E. , & Trindade, V. (2002). Ethnic Chinese Networks in International Trade. Review of Economics and Statistics , 84 (1), 116–130.
• Ravenstein, E. G. (1885). The Laws of Migration. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society of London , 48 (2), 167–235.
• Sassen, S. (1995). Immigration and Local Labour Markets. In A. Portes (Ed.), The Economic Sociology of Immigration . New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
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1. Our use of the term international labor migration follows academic and legal conventions; we use the term migration to refer to the voluntary movement of people across national borders, either in a temporary or permanent fashion. This excludes any discussion of refugees, asylum seekers, or any other groups that are forced to migrate.

2. We do not have space in this article to delve into the theoretical and empirical work unpacking the effect of demographic characteristics—age, gender, marital status, household size, and so forth on the migration decision and on subsequent flows of migrants. For comprehensive reviews, see Lichter ( 1983 ), Morrison and Lichter ( 1988 ); United Nations Population Division ( 2013 ); and Zaiceva and Zimmerman ( 2014 ).

3. Zelinsky ( 1971 ) originally identified this relationship and termed it mobility transition curve . A wealth of empirical work supports Zelinsky’s descriptive theory in a number of contexts (see Akerman, 1976 ; Gould, 1979 ; Hatton & Williamson, 1994 ; and Dao et al., 2016 ).

4. For a review of the arguments as well as some empirical tests, see Miller and Peters ( 2018 ) and Docquier, Lodigiani, Rapoport, and Schiff ( 2018 ).

5. Transparency International. “What is corruption?”

6. For example, former United Kingdom Independence Party leader Nigel Farage has called for the United Kingdom to adopt an immigration system that only allows in highly skilled migrants (“UKIP launches immigration policy”). In 2014, US President Barack Obama emphasized that he wanted to attract international students to American universities and that they “create jobs, businesses, and industries right here in America” (USA Today: “Full text: Obama’s immigration speech”). A key issue in Germany’s 2018 government formation was the creation of skill-based migration laws (Severin & Martin, 2018 ).

7. For a more comprehensive review, see Rapoport and Docquier ( 2006 ); and Adams ( 2011 ).

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2014 Theses Doctoral

Essays in Internal and International Migration

Monras, Joan

This dissertation investigates how internal migration spreads local shocks to the national market. The first chapter describes a dynamic model of internal migration where in equilibrium there are always positive internal migration flows across locations. When a shock in one of these location happens, internal migration flows are diverted away from the shocked locations, spreading the shock nationally. The second chapter explains how this is the main mechanism through which international migration is absorbed. The third chapter, documents how this exact same mechanism helps to mitigate the disproportionate effect that the Great Recession had on particular locations.

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This essay explores the changing patterns of mobility and migration from 1900 to 2010, demonstrating the increase in mobility through the middle decades of the 20th century and declining rates since the 1970s, while highlighing the various consequential migrations that have transformed cities, suburbs, regional demography and American politics.

Migration is one of the great forces of history. When people move in large numbers, they sometimes rearrange not only their own lives but also the places they leave and the places they settle. Migration can rebalance economies, reorganize politics, transform cultures. Migrations across oceans and borders have continually reshaped the United States. Internal migrations have been at times nearly as significant.

Mobility and Migration

Measuring mobility and identifying historically significant migration patterns is far from simple, especially before the 1940s. Since 1948 the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey (CPS) has provided a yearly estimate of how many Americans change residences and some indications of the dimensions of the move. From 1948 to 1971 the annual relocation rate held steady at 19 to 20 percent, meaning that one-fifth of the population changed residence every year. Other than World War II and probably World War I, this was the high-water era of geographic mobility in the twentieth century. Relocations were less frequent in the early decades of the century and also slowed measurably since the 1970s. From 2006 to 2010, 12 to 13 percent of Americans have moved each year.

Most moves cover short distances and have modest implications. The term “migration” is usually reserved for moves that cross county or state lines. In CPS data, on average 6.5 percent of Americans migrated from one jurisdiction to another each year from 1948 to the 1970s, 3.3 percent of them to a different state. Since 1975 an average of 2.6 percent of Americans has crossed state lines each year.

Although annual mobility rates from earlier periods are not known, birthplace information from the U.S. Census can be used to compare migration across state lines for each decade since 1850. Demographers describe a U-shaped pattern. Migration rates across state lines were very high in the mid-nineteenth century as farmers and slaveholders moved west into the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. Rates declined after the 1870s, then began climbing with the new century, reaching a peak around the 1970s. In 1860, 41 percent of all U.S.-born adults lived outside their state of birth, and in 1900, 32 percent did. That percentage held steady until 1950, then rose to 39 percent by 1980, then retreated slightly to 38 percent by 2007.

Consequential Migrations

All moves are consequential for the individuals involved, but some migration patterns have broader implications. The twentieth century witnessed a number of consequential migrations that helped reshape culture, politics, or economic structures.

No pattern was more important than the move from farm to city. A nation of farmers became a nation of urbanized workers in the twentieth century, although the trend began much earlier. By 1920 a majority of Americans had moved to areas designated “urban.” By 1970 the rural population had shrunk to 27 percent, and only 4 percent still lived on farms. This rural-to-urban migration was more than spatial. It meant a dramatic change in occupation and way of life, a change that has been the focus of generations of social research and social policy. It also meant huge changes in political economy. Farm-belt power drained into the cities along with farm people. The decades of rapid urbanization from the 1920s through the 1960s were also the decades when big cities dominated national political agendas.

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Article Contents

Definition of migrants, drivers of migration, health challenges in the destination country, conclusions, conflict of interest.

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Drivers of migration: why do people move?

UNESCO disclaimer: The Author is responsible for the views contained in this article and for opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.

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Francesco Castelli, Drivers of migration: why do people move?, Journal of Travel Medicine , Volume 25, Issue 1, 2018, tay040, https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/tay040

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More than 244 million international migrants were estimated to live in a foreign country in 2015, leaving apart the massive number of people that have been relocated in their own country. Furthermore, a substantial proportion of international migrants from southern countries do not reach western nations but resettle in neighbouring low-income countries in the same geographical area. Migration is a complex phenomenon, where ‘macro’-, ‘meso’- and ‘micro’-factors act together to inform the final individual decision to migrate, integrating the simpler previous push–pull theory.

Among the ‘macro-factors’, the political, demographic, socio-economic and environmental situations are major contributors to migration. These are the main drivers of forced migration, either international or internal, and largely out of individuals’ control.

Among the ‘meso-factors’, communication technology, land grabbing and diasporic links play an important role. In particular, social media attract people out of their origin countries by raising awareness of living conditions in the affluent world, albeit often grossly exaggerated, with the diaspora link also acting as an attractor. However, ‘micro-factors’ such as education, religion, marital status and personal attitude to migration also have a key role in making the final decision to migrate an individual choice. The stereotype of the illiterate, poor and rural migrant reaching the borders of affluent countries has to be abandoned. The poorest people simply do not have the means to escape war and poverty and remain trapped in their country or in the neighbouring one.

Once in the destination country, migrants have to undergo a difficult and often conflictive integration process in the hosting community. From the health standpoint, newly arrived migrants are mostly healthy (healthy migrant effect), but they may harbour latent infections that need appropriate screening policies. Cultural barriers may sometimes hamper the relation between the migrant patient and the health care provider. The acquisition of western lifestyles is leading to an increase of non-communicable chronic diseases that require attention.

Destination countries have to reconsider the positive medium/long-term potential of migration and need to be prepared to receive migrants for the benefit of the migrants themselves and their native population.

According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), as many as 244 million people were international migrants in 2015 1 and the UN Department of Economics and Social Affairs estimates that the figure is as high as 257.7 million in 2017. 2 Importantly, out of the 244 million claimed by IOM in 2015, 90.2 million moved from a southern country to another southern country, while only 85.3 million were people migrating from the south to the north, the remaining being individuals from the north migrating to the south (13.6 million) or from the north to the north (55.1 million). At present, most international migrants are of working-age and live in Europe, Asia and North America (Figure 1 ). Apart from international migrants, an astonishing figure of 740 million people is estimated to have migrated internally within their origin country. 1

International migrants by region of residence, 2015 Source: UN DESA, 2015. www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates15.shtml , modified

Migration is as old as humankind. People have always moved in search of better living conditions for themselves and for their loved ones or escaping dramatic situations in their homeland. These two major drivers were the fundamentals of the ‘push and pull’ theory that was first proposed by Lee in 1966, 3 encompassing economic, environmental, social and political factors pushing out from the individual homeland and attracting him/her towards the destination country.

Lee’s theory has the merit of being one of the first trying to identify in a modern and scientific way the drivers of such a complex phenomenon after Ravenstein first addressed them in Scotland in 1885. 4 The main elements of the ‘push and pull’ theory will also be considered in this article for didactic purposes, but the Author recognizes that in the current global world reality is certainly much more complex and faceted, involving both local national realities and macro-level causes as well as meso-level and micro-level causes related to the link of the individual to his/her ethnic or religious group and the personal characteristic of the individuals respectively. 5 (Figure 2 ) Recently, the ‘pull-push plus’ theory has also been proposed, which considers predisposing, proximate, precipitating and mediating drivers of migration. 6

Complex drivers of migration: macro-, meso- and micro-factors Source: Foresight: Migration and Global Environmental Change (2011) Final Project Report The Government Office for Science, London, modified

Regardless of the theoretical framework adopted, the topic addressed by this article is difficult because sound scientific data are scarce, existing literature is mainly qualitative and often presented as grey literature. In addition, geographical and cultural elements may influence the weight of the single determinant in different continents and in different periods. Finally, although the various drivers will be presented separately, we recognize that they are part of a unique complex scenario where they strongly interact.

Labour (or economic) migrants (and family reunification) and

Forced migrants (asylum seekers and refugees);

In this respect, it is useful to report below the synthetic definitions of asylum seekers and refugees from IOM. 7

Asylum seeker

A person who seeks safety from persecution or serious harm in a country other than his or her own and awaits a decision on the application for refugee status under relevant international and national instruments. In case of a negative decision, the person must leave the country and may be expelled, unless permission to stay is provided on humanitarian grounds.

A person who, ‘ owing to a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinions, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country (Geneva Convention, 1951, Art. 1A).’

The factors acting together and determining the final decision of an individual to migrate may be subdivided in macro-elements (largely independent from the individual), meso-elements (more closely related to the individual but not completely under the individual's control) and micro-element (personal characteristics and attitudes). Those that have been more extensively studied will be discussed in this article.

Inadequate human and economic development

Human development is enormously unbalanced in the various regions of the planet and the gap is increasingly wide. The economic and political reasons underlying this sad situation are beyond the scope of this article and will not be addressed here. The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index combining the performances of the different countries on health (life-expectancy), education (years of schooling) and economics ( per capita income) proposed by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).

The 2016 HDI top ranking includes 15 western countries (11 European, 2 North American, 2 in Oceania) and 5 Asian countries among the first 20 ranked nations. 8 At the opposite extremity of the list, 19 out of the last 20 nations with the lowest HDI indexes are from Africa, a striking difference. However, during the first decade of the new millennium, many African countries experienced a remarkable economic growth, with gross domestic product (GDP) increases exceeding 5% in average according to the International Monetary Fund. Unfortunately, the consequent relative wealth has not been equitably distributed in the population and the subsequent world economic crisis since 2011 has slowed down the economic performances of most African countries to a bare 2% yearly GDP increase. As a consequence, most jobs in developing countries are still in the informal sector, with little salary and social protection, thus nurturing the willing to find better job conditions elsewhere. Low performances in the health, education and economic sectors are a reflex of the vulnerability of the health, education and productive systems which is caused by the lack of economic and human resources. With particular regard to the health sector, such situations that provide little professional and economic motivation pave the way for qualified health professionals to leave their origin countries, a phenomenon known as ‘brain drain’ and creating a vicious circle.

Poor health services, little educated and qualified work force and poverty are a fertile background promoting migration of individuals in search of better life. New communication technologies, largely available in urban settings even in developing countries, allows people to compare the western lifestyle with the local situations where the luxurious houses and cars of expatriates (and local authorities…) often contrast with the poor living conditions of the local populations. The gradient of prosperity.

Migration and development are strictly linked and influence each other. Paradoxically enough, in fact, migration may be driven by both a lack of development and by an increasing socio-economic development in a specific country, at least in the initial phase. 9

Demographic increase, urbanization

The world's living population has increased in an unprecedented way during the last two centuries, from 1 billion estimated to live in the year 1800 to the more than 6 billion living at the beginning of the second millennium, to the roughly 11 billion that will probably inhabit the earth in 2100. 10 The bulk of this massive increase is taking place in Asia and Africa, where high fertility rates, driven by infant mortality, and poor birth control programmes result in high annual population increase rates. On the contrary, the fertility rate in western industrialized countries is shrinking. According to the World Bank, the average fertility rates in high income countries was 1.7 children per woman in 2015, while it was 4.8 per woman in low-income countries. 11 As a global result, the population of western industrialized countries is reducing in size and getting progressively old (aging population), while the young working-age population of the developing countries is rapidly increasing. The African continent offers a striking example. From 493 million in 1990, the African population grew to 1 billion in 2015 and it is expected to rise to 2.2 billion in 2050 and to 4 billion in 2100! 12

With particular regard to the African continent, the increasingly young population will probably exceed by far the otherwise improving—but not equitably distributed—economy, giving origin to the so-called ‘jobless generation’ phenomenon. This means that the increasing global wealth is not mirrored by a proportional number of jobs to satisfy the increasing expectations of the growing skilled young generation, at least in the short-medium term. 13

As a matter of fact, the flow of migration in relation to demographic increase could also be regarded in the opposite way, raising the question ‘ why do so few people migrate? ’ 14 In fact, even if the stereotype of migration proposes a model of ‘mass’ invasion of rich countries by migrants from low-income countries in terms of absolute numbers, the proportion of migrating people is quite stable (3.3% of the world population in 2015, 2.4% of the world population in 1960).

Climate changes

It is now almost universally accepted that the climate is becoming warmer and warmer at an increasing speed, causing health inequalities across the world 15 apart from other unwanted effects. It is also accepted that the driving causes of such climate changes started with the industrial revolution, are mainly anthropogenic in nature and are largely due to the emission of greenhouse gases (in particular CO 2 , methane and nitrous oxide) by industrial activities from carbon-based energy. It has been estimated that 97% of such emissions occur in industrialized rich countries, leaving a mere 3% emission coming out from low-income countries. 16 The impact of climate changes is astonishingly severe in the south of the world, where 150000 are estimated to have died in 2000 from the consequences of the planet warming. 17 Drought, flooding, increases in arthropod borne infections due to vector spreading in regions where the contrast measures are difficult to implement due to scarcity of means also indirectly impact on morbidity and economic agricultural revenues. The case of Lake Chad is extreme but enlightening. From the nearly 25000 square kilometres Lake Chad had in 1963, its water now covers a bare one-twentieth of its original extension, with severe impact on the fertility of the surrounding land. This shortage of water, food and agricultural resources forces people and livestock to move in search of a less hostile environment. 1 Examples of land degradation induced by climate changes are multiple and represent a driving force for people to migrate by producing food insecurity and risk of health-related crisis. 18

According to the IOM, environmental migrants are those ‘ persons or groups of persons who, for reason of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move either within their country or abroad ’. 19

It has been suggested that the environment may impact on migration flows by directly affecting the hazardousness of place but also indirectly changing the economic, political, social and demographic context with very complex interrelationships. 20

The ‘climatic migrants’, as they are sometime called, might possibly reach the astonishing figure of 200 million by the year 2050, according to the IOM. 21 However, forecasts are difficult to make because sound scientific data on this topic are extremely scarce and do not permit reliable estimates. 22 The assessment of the real impact of worsening environmental conditions, albeit logical, would greatly benefit from sound research studies.

Wars and dictatorship

Even now, at the beginning of the third millennium, many areas of the world—in virtually all continents—host bloody conflicts and social instability where armed parties fight or where rude dictatorships are ruling and denying social rights. Some are well-known to the public (i.e. Syria and Afghanistan), while others are not as is the case of the Horn of Africa (Eritrea, Somalia) and some areas of West Africa (Mali, Gambia) and the Sahelian region or in Central and Southern America. 1 People may be denied basic human rights and the access to education and to a dignified life may be prevented, especially for females. Fundamentalism is such countries may easily grow, as it is the case with the deadly activities of Boko Haram in Northern Nigeria, that it is estimated to have caused the internal displacement of nearly 2 million people. 23 It is to be noted that the majority of displaced people in warring nations are relocated within national borders, thus officially they are not considered international migrants, but rather internal refugees.

Land grabbing

Land grabbing is a phenomenon that has become increasingly important since the beginning of the new millennium. The term ‘land grabbing’ refers to the intensive exploitation of vast areas of land in rural areas of low-income countries by private international enterprises or even by foreign governments in order to implement large-scale intensive cultivations (mainly biofuels and food crops) or to exploit minerals, forestry or the touristic industry. This happens to the detriment of the poor local population, which is poorly (and often forcedly) compensated and virtually obliged to leave the rural areas to reach the degraded urban peripheries within their own countries, where they often live a difficult life in a different setting from the one they and their families have experienced for centuries. Psychological and physical impairment is frequent in such communities and international migration may then occur. Apart from this direct impact, the economic benefit of small-scale agricultural industry is of advantage of the local communities, while the intensive exploitation of lands as a consequence of land grabbing is mainly to the benefit of the private enterprise stock owners and the international market, 24 leading to the progressive impoverishment of the increasingly resource-poor country. Together with environmental damages due to climate changes, the loss of small-scale land property and its turning into intensive exploitation causes a progressive land degradation, which leads to a progressive abandonment of native lands by a mass of people. 25

This issue will only be briefly alluded to, as it is too wide and complex to be adequately addressed in such context. The history of humankind offers many examples of mass population movements caused by religion persecution or following the dream of a land where individual faith could be freely preached. However, these movements have often been the consequence of a political will as it has been the case of the conflictive Muslim, Hindu and Sikh movement across the newly created border between India and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) in 1947. Similarly, Jews flowed to Palestine after the Second World War, also attracted by the law of return, favouring migration of Jewish people to the new state of Israel. In many other instances, religion has been the pretext for ethnic persecution and expulsion, as is possibly the case for the Rohingya Muslim population from Myanmar or the mass movements caused by armed fundamentalists groups such as Daesh or Boko Haram in the Middle East and sub-Saharan West Africa, respectively.

Sexual identity

A number of countries have a quite restrictive policy on sexual identity and LTGB people (lesbians, gay, transgender and bisexual people) face psychological and even physical violence, forcing them to hide their sexual identity. The impact of such policies on international migration has recently been the subject of some investigation that is in its infancy. No doubt, however, that an impact exists, especially from countries where ‘machismo’ is considered a value. 26 , 27 A comprehensive overview of the issues related to the protection of social rights in those people forced to migrate due to their sexual orientation may be found in the 2013 thematic issue of Forced Migration Review. 28

A final note has to be dedicated to the education level of migrants. International migrants are often regarded as illiterate and poor people escaping poverty from remote rural areas. This stereotype is far from being true in most instances for both economic and forced migrants. Migrants in search of a better future usually have a more pronounced initiative, attitude and boldness than the average person, with some skills and financial resources needed to plan and fund a long-distance journey as it is the case for international migration. 29 In most instances, they are more educated than their peers left behind in their origin country. 30 Sometimes they are even more educated than their peers in the destination country. 31 In addition, individuals from families or communities that already positively experienced migration in previous years are more inclined to migrate as their travel abroad is regarded as of possible benefit to the origin society. 5 For such individuals, the existence of ethnic or family links in the destination country is a further driver of migration. The relationship between education and migration are twofold. From one side, the migration of educated people from low-middle income countries to OECD countries constitute a net loss of human qualified resources for the origin countries and a gain for the host country. A phenomenon known as ‘brain drain’. From the other side, the financial and ideational remittances from destination countries may also have an impact on the education of non-migration children and adolescents in their origin countries. 30

Personal willingness to migrate

All the above drivers of migration act, with different strength in different places, to build the general frame at the macro-level of each specific geographical, economic and political situation. However, the meso- or even micro-levels are also important in driving the final choice of the individual to migrate. The influence of the ethnic group, the family support—both economic and societal—is of the upmost importance for a specific individual to make the final choice to migrate or to stay. Educational level and access to financial means permitting to afford the migration travel have already been discussed above, but other factors such as ethnic and social customs are also important. The aspiration and desire to migrate is a crucial key factor that interacts with other external drivers of migration to build the final decision to actually migrate. 32

Regardless of the mix of drivers leading to migration in any individual person, migrants usually undergo a difficult integration process in the hosting community. Conversely, the receiving country could also be obliged to adapt its social and health systems to face the needs of the hosted population. In many instances, this process is not without conflict for the cultural and economic adaptations that it implies.

From the health point of view, although generalization is inappropriate due to the heterogeneity of provenance and epidemiology of diseases in the origin countries, newly arrived migrants are usually healthy (the ‘healthy migrant’ effect) but more affected by latent infections than the host populations, 33 requiring screening policies and links to care. Crowded and inadequate living conditions in hosting camps may also lead to infectious diseases outbreaks, as recently reported in France. 34 However, despite the reported higher prevalence of selected infections in migrants, including potentially diffusive respiratory tract infections, the risk of significant spread in the receiving populations has been reported to be negligible, if any. 35

Once resettled in the host country, foreign-borne individuals may face infectious exposure when travelling back—often accompanied by children born in the host country—to their countries of origin. They are then referred as VFRs (Visiting Friends and Relatives), and represent a significant proportion of imported diseases in western countries, as in is the case for imported malaria. 36 Pre-travel advice in such VFR populations poses significant challenges to optimally address adequate preventive measures. 37 However, even the non-communicable diseases burden (diabetes, hypertension, metabolic disorders, cardio-vascular diseases, etc.) is increasing among migrants, as a result of changing alimentary habits in developing countries and to the progressive acquisition of western lifestyles after a few years in the receiving country. 38

Finally, the cultural interaction between the migrant patient and the care provider is often not without conflicts. The emphasis on the possible exotic nature of otherwise ubiquitous illnesses or, on the contrary, the underestimation of culturally bound complaints (cultural barriers) are often aggravated by linguistic barriers leading to potential medical errors. The knowledge of culturally sensitive medical issues, such as genital mutilations, is generally poor in western physicians, requiring specific training and research. 39

In conclusion, the migration flow is now a structural phenomenon that is likely to continue in the next decades. While many migrants from low-income countries aim to reach more affluent areas of the world, it is to be appreciated that a similar, or even bigger, mass of people migrates to neighbouring low-income countries in the same geographical area.

Migration is always the result of a complex combination of macro-, meso- and micro- factors, the former acting at the society level and the latter acting at the family or even individual level. The prevalence of a factor over the other is unpredictable.

Among the ‘macro-factors’, the inadequate human and economic development of the origin country, demographic increase and urbanization, wars and dictatorships, social factors and environmental changes are the major contributors to migration. These are the main drivers of forced migration, both international or internal.

Among the ‘meso-factors’, linking the individual to his/her ethnic group or religious community, land grabbing, communication technology and diasporic links play an important role. The role of communication technologies and social media to attract people out of their origin countries is indisputable today. Awareness of living conditions in the affluent world—albeit often grossly exaggerated—contributes to nurture the myth of western countries as Eldorado. The ease of communication with the diaspora and family members who migrated previously reinforces the desire of escaping from poverty to a challenging new life abroad.

However, ‘micro-factors’ such as education, religion, marital status and personal attitude to migration also have a key role to make the final decision to migrate that is an individual's choice.

In any case, the stereotype of the illiterate poor migrant coming from the most remote rural areas and reaching the borders of affluent countries does not stand. The poorest people simply do not have the means to escape war and poverty and remain trapped in his/her country or in the neighbouring one. Some degree of entrepreneurship, educational level, social and financial support is usually requested for international south–north economic migration and personal characteristics and choices also play a role. This phenomenon has a positive aspect, as the possibility of success of migrants increases as do remittances, but also a negative one, as the most active part of the origin country may be drained preventing local development.

Usually, even if generalization is inappropriate, newly arrived migrants are in good health, despite a higher prevalence of latent chronic infections (‘healthy migrant’ effect). However, marginalization in the host country may lead to a deterioration of such health status, a phenomenon known as the ‘exhaust migrant’ effect.

Host countries, which may have also an economic benefit from migration in the medium long-term, have to be prepared to receive migrants for the benefit of the migrants themselves and their native population.

None declared.

International Organization for Migration (IOM) . World Migration Report, 2018 . http://www.iom.int/wmr/chapter-1

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Canadian Research Data Centre Network

• Three essays on internal migration

Authors: Hongchen Yue

Abstract (English)

This dissertation is composed of three essays on internal migration. The first essay entitled “Internal Migration, Self-selection and Earnings of Canadian Immigrants” investigates the post-arrival human capital investment behavior of immigrants, migration particularly, and its effect on individual earnings, compared with Canadian-born using the up-to-date longitudinal datasets–the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrant to Canada (LSIC) and the Survey of Labor and Income Dynamics (SLID). The double self-selectivity of migration and labor force participation are considered in the wage and wage growth models. The investment in internal migration activity is analyzed by employing the endogenous switching model. This study finds that migration behavior has a significant positive effect on immigrants’ early career wage development in Canada. Both migration and labor force participation selection bias are found to significantly affect the wages of immigrants and native-born. The second essay entitled “Immigrant and Canadian-born Family Migration and the Labor Supply Consequences of Women and Men” investigates the family migration behavior of immigrants and Canadian-born and the consequences of labor supply for men and women. Even though immigrant families (in which both spouses are immigrants) have the lowest average migration rate compared with native families (in which both spouses are native-born) and mixed families (in which one spouse is immigrant and one spouse is native-born), the regression results show that immigrant families are not significantly less mobile than the other two family types alter controlling for characteristics differences. The empirical results from the hours change model suggest that internal migration has a positive and significant effect on labor supply of men and native women. The third essay entitled “Migration and Job Search: Evidence from Canada” examines the association between migration and unemployment exit rate that has not previously been examined in the Canadian literature. By employing job search and human capital theories, this study investigates the search strategies of unemployed workers. Independent competing risks framework is used to examine the transition from unemployment to employment under different search strategies. Semi-parametric stratified Cox proportional hazard model and parametric log-logistic model are applied. The results indicate that individual and family characteristics have a stronger effect on the transition rates than other factors like labor market conditions and previous-job-related characteristics do. There is evidence that current EI program affects search strategy of unemployed individuals.

Abstract (French)

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• Hongchen Yue
• University of Manitoba

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Book/Printed Material Native internal migration and the labor market impact of immigration

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• Native internal migration and the labor market impact of immigration
• "This paper presents a theoretical and empirical study of how immigration influences the joint determination of the wage structure and internal migration behavior for native-born workers in local labor markets. Using data from the 1960-2000 decennial censuses, the study shows that immigration is associated with lower in-migration rates, higher out-migration rates, and a decline in the growth rate of the native workforce. The native migration response attenuates the measured impact of immigration on wages in a local labor market by 40 to 60 percent, depending on whether the labor market is defined at the state or metropolitan area level"--National Bureau of Economic Research web site.
• Borjas, George J.
• National Bureau of Economic Research

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• Cambridge, MA : National Bureau of Economic Research, c2005.
• -  Labor market--United States--Econometric models
• -  Migration, Internal--Economic aspects--United States
• -  United States--Emigration and immigration--Economic aspects
• -  Title from PDF file as viewed on 9/15/2005.
• -  Includes bibliographical references.
• -  Also available in print.
• -  Mode of access: World Wide Web.
• -  System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader.

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• https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/gdcebookspublic.2005618913
• http://papers.nber.org/papers/W11610 External

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• Econometric Models
• Economic Aspects
• Emigration and Immigration
• Labor Market
• Migration, Internal

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Chicago citation style:

Borjas, George J, and National Bureau Of Economic Research. Native Internal Migration and the Labor Market Impact of Immigration . Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2005. Pdf. https://www.loc.gov/item/2005618913/.

APA citation style:

Borjas, G. J. & National Bureau Of Economic Research. (2005) Native Internal Migration and the Labor Market Impact of Immigration . Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. [Pdf] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2005618913/.

MLA citation style:

Borjas, George J, and National Bureau Of Economic Research. Native Internal Migration and the Labor Market Impact of Immigration . Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2005. Pdf. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, <www.loc.gov/item/2005618913/>.

Why Do People Migrate? Fresh Takes on the Foundational Question of Migration Studies

Journal article

Carling, Jørgen (2024) Why Do People Migrate? Fresh Takes on the Foundational Question of Migration Studies, International Migration Review 58 (3): 1–35.

“Why do people migrate?” is a question that forms the pivot of migration studies, and migration theory in particular. But it has hardly found satisfactory answers. In this article, I reapproach the question from an array of diverse angles and provide eight responses. Some are aligned with recent theoretical developments, others unpack long-standing ideas with evolving significance, and still others are fundamentally atheoretical. Together, they show how the question can be answered, how it is being answered—even inadvertently or misleadingly—and what the implications are of answering the question in different ways. These are the responses, which each initiates a discussion: (1) For the reasons under which they are admitted as immigrants; (2) For reasons that are socially legitimate; (3) Because the sum of push and pull factors is in favor of migration; (4) Because they have the aspiration and the ability to do so; (5) Because an opportunity presents itself; (6) Either because they chose to or because they are forced to; (7) Because they see migration as either intrinsically or instrumentally valuable; (8) To lead a normal life. The discussions demonstrate how theoretical, methodological and political dimensions of migration sway the ways in which reasons for migration are understood and represented. “Why do people migrate?” is slippery as a research question, but its indeterminate nature makes it a guiding light for research that navigates a diversity of perspectives with humility and curiosity.

Jørgen Carling

Research Professor in Migration Studies

417 Immigration Topics to Write about & Essay Examples

Welcome to our list of catchy immigration essay titles! Here, you will find a variety of immigration topics to write about as well as writing prompts and presentation ideas.

🔝 Top 10 Immigration Titles for Essays

📝 key points to use to write an outstanding immigration essay, 🏆 best immigration topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on immigration, 🎓 simple & easy immigration essay titles, 🥇 most interesting immigration topics to write about, 📌 immigration writing prompts, ✅ good research topics about immigration, ❓ immigration essay questions, ✨ creative titles for immigration essays, 🚀 immigration topics for presentation.

• How Migration Shapes Identities
• Assimilation vs. Multiculturalism
• Immigration Policies and Their Effects
• Global Responses the Refugee Crisis
• Immigration and Crime: Fact vs. Fiction
• Immigration’s Impact on Social Integration
• Educational Challenges and Opportunities for immigrants
• What Are the Health Impacts of Immigration?
• The Effects of Immigration on Family Separation
• What’s the Role of Immigrants in Entrepreneurship?

Immigration essay is a popular type of assignment in various topics, including politics and social sciences. In a globalized world, people can migrate from one country to another for work, study, and other reasons.

This post will discuss some points that you could include in your essay on immigration to earn a high mark!

First of all, you should provide some background information on the subject. For example, if you are writing an essay about immigration in the United States, describe and discuss the key periods when immigration was high. Try to think about the following questions:

• What motivates people to immigrate a certain country?
• Why is immigration higher in developed countries than in developing ones?
• What are some examples of government policies promoting or reducing immigration?

Secondly, you should cover the key pro/con immigration arguments. Whether your essay is argumentative, persuasive, or informative, you need to acknowledge that immigration has both advantages and disadvantages. Here is a list of questions that you might want to ask yourself while writing the paper:

• What influence does immigration have on the economy?
• Does immigration make it easier or harder for people to find employment?
• Why are some people against immigration, even when it’s legal?

The third point you should address in your essay is illegal immigration.

This is a significant topic in many countries, including the United States. To make sure that your paper receives an excellent mark, answer the following questions:

• What are the reasons that make people immigrate illegally?
• What are your country’s policies with regards to illegal immigrants?
• What impact do illegal aliens have on the economy and society?
• Why are some countries targeted by illegal immigrants more often than others?
• What can governments do to prevent illegal migration without violating human rights and freedoms?

One of the most important immigration essay topics is the immigrant experience. While many students write about immigration, they often fail to present a comprehensive view of the concept.

To avoid this mistake, consider what immigrants feel and experience when they decide to come to a different country. If you have a friend who is an immigrant, you can interview them. Here are a few ideas to think about:

• What are the most widespread challenges faced by immigrants?
• How do people plan their life in a different country?
• Do language barriers affect their relationships with other people, access to medical care, and education?
• How do immigrants adjust to a new culture?
• Can an immigrant integrate fully into the community?

Lastly, when thinking of essay topics about immigration, it is impossible to ignore the impact of immigration on society. Indeed, most essay titles in this area are focused on positive and negative social consequences of immigration. To cover this point in your paper, you may try to answer these questions:

• Does immigration facilitate social division and can this effect be prevented?
• Why do some people oppose cultural and racial diversity? What is cultural assimilation, and is it helpful to modern societies?
• How can cultural pluralism and multiculturalism influence communities in immigrant-rich countries?
• What can we do to ensure that immigration benefits all people, including native citizens?

Hopefully, this post has provided you with some things to talk about in your future immigration essays. Make sure to check sample papers and free essay titles about immigration on our website!

• Essay About Immigration Causes and Effects Some of the major causes of immigration in the current world include; Political unrests and wars This is one of the common causes of immigration in various regions of the world.
• Immigration: Advantages and Disadvantages It is important to mention how immigrants tend to affect the economy of the country. According to the statistics received from the US Bureau of Labor, the participation of foreigners in the workforce was 3.
• The History of Jamaicans Immigration to Canada The final section examines and discusses the migration of Jamaicans to Canada from 1960s to the financial year 2000. Despite the importation, the Maroons who in 1976 migrated to Halifax became the earliest Jamaicans to […]
• Irish-Catholic Immigration to America The importance of this event appeared from the fact that the Irish migration was one of the most significant contributors to the American immigrants’ inflow.
• Immigration Issues in Alfonso Gonzales’s Book “Reform Without Justice: Latino Migrant Politics and the Homeland Security State” Focusing on the emotions associated with the discussed ideas about the necessity of the comprehensive immigration reform, it is necessary to pay attention to the desire to support the claims of the Latino migrant activists […]
• Ferguson v. Canada: Citizenship and Immigration Case The applicant and the council counter this claim by stating that the officer’s dismissal was based on not finding evidence credible and failing to consider statements such as “Ms.
• Immigration: Benefits for the Nation or a Drain on Society? Immigration is a topical issue in the contemporary U.S., which has divided the community into two opposing camps.
• Travel and New Land: Immigration Experience I have shared my thoughts with many immigrants and found out that many of them have the same feeling of the obligation to stay loyal to the political machine of this country due to the […]
• Comparing Sweden Immigration Policy with German Immigration Policy As Herrera and Moualhi posit, “In liberal-democratic polities, the question of ‘who makes immigration policy’ evokes the question of the extent at which those policies mirror the preferences of a majority of citizens, or rather […]
• Thunder in the Sun – A Tale of Basque Gold-Rush Immigration The examination of the plot of Thunder in the Sun and credible sources focused on the Basques’ culture and immigration into the United States has revealed some inconsistencies in terms of historical evidence.
• History of Puerto Rican Immigration to New York Amid the earliest Puerto Ricans to immigrate to New York were Spanish crown exiles both men and women, due to their political beliefs and resistance for the cause of Puerto Rican sovereignty In 1917 United […]
• Chinese Immigration to Cambodia in Personal Story Mom was forced to gather up some money from relatives who were already in the refugee camp to exchange for the release of my sister.
• The IDEAL Immigration Policy Advocacy All IDEAL candidates, like most applicants nowadays, would be required to pay a processing fee in advance to cover the price of doing background checks and conducting visa interviews.
• Immigration in the United States and Canada in the Post Hart-Cella Act (1965) and Canadian Immigration (1976) Act Era Two basic factors motivate Immigration in the world; the first one is the reason to move from country of origin and second, the reason to move to a host country.
• Immigration in New York City and Its Effects Steele and Perkins examine the impact of the apparent volume of migrants in the neighborhood on the propensity to redistribute in New York City.
• The Maya Immigration to the United States Therefore, each narrative included in the article “Maya Youth in Los Angeles” by Alicia Ivonne Estrada helps a reader to determine the factors that affected the Maya immigration to the U.S.
• The Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada The IRB is comprised of the Immigration Appeal Division, the Immigration Division, and the Refugee Protection Division. The governor-in-council appoints the Chairperson of the IRB who is supported by the vice-chairperson and deputy chairperson.
• The National Immigration Enforcement The intention of ICE to employ their agents in sanctuary cities will only make the gap between the cities and enforcement agencies wider.
• Migration Patterns: American Immigration However, it is also crucial to refer to the effects of such processes, including the overview of local communities, the impact on the economy, and the overall development or lack thereof when multiple individuals move […]
• The Harvest of the Empire: Immigration in the US The situation has become more acute in the last few years because of global problems like the coronavirus. The entire economic development of the colonies was subordinated to the interests of Spain and Portugal.
• Climate Change and Immigration Issues Due to its extensive coverage of the aspects of climate migration, the article will be significant to the research process in acquiring a better understanding of the effects of climate change on different people from […]
• Immigration: The Key Challenges As evidenced in the four articles, the key challenges of immigration revolve around high unemployment, border militarization, and legality of DACA. The border agents, as explicated in the Carroll’s article, have doubled to 23,000 for […]
• Immigration in the US: Historical Background Therefore, it is likely that he would have supported the introduction of quotas and would have taken a position similar to Jefferson.
• The Immigration Crisis in Texas The clash between the federal government and the state of Texas over the implementation of immigration law and the exercise of these powers has been ongoing for decades now.
• The 0 Visa: Immigration Case Study The purpose of the work is to consider an example of a 0 visa case from a family of three people and the possible issues that an officer may encounter.
• Soledad Castillo’s Immigration to the USA To reach the USA at that time, the group of people Soledad was with had to stay invisible and quiet because the actions they took were illegal.
• Irish Immigration to America and the Slavery Despite the fact that the Irish encountered a great number of obstacles, the immigration of Irish people to the United States was advantageous not only to the immigrants but also to the United States.
• Discussion of Holocaust and Immigration In “Holocaust Education and Remembrance in Australia,” Suzanne D.and Suzanne H.discuss the adverse effects and after-issues of immigration among the Jewish community and how it led to the concept that the Holocaust had a long-lasting […]
• Phenomenon of Immigration Analysis The phenomenon of immigration is often viewed as a complex one due to the concerns and fears associated with the increase in the number of immigrants within a community.
• Immigration Controversy in the United States This might have a significant influence on the quality of decisions and the care provided to immigrants. The financial and emotional obstacles that children of immigrants encounter in a new nation are sometimes complex.
• Immigration in American Economic History Because of the discriminatory attitudes that existed in society, I was not able to find a high-paying job. Those were the physical challenges I had to face in the form of sickness and starvation.
• Migration to the Caribbean vs. African Immigration While the 19-20-th-centiury migration to the Caribbean historically has nothing to do with African immigration, the underlying cause of racism and discrimination case the main reason for migration connects the specified phenomena.
• Abolishing the Immigration and Customs Enforcement Detention Centers Although the abolition of ICE detention centers could potentially encourage the violation of the country’s immigration policies, they constitute a tool for racial subordination and exacerbate the problem of mass incarceration.
• The Irish Immigration to America in the 19th Century The increase in food production and income from the war led to increased fertility rates among the Irish. The abrupt end of the war in the early nineteenth century precipitated the emigration.
• Immigration System and Homeland Security The combined efforts of the agencies constituting the Department of Homeland Security in addressing the safety needs of American citizens have a predominant impact on the immigration system.
• Immigration and Homeland Security as Issues It is important to note that the issues of immigration and homeland security are the problem of the moral duty of the United States as a beacon of democracy and the safety of its current […]
• Geopolitics, Diplomacy and Small States: Immigration Challenges in Switzerland The current foreign policies of the country have remained ineffective in regulating the influx of foreigners in the country. The following are some of the specific challenges that are associated with the high rate of […]
• Globalization, Immigration, and Class Division It includes the widespread globalization of countries, diverse economic perception of each, and the acute ethical and legal side of the immigration issue.
• The Florence Project: Immigration According to a fellow volunteer at the Florence Project, one of the biggest non-profit organizations in Arizona, the need for social and emotional support for Mexican immigrants has been of utmost importance across the state […]
• The Texas Border, Security, and Immigration Immigration from Mexico is not thought to represent a violation of U.S.security, but the issue of the Texas border remains relevant and intriguing.
• The Immigration Stations of Ellis Island and Angel Island Although the Angel Island Immigration Station was often referred to as the “Ellis Island” of the West, the conditions in these sites were very different, and so was the treatment of the arriving immigrants.
• Alabama and California Immigration Policies The higher population of immigrants in California pushes the states to create a positive environment for the majority as opposed to Alabama.
• Waves of Immigration: Recognizing Race and Ethnicity In 1965, Congress overturned the discriminatory immigration quota system and passed legislation based on the principles of family reunification and the attraction of a highly-skilled workforce to the United States.
• Immigration: Social Issue Feeling Analysis From the global perspective, the most influencing countries in the world use visa and other conditions of entering the country as a migration regulating tool.
• The Problem of Immigration in the US Puerto Rico came to capitalism and imperialism, and the transformation of this territory into a state “under the wing” of the United States led to the loss of culture, tourism, and an increase in poverty […]
• Illegal Immigration Policies and Violent Crime The authors of this article discuss how illegal immigration and border enforcement influence the level of crime along the U.S.-Mexico border.
• Strategies for Solving the Issue of Illegal Immigration in the US The first one is enforcing the measures preventing it, and the second one is changing immigration policy in order to make legalization easier.
• Immigration: Life Chances and Difficulties Other factors are unsuitable weather conditions, persecution, threats to life or health, poverty in the country, risks of disease, and infection. Therefore, immigrants want to find a better place to live in order to improve […]
• The Crisis of Cultural Identity of Luxembourg Due to Massive Immigration The possibility of a city-wide display exhibiting the workmanship and specialties of Luxembourg could be a method for opening the secret of the nation’s way of life. There is an incredible blend of individuals who […]
• Resolving Mexico’s Immigration Crisis A stable rate of immigrants and refugees, particularly traveling in so ‘caravans’ coming from South and Central Americas into Mexico with the hopes of reaching the U.S.or finding permanent residence in Mexico at the least.
• Immigration, Cultural Encounters, and Cultural Clashes He also obeyed the religious traditions of his country by avoiding beef in his food, opting for milk and cornflakes as a meal.
• The Birth of Illegal Immigration In addition, Americans blamed Chinese immigrants for low wages and the unemployment rate, which further influenced the ban on Asians to move to the U.S.
• Immigration: Orientalism and Yellow Power The migration was propelled by drought and floods on the Opium trade between the Chinese and the British. The initial resistance against the Chinese started in 1875 with the enactment of the Page Act.
• Biden Ends Workplace Immigration Raids, Reversing Trump Policy Firstly, the announcement will contribute immensely towards the integrity of most employers in the sense that it is going to push employers to pursue only documented immigrants for labor without putting excessive pressure on the […]
• Immigration: The Costs and Benefits According to the author, due to the prevailing ethnocentrism and the division of society into “us” and “outsiders,” the community often treats immigrants with prejudice.
• Analysis of DACA and Immigration Illegal immigration and its handling has always been a hot button topic in the US, especially after the events of 9/11 and the creation of the department of homeland security.
• Cost of Immigration Enforcement and Border Security Functional Components of the Incident Command System Out of the functions described in the table focusing on the NRF, the most useful and important one is definitely prevention of terrorist attacks and associated incidents.
• Analysis of Immigration Issues The lack of protection for the work of immigrants demands compared to people born in this country and who had the opportunity to get a job because the state protects them.
• US Immigration Policy and Its Correlation to Structural Racism That may create breaches in the immigration policy and cause social instability that could endanger the status of immigrants and even negatively affect the lives of the nationals.
• Immigration to the US in Relation to Covid-19 Overall, the human right to change the place of residence should be upheld by the nations of the world. To conclude, the issues related to immigration should be of more significant concern to the world’s […]
• Ambiguous Loss: Immigration and Separation of Families To lessen the impact of ambiguous loss, immigrants and their families need therapy, community support, and advocacy for policy change to keep them safe.
• Impacts of Immigration and Urbanization Urbanization is a special term that describes the decreasing proportion of people who live in rural areas, the population shift from rural to urban areas, and the possible ways of societies’ adaption to these changes. […]
• The Implications of Immigration When considering the results of the process, both the sender and the receiver country must be discussed, as well as the implications for the migrants themselves.
• Aspects of Immigration Reform Creating a fair, legal, and humane immigration system requires the legalization of almost 11 million immigrants already staying in the country and the simplification of obtaining citizenship in the country.
• COVID-19 and Immigration Issues On March 20th, 2020, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of the US Department of Health and Human Services issued a special order to curb the spread of COVID-19.
• Homeland Security Analysis: The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services The mission and duties of this agency are closely related to the September 11 events not to face similar losses and threats in the future.
• Immigration Policy in Germany and the United States Germany and the United States contrast each other in resolving the public issue of immigration. The immigration policies of Germany and the United States cater to specific key stakeholders.
• Immigration and Naturalization Service Officer Career For the present paper, I have selected to profile the careers of Custom Officer and Immigration and Naturalization Service Officer. However, the entry-level position for customs is often administrative assistant, who works mainly with documents […]
• Immigration: Where Did Your Ancestors Live? Officially, it is referred to as the Republic of Haiti, and the population of this country is approximately ten million people.
• Immigration from Asia and India: Political Impacts In retrospect, the literature review of the issue at hand has shown that there is a significant gap in the study of the factors that shape immigrants’ ability to reconnect with their cultural roots.
• Immigration: Political Impacts and Social Changes Particularly, the author posits that the increase in the amount of labor force that immigration entails leads to the improved performance of local companies, hence the rise in GDP rates and the overall increase in […]
• Angel Island Immigration Station While European immigrants coming into the country at the beginning of the twentieth century were more familiar with Ellis Island of New York, the Orientals underwent the experience of the immigration station at Angel Island.
• Hearth and Home Perception in 19th-Century Victorians Due to Immigration Nevertheless, the Victorian perception of what constitutes the concept had undergone severe changes in the 19th century, when the heart of the British Empire saw a significant wave of migration into the metropolis from its […]
• Debate on Immigration Policy: Law Enforcement Practices It is presumed that a wise immigration policy performed by the representatives of the police departments is likely to stabilize the current set of things and to reduce the number of illegal unregistered immigration cases.
• Immigration Museum and Cultural Diversity in Australia History The timeline presenting the main periods of immigration which is exhibited in the gallery can help to understand the development of the cultural diversity in Australia from the historic point of view because various periods […]
• Immigration Debate: Literature Study The Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the U. The Immigration Debate: Studies On The Economic, Demographic, And Fiscal Effects Of Immigration.
• Immigration Asylum and Nationality Law In the UK it is very easy to move from a temporary settlement to a permanent one and it has increased the levels of net migration to the brimming level.
• Immigration Policy, Border Security and Migrant Deaths The research design that was used to collect this data was to investigate the rate of deaths that were experienced among the immigrants since the enactment of the immigration policy.
• Immigration and Refugee Law in New Zealand Consequently, the refugee policy comes about due to the flow of obligations courtesy of the 1960 UNHCR Convention, that is to say, the provision of refugees’ protection.
• The Current Immigration and Customs Immigration has always been the backbone of American history and the country’s rich cultural and ethnic diversity. Immigration in the U.S.is overseen by the Department of Homeland Security and its various agencies.U.S.
• Immigration and Its Impact on Employment Opportunities of Local People On the macroeconomic level, the inflow of immigrants to a country leads to an expansion in the size of an economy.
• Immigration and the United States On the other hand, the approximated number of immigrants in the region is 58 million, and the group is projected to be the main source of the future labor force.
• The Immigration in Abu Dhabi Abu Dhabi, in particular, is a noteworthy case study subject due to its history as the center of the UAE government and its corresponding influence on the question of immigration in the nation.
• Immigration Programs in the US Despite its economic, military and cultural power and the concept of an American dream, the US is far from the land of hopes it is portrayed to be.
• US Politics of Immigration The representatives of the Democratic and the Republican Parties of the United States have opposite viewpoints on immigration-related issues. In conclusion, the views of Democrats and Republicans on immigration are completely different.
• Immigration and Multiculturalism: Flow of Workers This paper aims to address the question of whether the flow of workers makes a positive impact on the host country in the context of society and business.
• The Immigration Benefits Specialists define labour migration as an advantageous process that positively affects the development of the economy in countries of employment and the improvement of the quality of life of families of labour migrants in their […]
• Immigration in Canada and Ethnicity: New Perspectives Such a reality will continue to influence and affect the life outcomes of the greatest number of Canadian citizens with diverse backgrounds in the future.
• Immigration From Mexico to the United States In the present day, the immigration of Mexican citizens to the United States is a topic of considerably intense debates for various political and economic reasons.
• Role of Immigration in Development of Canadian History Changes to the Immigration Act in the 1960s and the Royal Commission recommendations that led to the bilingual framework and multiculturalism stance of the Canadian government signified the significant shift for the country from being […]
• The History of Immigration to the United States and the Nature of Racism The development of the idea of race and ethnicity along with the idea of racial antagonism has two main stages in the history of the United States.
• Immigrant Adaptation Patterns Generally, the main difference of this form of adaptation is in the fact that immigrants may continue having their own cultural perceptions as their connections with the motherland are still strong due to family ties, […]
• Mitt Romney Softens Stance on Immigration The minority vote, particularly the Latino, has been on the increase and could have an effect on the election by providing a margin of victory on some of the states such as Nevada, Colorado and […]
• Illegal Immigration Control in the Texas Although the public assigns immense powers to the governor’s office, Texas’ office of the governor enjoys weak institutional powers because of the constitution’s provision of multiple offices that server alongside the office of the governor.
• Chinese American Immigration The Chinese American immigration consists of two distinct periods: first wave occurred between the 1850s and 1880s and ended in the appearance of federal laws that restricted the immigration: and the second wave that started […]
• US Immigration: Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Philippines The origins of Philippines immigration lie in its historical and political links with the United States Philippines used to be first annexed by the United States in 1989 and then an insular area of the […]
• Immigration Of Mexicans Into The United States In The Early 20th Century In the book, “Becoming Mexican American: ethnicity, culture, and identity in Chicano Los Angeles 1900-1945”, the author, Sanchez, addresses various issues that led to the immigration of Mexican into the United States. Community crisis is […]
• Berlin: Music, Spies, and Turkish Immigration And I think that Berlin’s split during the XX century has also influenced the music that was produced and written here: in its core, it reflects the differences and similarities between the East and West.
• The Illegal Immigration Prevention Policy For example, one of the biggest of them would be the necessity to analyze all the gathered information. Therefore, it is safe to assume that there would be no shortage of information for the Chef […]
• The Immigration Crisis by Armando Navarro This is a strategy that has been incepted to reduce the immigration of the people especially in countries that have direct business transactions.
• Birthright Citizenship in the US This is whereby a foreigner travels to the United State for a short period for the sole reason of giving birth in the U.S.in order to guarantee the citizenship of the child.
• Failure of Immigration Laws in Pakistan and Its Influence on American Economy The military death and announcement of the Al Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden by the president of the United States of America have raised eyebrows on the immigration policies of Pakistan as a sovereign nation.
• “Arizona Immigration Law Debate Triggers National Shockwaves” by Nowicki While the motives of the author are unknown, it is likely that proposing the debate as so contentious will cause the audience to be more enticed to read and more engaged in the material.
• Immigration: The Ethical Side So, in order to make it clear, the essay will touch upon ethical advantages and disadvantages of immigration for the countries of origin and for the US.
• Mexican-US Immigration: Causes and Effects The drift of Mexicans or Latinos into the US is begging for increased concerns recently, especially among Republicans and the concern around decision tables is to itemize and resolve causes and effects that are directly […]
• Current Immigration Patterns in Canada The refugee population is made up of the populace who come to seek refuge in Canada as well as the populace made up of persons brought to Canada by churches, private sponsors as well as […]
• Arizona’s 2010 Immigration Law and US Economy A challenge is thrown to this clause by the 2010 Arizona immigration Law in America. It is this very thing that the founding fathers of the American Constitution had feared and thus took steps to […]
• The American Immigration Debate In the context of the present discussion of the immigrant debate in the US, one should turn to the work of Brimelow who has offered a rather radical solution to the problem of immigration.
• Immigration Issues in the USA The USA is the country that was built up of immigrants at the period of British colonization about three centuries ago; people who could not find their happiness and welfare in the Old Land came […]
• Causes and Consequences of Immigration to Canada The Chinese and Japanese still kept their oriental culture while the rest of the immigrants adapted to the new way of living in Canada.
• Ellis Island as an Immigration Station The minority of the un-admitted immigrants who had spent time and energy on the long journey to the Island led to the Island being referred to as “The Heartbreak Island” or the “The Island of […]
• Race Relations in Britain. Immigration Situation This was the first large-scale migration of colored immigrants as compared to the minimal migrations that Britain had gotten used to.
• Saenz’ Opinion on Comprehensive Legislation on Immigration In addition to this is the fact that, it would be in accordance with the respect for human rights that the country stands for.
• Russian Immigration to America after 1945 The first wave of migration of the Russians was in the second half of the nineteenth century and during the early 20th Century before the First World War.
• Social Issues in Kuwait: Immigration Workforce Among the frequently highlighted issues in the country, one is the low productivity among the local workforce due to the high influence of favoritism and nepotism in promotions and merits.
• Immigration in California: “Moving Still” by Francisco Jimenez The atmosphere of fear and poverty forced the families to break the rules and to overcome the frontier in the pursuit of welfare.
• US Immigration in Late 19th Century In the late 19th century, following the stream of the “Gold Rush”, millions of immigrants entered the United States, most of them attracted by the opportunity to earn “easy money” and to escape the hardships […]
• Humanities. Immigration Issues in the United States The scope of the problem of illegal immigration in the United States has remained undefined due to the vagueness of the immigration policies.
• The Effects of Immigration in Texas The period between 200 and 2006 saw the population of the foreign-born in the Texas state increase by twenty-four percent and it was during this same period that the state gained over 650,000 immigrants bringing […]
• Jobs and the American Economy: The Issue of Immigration The issues of immigration to the USA, either legal or illegal are of great significance for the US government. Since the 1990s, lots of academic researches have tried to charge the extent to which immigration […]
• Catholic and Jewish Immigration in the United States The experiences and challenges of starting a new life in America were very different for both the Catholics and the Jews primarily because of their different social cultural and social economic disparities.
• The History of Canadian Immigration and Innovative Federal Immigration Policy Though this phenomenon has outlined in positive financial growth in Canada there are lots of fundamental complexities that immigrants usually have to challenge when immigrating to Canada comprising the underdevelopment of community services, difficulties in […]
• French Immigration: Rights of Foreign-Born Citizens An analysis of the impact of immigrants on the average level and distribution of income among the native population shows that immigrants with higher levels of skill are more likely to raise the average level […]
• Women Study: Immigration and Mothering One of the most essential areas of such studies is immigration in relation to gender and specifically mothering.”Immigration and Mothering; Case Studies from Two Generations of Korean Immigrant Women” by Seungsook Moon is an attempt […]
• Illegal Immigration: Difference in Covering the Matter The aim of the paper is to discover the difference in covering the matter of illegal migration to Canary Islands from sub-Saharan including periodical issues, radio broadcasts, and a photo, in order not only to […]
• Amending Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 The arguments for the former side include the following: first is that there is an unprecedented increase in the inflow of illegal workers in the United States.
• Why Immigration Is a Problem When Amir came to rescue him, he is beaten by Assef and Sohrab hits Assef with a stone from the sling in the eye and it is when they manage to escape and go back […]
• Necessity of Immigration Reform in America Basically, immigration reform pertains to policies and programs that aim to improve the development of the quality of life that will aid in the adjustments of the immigrants.
• Open Immigration Borders Migration: Effects of Muslim Ideologically, the presence of the Muslim religion has affected the lives of the people of France in one way or the other.
• Immigration, Hispanics, and Mass Incarceration in the U.S. This article evaluates the effect of the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act, that led to the legalization of approximately 3 million immigrants had on the crime rates in the U.S.
• Immigration and Labor Law The majority of research findings suggest that despite the active work of the legislative branch on the improvement of immigration policies, the lives of both documented and undocumented foreigners are obstructed with multiple limitations and […]
• Immigration as a Source of Community Problems In order to address the immigration concern, one will have to create a more welcoming and inviting economic and social environment for immigrants, reducing the propensity toward a cross-cultural conflict and engaging the members of […]
• How Immigration Affects Global Business The purpose of this paper is to apply different case studies and thoughts to describe how immigration continues to affect global business.
• Federal Immigration Policy: Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals It allowed people who came to the U.S.as minors to be in the U.S.legally. Hence, my perspective is that one needs to be educated and well-informed on the ongoing situation, as it concerns every person […]
• Immigration History of New York City: The Most Significant Center for New Arrivals This essay addresses the immigration history of New York City through the examination of the general history of American immigration, the city’s background, and its contemporary state from the perspective of newcomers.
• The Migrant and Immigration Issues in the US Society Reading John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath and Helena Mar a Viramontes’s Under the Feet of Jesus altered my understanding of the problems related to migration and immigration.
• The History of Korean American Immigration Experience Firstly, the documentary by Coffman displays the urge of the Korean people to avoid the Japanese imperialism that was developing on the Korean territory at that time.
• Immigration Issues in the United States It was built on the labor, ideas, and cultural melting pot of immigrants coming to the US in the hopes of achieving the American dream, finding a new life, and establishing a home for their […]
• New Waves of Immigration to the United States The author specifies that, with the U.S.quickly becoming a crucial political power in the global arena, people from the countries that were either colonized by the U.S.or suffered economic issues because of the economic expansion […]
• Immigration and Crime Rates in the United States The paper evaluates the effects of immigration on crime in America and discusses the hidden dangers of America’s political asylum opportunities. There ought to be a law that limits the number of political asylum seekers […]
• Labor Economy and Immigration A particular way to measure discrimination in the context of labor is to calculate mean earnings indicators for groups of people of different gender and age and to come from different ethnic backgrounds; in case […]
• The Immigration Museum: Cultural Diversity in Australia The Immigration Museum is an exhibition center that was opened in 1998, with the aim of exhibiting the cultural diversity and the Indigenous history of Australia.
• International Immigration Flows: Economic Pressure Therefore, these countries experience economic integration and diversification, a factor that attract immigrants to new destinations due to favorable terms of trade.
• Social Issues of the Immigration Journal The authors studied the impacts of multiculturalism of the period 1980s to 1990s on institutional forms of immigrants in the Netherlands.
• Irish and German Immigration to the 19th-Century US In the middle of the 19th century, half of the Irish and German population immigrated to America. One of the main reasons that made Irish and Germans immigrate was the presence of large land in […]
• Employment Law: Immigration Reform and Control Act Due to this fact, Patricia and other employers are expected to follow the specifications of this law. There are several procedures that Patricia is expected to follow in the process of employment.
• Ethics of Illegal Immigration Effects on the US As such, the Immigration Act of 1924 was established, which promoted the immigration of foreign citizens into the US to meet these requirements, and also created several objective preconditions for foreigners to consider entering America […]
• Immigration Influence on Israeli Residents’ Personality Traits The research problem of the present study is how immigration, the following acculturation, and multilingualism influence the personality traits of Israeli residents.
• Changes in Immigration Policy Nevertheless, there are a lot of issues surrounding the policy that is connected both to the reaction of the community and the possible negative outcomes of its implementation.
• Fiscal Concerns and Public Attitude towards Immigration In the past few years, immigration has changed the demographic composition of a majority of the developed countries. The political economy approach considers the economic impacts of immigration that lead to native people rejecting or […]
• Illegal Immigration Issue in the USA The secure border could also be considered one of the possible solutions to the problem of illegal immigration as it will help to control this very aspect.
• Muslim Immigration to European Countries This popularity has been because of the high number of immigrants that have been witnessed in the preceding years in France, Germany, and Britain experiencing the largest influx of immigrants from different countries.
• Women’s Immigration and Its High Price However, these women and children must meet their daily needs, which implies that they have to seek employment from the host regions and countries.
• The New Immigration Laws Creating a New Realty The main advantage of this new policy is that it empowers the customs and immigration officials to deport anyone that they arrest for being in the country illegally.
• Donald Trump’s Immigration Speech The audience consisted mostly of his electorate and, judging from the reaction of the crowd observed in the video, the majority of the listeners were sympathetic with the content as they reacted positively to the […]
• Immigration Pros and Cons for the Immigrants Themselves This paper will evaluate the economic consequences of immigration to immigrants and will give a summary of how this is going to outweigh its negative social-economic consequences to the unskilled immigrants.
• Immigration as the Positive Economic Consequences in the USA On the face of it, the principal benefit, which an unskilled immigrant is likely to receive in the USA, is the level of wages set for different types of basic labour.
• Immigration and Urban Change in the USA As the former colony of the British Empire, the USA was built by the hands of the immigrants, so immigration issues were and still are among the top problems in American society.
• Open Immigration, Its Benefits and Morality In this paper, Kukathas articulates that the benefits of open migration as compared to other approaches to the question of immigration. In this essay, Risse makes the argument that “the natural resources of the planet […]
• Illegal Immigration, Its Causes, Methods, Effects It is the duty of immigration officers to update all the expired visas and ensure that either they are renewed or the victims leave the country.
• Current Immigration Issues in the United States
• Immigration in Trump’s Candidate Speech
• Immigration and Healthcare in the United States
• Immigration and Refugee Protection Act for Women
• Illegal Immigration Crisis: Problems and Solutions
• The Economics of Immigration
• Immigration Pros and Cons for the United States
• The Problems of Immigration: Muneera Qahtani Views
• A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life
• Identity, Immigration and American Public Opinion
• New York Times: Obama Vows to Push Immigration Changes
• Media View in Shaping Immigration
• Immigrants’ Human Rights in America: The Issue of Immigration as Old as the Country
• Immigration Effects in Patrick Buchanan’s The Death of the West
• How Immigration Relates to Post-Human and Globalization?
• Immigration in America: the Current Understanding
• Justice of Immigration in the United States
• Ontario Immigration Rates Growth
• Immigration, Voting and Naturalization Laws
• Reasons of Immigration Literature Growth
• Operation Jump Start in Immigration Issues: Pros and Cons
• Immigration and Its Effects to the Middle East
• Relationship of Immigration and Median Household
• Sheriff Joe’s Illegal Immigration in Arizona
• Immigration Laws in Arizona State
• UK Immigration in 2015
• Ethnic Groups in the US Immigration History
• Political Sciences: American Immigration
• Immigration Debate in the US
• Waves of Immigration to the United States
• Immigration Issues in Different Spheres
• Illegal Immigration in the United States
• Illegal Immigration Problem in the United States
• Immigration and Deportation Processes
• Is the Legalization of Illegal Aliens a Good Solution to Illegal Immigration in America?
• Middle Eastern Immigrants in Australia
• Immigration as Social Issue in Australia
• The Aspects of Immigration into Australia
• Role of Frontex in Combating Illegal Immigration in the European Union Territory
• Illegal Immigration in the United States as an Economic Burden
• The Issue of Muslims’ Immigration to Australia
• Stopping Illegal Immigration: Border Security
• Analysis of Race and Ethnicity in U.S. Immigration History
• History of Immigration to the United States
• Arab Immigration in USA
• U.S. Immigration Reform Policy Circa 2001 to Present
• Domestic and Immigration Policies
• Immigration and Changes in British Society around the Time Period the Novel is Set
• Bridging People Together: When Immigration Issue Comes to the Forth
• Immigration and Multiculturalism in Australia
• Economics and Immigration in Japan
• Immigration and Illegal Foreigners in Japan
• Legal Mexican Immigration Wave Since 1965
• Immigration to Australia (Arabic Case)
• Impact of the DREAM Act on Immigration in America
• Immigration of Filipino Nurses to the United States
• History of Immigration in the United States
• Women and Immigration Challenges
• Immigration Reform in the United States
• Immigration Admission and Control Polices
• Immigration Policies and Economy
• Types of Diasporas: Articles Analysis
• Public Opinion on Immigration and Ethnic Relations in the US
• Effects of illegal immigration on the economy of the United States and the measures that be taken to minimize the effect
• Is Immigration an Economic benefit to the Host Country?
• Controversy Surrounding Immigration
• How Has Immigration Transformed the Life and Culture of London Over the Past 150 Years?
• Canadian Immigration Policies: Points-Based System
• U.S. Immigration Encouragement
• Errors Made by the United States Citizen and Immigration Service When Processing Immigration Forms
• Socio-Economic Benefits of Immigrant Population in the US and Canada
• Immigration in the Film ‘The Guest worker’
• Economic advantages and disadvantages of immigration into the U.S.
• Sweden and Denmark: Immigration policies
• Age at Immigration and Second Language Proficiency Among Foreign-born Adults by Gillian Stevens
• Immigration Specificity of ELLs in Canada and the USA
• Immigration Reform and the Economic Impact
• Immigration Reform in US Government
• Justice Theories and American Immigration System
• Political Immigration as Addressed in City on the Edge: The Transformation of Miami
• Impact of Immigration on the Geography of Canada
• Immigration: “City on the Edge” and “Friends or Strangers”
• The Political Affairs and Strategies of Immigration Laws in the State of North Carolina
• Immigration Bill in US
• Immigration bias on Hispanics in North Carolina
• Myths About Immigration in the U.S.
• Immigration, Socioeconomic and Upward Mobility and Cultural Assimilation
• United States Immigration History
• The Root Cause of Racism and Ethnic Stratification in the US
• A Speech Touching on Immigration Reforms
• Women Immigration to US
• American Immigration History
• History of Immigration and Its Timeline in the United States
• History of Immigration – United States
• Rights of Immigrants and Immigration Policy
• Globalisation, Immigration, Race and Ethnicity in Vancouver
• Immigration and Discrimination in the Workplace
• Immigration Debate: Romney & Obama
• Immigration’s Influence on the USA
• Economic Consequences of Immigration
• Economic Consequences of Immigration on Socioeconomic Activities
• Immigration in the Contemporary American Society
• Factor that Cause Immigration
• Consequences of Immigration
• The Issue of Illegal Immigration
• Coming to America: An Exploration of Immigration
• Annotation of Immigration Effects on Homicide Offending for Total and Race/Ethnicity-Disaggregated Populations
• Anti-Anti Immigration: Principles to Make Migration Work
• The Impact of Immigration on the American Society and Culture
• Immigration as Political Issue in the USA
• Immigration Policy: Government Approach and Solutions
• Effect of Immigration on American Economy
• Migration, Immigration, and Emigration, and their Effects on Religion, Women, and Minorities in Egypt
• Illegal Immigration: Views of Policy Makers, Media and General Public
• The Impact of Immigration on the Economy of the USA
• The Chief Tool of the “White Australian Policy” was the Immigration Restriction Act, 1901
• The Immigration History in the United States
• Argument for Measures to Control Illegal Immigration
• The Immigration Status for Students
• Free-rider Problem and Illegal Immigration
• The History of Canada, Its Position on Immigration
• Economic Contribution of Slaves and Present Day Legal and Illegal Immigration
• Legal Immigration versus Illegal Immigration in America
• Crossing Borders: Immigration Issue
• Immigration and Crime Rate
• Pros and Cons of Immigration for the Immigrants
• Implications of Illegal Immigration in the US
• Immigration Admissions and Control Policies
• Immigration Policies Challenges
• Analyzing the Issue of Illegal Immigration in the US
• Immigration and Ethnic Relations
• World Publics Welcome Global Trade – But Not Immigration
• Arizona Immigration Law Reform
• The Fact of Immigration in the US and Media Reaction
• Arizona Immigration Law: What For?
• Maria Full of Grace and De Nadie: Immigration in Terms of Shots and Angles
• Are Attitudes Towards Immigration Changing in Europe?
• Should Anti Immigration Measures Between the Us and Mexico Be?
• Are There Valid Economic Grounds for Restricting Immigration?
• Can Illegal Immigration Ever Be Solved?
• Does Education Affect Attitudes Towards Immigration?
• Should Nations Restrict Immigration?
• Why Do Americans Think Immigration Hurts the Economy?
• Can Illegal Immigration Lead to Terrorism?
• Can Immigration Alleviate the Demographic Burden?
• Does Immigration Affect Demand for Redistribution?
• Should America Encourage Immigration?
• Can Immigration Compensate for Europe’s Low Fertility?
• Are Concerns Over Immigration to Do With Culture of Economic Reasons?
• Can Immigration Reduce Imbalances Among Labor Markets?
• Does Immigration Affect the American Economy?
• Can Immigration Slow U.S. Population Aging?
• Can Old Immigration Theories Be Applied to New Immigrants?
• How Unification and Immigration Affected the German Income Distribution?
• Can Selective Immigration Policies Reduce Migrants’ Quality?
• Can Immigration Mitigate the Rising Pension Burden in Europe?
• Does Border Enforcement Protect U.S. Workers From Illegal Immigration?
• How Was Immigration Throughout the 1960s?
• Does Educational Choice Erode the Immigration Surplus?
• Should Countries Implement Immigration Quotas?
• Does Europe Need Mass Immigration?
• Can Immigration Save Our Social Protection System?
• Does Immigration Affect Public Education Expenditures?
• How Should the United States Treat the Present Day Immigrants?
• Should Immigration Standards Tougher?
• Who Has the Most Impact on Illegal Immigration Policy?
• Immigrant Stories: A Visual Journey
• How Cultural Identity is Redefined in Modern Immigration
• How Immigration Transforms Culinary Traditions
• Symbolism of Borders, Walls, and Bridges in Immigration Narratives
• Analysis of Science Fiction Works on Alien Immigration
• Does Language Unite or Divide Communities?
• Ways to Depict the Emotions of Immigrant Experience
• Immigration Stories in Song Form
• How Digital Technology Impacted Immigration
• The Possibility of Extraterrestrial Immigration
• Global Migration Patterns Throughout the 20th Century
• Immigration Policies Around the World: Comparison
• Push and Pull Factors of Immigration.
• The Impact of Immigration on Host Country’s Language.
• Approaches to Immigrant Inclusion.
• Challenges Faced by Refugees and Asylum Seekers
• The Role of Migrant Workers in a Country’s Economy
• Educational Opportunities for Immigrant Youth
• Myths and Reality of Undocumented Immigration
• How Immigration Detention Relates to Human Rights Concerns?
• Border Security and Migration Management Strategies
• How Do Migrants Negotiate Their Sense of Belonging?
• Humanitarian Issue of Family Separation
• Immigration Biases and Stereotypes in Media Representation
• Celebrating Diversity of Immigrants in Host Countries
• Social Problems Essay Ideas
• Social Responsibility Topics
• Colonization Essay Ideas
• Segregation Research Topics
• Immigration Reform Topics
• Human Trafficking Titles
• Cultural Identity Research Topics
• Demography Paper Topics
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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The 12th International Conference Synergies in Communication (SiC 2024)

CALL FOR PAPERS

                                            31 October- 1 November 2024

(hybrid format)

The Department of Modern Languages and Business Communication of the Bucharest University of Economic Studies (ASE) ,Romania,is organizing the 12thannual international conference Synergies in Communication (SiC 2024) , to be held in a hybrid format on 31 October- 1 November 2024 . The event will be organized under the auspices of the Faculty of International Business and Economics in partnership with Université d'Artois, University of Zaragoza, Aix-Marseille Université, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan University (SOA), Hiroshima University, Institutul de Filologie Română „B.P.-Hasdeu” al Ministerului Educației, Culturii și Cercetării al Republicii Moldova, “Ovidius” University of Constanta and QUEST Romania, PROSPER-ASE Language Centre, The Romanian Society for English and American Studies (RSEAS), a member of The European Society for the Study of English (ESSE), Romanian Association for American Studies (RAAS) .

The conference is organized around 7 thematic areas:

section 1: Synergies in LINGUISTICS, business AND (INTER)CULTURAL communication. ( online )

Communication is a synergistic field where effectiveness is given by knowledge from diverse domains and by the ability to align best practice with the increasingly rapid pace of the world today. Moreover, today, universities face the challenge of meeting their dual role as institutions of culture and higher education as well as providers of knowledgeable, flexible, autonomous and self-determined graduates for the labour market. This section of our conference welcomes discussions on topics related to the following main areas:

• Current developments in academic and research communication
• Linguistics, sociolinguistics and (inter)cultural communication
• The language of modern media
• Language and literature in the cultural and linguistic space
• Literary and cultural studies; analyses of culturally determined values, mentalities, actions, attitudes etc.;
• Theory and practice in (inter)cultural education;
• Business communication - intercultural dimensions and specific skills demanded on the labour market.
• The inter-disciplinary dimension of business communication – changing mentalities through environmental education.
• Translation studies;
• Traductology and terminology in business and economics;

Email: [email protected]

section 2: INTERDEPENDENCES: ACADEMIC AND DIGITAL LITERACIES IN THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AND RESEARCH ENVIRONMENT. REVISITING QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION ( online )

This section provides an interdisciplinary forum for specialists in various fields to share expertise and to reflect together on ways forward, in the current academic context, with all its challenges and opportunities. This section will be organised in partnership with the “DILAN” Project, the University of Zaragoza, the Doctoral School of Humanities of “Ovidius” University Constanta, and the Romanian Association for Quality Language Services QUEST. Possible topics include (but are not restricted to):

• Academic literacy development – case studies from different international contexts;
• New developments in communication, study, teaching, assessment, and professional development in the digital era;
• Quality related aspects in the new educational and research environment - drawing inspiration from the International Association Eaquals - Evaluation and Accreditation of Quality in Language Services;
• New perspectives on academic networking and research dissemination through “DILAN” - Digital Language and Communication Training for EU Scientists.

E mail: [email protected]

section 3: Romanian cultural and linguistic studies ( Online )

Romanian academia play an important role in building bridges between values, traditions and representations attached to Romania and to other cultural areas - in Europe or worldwide. We propose to focus on the presence of Romanian culture in other countries, to strengthening connections between Romania and other cultures, to the teaching of Romanian culture and language to foreigners in Romania and abroad, with a view to using such cultural and linguistic knowledge in a multicultural context. Papers are invited on, but not limited to topics such as:

• Romanian cultural studies – literary, translation, socio-linguistic, pragmatic studies;
• Teaching Romanian as a foreign language – theory and practice;
• Enhancing Romanian and foreign students’ awareness of each other’s cultures, as a prerequisite for academic and professional mobility, as well as social and cultural inclusion.

Email : [email protected]

section 4: BOUNDARY TRANSGRESSIONS IN BETWEEN EAST AND WEST ( hybrid )

Transgression has become a reality of our times, encoded in various modes of interconnectedness afforded by this age. Whether at home or abroad, the inherent transcendence of (trans)cultural dynamics intersects with transgressive mechanisms that facilitate the contestation of hegemonic discourses. One the one hand, the idea of transgression carries geographical connotations, given its literal significance of crossing a boundary. On the other hand, at a symbolic level, the crossing of a threshold marks a step to an out of place status that contains potential for resistance within the confines of a single culture. Transgression dissolves ossified structures and patterns, revealing novel perspectives. This opens towards a fruitful interpretation of its labyrinthic nature along various lines of analysis: postcolonial, Foucauldian, or Bakhtinian, to name a few only. An important coordinate of the proposed analysis considers the relation between settlement/mobility, space and gender, questioning the subversive potential of women’s rootedness vs. motion. Given this context, we invite contributions related, but not limited to: 

• The Self and the Other; 
• Popular culture and visual anthropology;
• Women’s identity and memory;
• Psychology and trauma studies; 
• Image, imagination and imaginary worlds;
• Colonial and postcolonial studies / translation studies;
• Literature and the socio-political context
• Cultural globalization, hybridity and locality
• Settlement, nomadism, (non)conformism.

Email: [email protected]

section 5: Mindscapes and Cultural Insights in Far Eastern Studies ( online )

Focusing mainly on Far Eastern Studies, spanning from China and Korea to Japan, this section is designed not only as a debating venue on tradition, cultural representations, and academic challenges in a volatile contemporary context, but also as an interdisciplinary nexus for specialists willing to share their new ideas, research results, and latest in-depth scholarship on various topics such as:

• Literary research and interpretation; Comparative literary studies; Translation studies; Semiotics;
• Linguistics, education, and language teaching;
• Cultural studies; Gender studies;
• Anthropology, mythology, and folklore;
• Media and pop-culture; Communication; Digital humanities etc.

                                                       Email: [email protected]

section 6: MULTIDISCIPLINARY APPROACHES TO THE HUMAN EXPERIENCE ( online )

What does it mean for each of us to be a human being? How do we perceive ourselves? How do we perceive others? What makes us act in a certain way? How do we relate to the people around us or to the context in which we live? This section of the conference tries to find the answer to all these simple, yet puzzling questions that touch all the intricacies, contradictions and mysteries of life. The panel intends to be a celebration of the human experience, with all its complexities, thrills and wonders. We welcome submissions that explore all aspects of this topic from various academic fields: literature, religion, culture, arts and media, psychology, pedagogy, etc. The themes for the session include, but are not limited to the following suggestions:

• The human condition: destiny, free will, the meaning of life, life as a journey, the human nature, etc.
• Self-discovery: identity and difference, belonging, language, memory, collective identity, etc.
• Individual and collective experiences: growth, finding one’s own place, a new beginning, marriage, motherhood, change, adaptation, struggle, pain, loss; community life, human relations, conflict, borders
• Complex emotions: love, passion, joy, happiness, awe, sadness, loneliness, jealousy, guilt, despair, etc.
• Human motivation and behaviour: ideals, beliefs, mindsets, manners, practices, ways of behaving
• The role of education or storytelling in shaping the human experience/ the human nature
• Experiencing different realities: religious, utopian, dystopian, fantastic, mythical imaginaries and dreams

                                                       Email: [email protected]

 SECTION  7: Migration, Diaspora(s), and Refugees  ( online )

Migration, either in theory or in practice, and its sub-fields, diasporas and refugees, are by no means a domain of the past. In 2020, according to the  International Organization for Migration , the number of migrants reached 280 million people, representing 3.60% of the world population and figures are on the rise. If migration has been seen as a phenomenon that involves a political act due to the individuals’ and communities’ personal or national affiliations, therefore portrayed moreover as a cause that triggers consequences post migration, it is more frequently seen these days as a consequence of conflictual, aggressive and even confusing politics. We expect participants to contribute with academic papers, posters, and other kinds of visuals that illustrate international migration, migrant integration, managed migration, asylum, family migration, children migration, and (temporary) protection. This interdisciplinary panel includes:

•     Economics

•     Politics

•     Legal Studies

•     Sociology

•     Anthropology

•     Literature Studies

•     Film Studies

Email: [email protected]

INFORMATION FOR AUTHORS

Conference languages: English , French , German, Italian, Spanish or Romanian . The abstracts will go through a peer-review process, followed by a notification of acceptance or request for revision.

The authors who are interested in publishing their papers are responsible for preparation of the manuscripts according to the guidelines provided. Each participant can submit maximum 2 papers as author or co-author.

Submitted full papers are subject to a double-blind peer-review process. All review comments and suggestions should be addressed in the final submission, otherwise the manuscript might be rejected at the final review stage. We request that you submit both a marked-up version (with revisions highlighted or indicated with ‘track changes’) and a “clean” version of the manuscript. The papers submitted for publication must be original, not previously published or currently submitted for publication elsewhere and they must not plagiarize or infringe the copyright of anyone.

PUBLICATION

The accepted articles will be published in the International Conference Synergies in Communication Conference Proceedings Series (with print and online ISSN) by ASE Publishing House and currently indexed in the following IDB: CEEOL , EBSCO Discovery Service, Elektronische Zeitschriftenbibliothek Regensburg (EZB), ROAD, The Linguist List, Crossref Database, Dimensions, Modern Language Association (MLA), Cosmos and MIAR. ( see: https://sic.ase.ro/index.php/international-data-bases/ )

CONFERENCE FEES

Early registration till 10 October 2024      

200 RON/ 40 EUR

Registration after      11 October 2024   

250 RON/ 55 EUR

PhD candidates

170 RON/ 35 EUR

Payments will be made by bank transfer according to the guidelines in the Registration Form (to be sent upon registration). A scanned copy of the payment receipt will be sent to the organizers after receiving the final acceptance notification.

•   KEY DATES

Submission of abstracts deadline                                       

15 October 2024    

Notification of abstract acceptance

Full paper submission

20 November 2024

Notification of full paper acceptance

28 February 2025                        

Publication of Conference Proceedings volume

End of March 2025

Facebook page:  ASE - Synergies in Communication Conference – SiC

Conference website: https://sic.ase.ro/

We look forward to receiving your abstracts and to seeing you in October!

The Synergies in Communication 2024 Organizing Team

Germany's interior minister orders expanded controls at borders to stem irregular migration, extremism risks

BERLIN -- Germany's interior minister orders expanded controls at borders to stem irregular migration, extremism risks.

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Guest Essay

These ‘Trash Trees’ Are Actually a Banquet for Wildlife

By Margaret Renkl

Ms. Renkl is a contributing Opinion writer who reports from Nashville on flora, fauna, politics and culture in the American South.

Hackberries are native to Alabama, where I grew up, but I was a child born of the piney woods, and I don’t recall ever noticing a single hackberry in my youth. The trees also grow in South Carolina, where I went to graduate school, but they didn’t register with me there, either. I was a newly transplanted Tennessean before I learned about “trash trees,” as people here call them.

The common hackberry is widespread from New England across to the Dakotas and down through the Midwest and Upper South. The Southern hackberry, a species also known as the sugarberry , blankets the Southeast down through Florida and west into Texas and northeastern Mexico. The two species overlap — and sometimes self-hybridize — in Tennessee. The Nashville naturalist Joanna Brichetto, author of the new book “ This Is How a Robin Drinks: Essays on Urban Nature ,” calls Nashville “ the hackberry capital of the world .”

I don’t know if people call them trash trees in other places, but hackberries are widely disdained in the hackberry capital of the world. Their bark is a rough swath of warts. Their pocked, wrinkled, gall-infested leaves always look a little sick. In spring, their flowers drop to the ground and cover the sidewalks, and in fall their berrylike drupes do the same, without any gorgeous fall color to compensate for the mess.

One of the hackberries’ least desirable characteristics is not, strictly speaking, a feature of the trees themselves. Hackberries are targeted by the invasive Asian woolly hackberry aphid , which like all aphids excretes a sticky form of waste called honeydew. In wet summers, rain washes the honeydew away, but in dry years, the honeydew can accumulate and promote the growth of a soot-colored mold on whatever — car, sidewalk, patio furniture — happens to lie beneath the branches of a hackberry tree. “The mold is absolutely harmless,” Ms. Brichetto said when I asked her about it, “but people freak out.”

Unluckiest of all for a tree trying to survive the built human environment, hackberries have a growing habit that also freaks people out. Hackberries can grow giant horizontal branches that sprawl out across great expanses. Left unpruned, those heavy old limbs sometimes drop onto houses during storms.

By now you’re thinking, “Yeah, that’s totally a trash tree.” I spent my first years here thinking the same thing.

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About migration

IOM Appeals for USD 13.3 Million to Help Hundreds of Thousands Affected by Yemen Floods

Flooding and storms have wreaked havoc in Yemen, with homes reduced to debris and families left in critical need of assistance. Photo: IOM/Haithm Abdulbaqi 

Yemen, 5 September – In response to the severe flooding and violent windstorms affecting nearly 562,000 people in Yemen, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) has launched a USD 13.3 million appeal to deliver urgent life-saving assistance. The unprecedented weather events have compounded the humanitarian crisis in the country, leaving thousands of internally displaced persons and host communities in dire need of assistance.  

“Yemen is facing yet another devastating chapter in its relentless crisis, exacerbated by the intersection of conflict and extreme weather events,” said Matt Huber, IOM Yemen’s Acting Chief of Mission. “IOM teams are on the ground, working around the clock to deliver immediate relief to families affected by this catastrophe. However, the scale of the destruction is staggering, and we urgently need additional funding to ensure that the most vulnerable are not left behind. We must act immediately to prevent further loss and alleviate the suffering of those impacted.”  

In recent months, torrential rains and flooding have destroyed homes, displaced thousands of families, and severely damaged critical infrastructure, including health centres, schools, and roads. Across multiple governorates, including Ibb, Sana’a, Ma’rib, Al Hodeidah, and Ta’iz, thousands of people have been left without shelter, clean water, or access to basic services, and scores of lives have been tragically lost.  

The storms have struck as the country grapples with a cholera outbreak and escalating food insecurity, further exacerbating the vulnerability of displaced families and strained health systems. As the harsh weather conditions are expected to continue, more households are at risk of displacement and exposure to disease outbreaks due to damaged water and health infrastructure.   

Ma’rib Governorate has been particularly hard-hit, with strong winds since 11 August severely damaging 73 displacement sites and affecting over 21,000 households. Public services, including electricity networks, have been severely affected, aggravating the crisis in one of Yemen’s most vulnerable regions. Urgent shelter repairs and cash assistance are needed, with healthcare services and sanitation infrastructure among the most immediate priorities.  

Since early August, floodwaters have damaged shelters, roads, water sources, and medical facilities, leaving over 15,000 families in Al Hodeidah and 11,000 in Ta’iz in desperate need of emergency support. These rains have not only led to tragic loss of life but have also wiped out entire communities’ belongings and means of survival.  

In response to this crisis, IOM is targeting 350,000 people with shelter, non-food items (NFI), cash-based interventions, health, camp coordination and camp management, and water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions. Distribution of water tanks, latrine repairs, and desludging efforts are ongoing in multiple sites, while health services are being expanded, with mobile teams currently treating over 100 individuals and referring critical cases to hospitals.  

IOM’s efforts are further supported by emergency response committees working tirelessly to register and verify affected households, relocate displaced families, and reduce the risks of further damage. However, the resources available are insufficient to cover the vast needs, with key gaps remaining, especially in the shelter and NFI sector.  

With no contingency stocks for essential relief items and the situation growing more critical by the day, immediate funding is necessary to address the most pressing needs on the ground. IOM stands ready to scale up its response but requires the necessary resources to do so.   

With further severe weather expected in the coming weeks and funding constraints, the Organization is urgently calling on the international community to support this appeal to continue providing lifesaving aid and address the overwhelming needs of those affected.  

To read the full appeal, please visit this page .  

For more information, please contact:   

In Yemen: Monica Chiriac, [email protected]    

In Cairo: Joe Lowry, [email protected]    

In Geneva: Mohammedali Abunajela, [email protected]    

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«Wir brauchen die Fachkräfte aus Syrien»: Grüne und FDP streiten über die Migration, während das Ansehen der Regierung am Nullpunkt ist

Neue Umfragen lassen ein Desaster für die «Ampel» bei den nächsten Wahlen erwarten. Der Kanzler aber rechnet mit einem Sieg – und bei den Grünen werden «die paar Messerstecher» relativiert.

Olaf Scholz macht Wahlkampf in Brandenburg, an diesem Samstag in Teltow.

Die Kabinettsklausur auf Schloss Meseberg zählt zu den festen Ritualen im Berliner Regierungsbetrieb. In diesem Jahr aber wird sich Bundeskanzler Olaf Scholz allein nach Brandenburg aufmachen und dort am kommenden Dienstag das Diplomatische Corps begrüssen. Die gemeinsame Klausur fällt aus.

Der Regierungssprecher mühte sich vorab nach Kräften, die Gründe zu vernebeln. Das Treffen sei aufgrund der zeitlichen Nähe zu drei Landtagswahlen verschoben worden. Es mangele nicht an «Formaten und Gelegenheiten, miteinander zu sprechen». Wahrscheinlicher ist eine andere Erklärung: Angesichts kollabierender Zustimmungswerte und eines gereizten Binnenklimas ist die «Ampel» um jeden Anlass froh, der nicht stattfindet und die Koalition somit nicht zusammenführt.

Die FDP will das Bürgergeld für Ukrainer abschaffen

Selbst für eine seit rund anderthalb Jahren im demoskopischen Sinkflug begriffene Bundesregierung ist das jüngste ZDF-Politbarometer ein Schock. Dass die drei Regierungsparteien insgesamt nur 30 Prozent Zustimmung erhalten und die FDP mit prognostizierten 4 Prozent vor einer Zukunft als ausserparlamentarische Opposition steht, bewegt sich in der Spannbreite des gewohnten Schreckens. Gleiches gilt für des Volkes Botschaft, Olaf Scholz solle nicht als Kanzler kandidieren. Knapp drei Viertel der Befragten raten dem SPD-Politiker zum Verzicht.

Präzedenzlos ist ein anderer Wert, den die Forschungsgruppe Wahlen ermittelte: Für eine Koalition aus SPD, Grünen und FDP nach der Bundestagswahl im Herbst 2025 plädieren exakt 0 Prozent. Niemand oder fast niemand wünscht sich, dass das gegenwärtige Dreierbündnis fortgesetzt wird. Deutschland hat mit der «Ampel» abgeschlossen.

Wer an der Wand steht, schlägt um sich und gibt anderen und allem Möglichen die Schuld. Die FDP verfehlte bei den Landtagswahlen in Thüringen und Sachsen den Sprung in die Landesparlamente. In Brandenburg, wo in zwei Wochen gewählt wird, rangiert sie bei 2 Prozent.

Kein Wunder also, dass die FDP am lautesten den koalitionären Abbruchhammer schwingt. Die Bundestagsfraktion stellte auf 23 Seiten 51 Punkte zu einer neuen Migrationspolitik vor, die sich weder mit den Grünen noch mit der SPD realisieren liesse: Flüchtlinge aus der Ukraine sollen kein Bürgergeld mehr erhalten, Asylbewerber sollen «verstärkt» zu gemeinnütziger Arbeit verpflichtet und Sozialleistungen für ausreisepflichtige Personen komplett gestrichen werden.

Über 70 Prozent halten Deutschland für überfordert

Die FDP hat den Bundestagswahlkampf eröffnet und plant für die Zeit nach der «Ampel». Diesem Ziel hatten allein schon in diesem Jahr ein sozialpolitisches Zwölf-Punkte-Papier, ein Fünf-Punkte-Plan zur Haushaltspolitik und ein Zehn-Punkte-Plan «für das Auto» gedient. Solche Absetzbewegungen im laufenden Regierungsgeschäft wurden bisher vom Wähler nicht honoriert, auch die jüngste Umfrage des Meinungsforschungsinstituts Insa für die «Bild am Sonntag» weist nur 4 liberale Prozent aus. Der Stimmungsumschwung in der Bevölkerung ist manifest.

Laut dem ZDF-Politbarometer sind 71 Prozent der Deutschen überzeugt, das Land könne die «vielen Flüchtlinge aus Krisengebieten» nicht verkraften. Vor einem halben Jahr waren lediglich 42 Prozent dieser Ansicht. Gleichzeitig bezweifeln 64 Prozent der Befragten, dass es der Bundesregierung gelingen werde, mehr abgelehnte Asylbewerber abzuschieben.

Damit geraten die Grünen – in jüngsten Umfragen auf deutschlandweit 10 Prozent und auf 5 Prozent in Brandenburg abgestürzt – in die Defensive. Trotz einigen realpolitischen Einlassungen aus den Ländern , etwa des baden-württembergischen Finanzministers Danyal Bayaz , gibt man die Antithese zu den migrationspolitischen Forderungen der FDP.

Auf dem kleinen Parteitag der brandenburgischen Grünen in Potsdam bekräftigte die Bundesvorsitzende Ricarda Lang an diesem Samstag: Wer «vor Krieg und Terror» nach Deutschland flüchte, bekomme Schutz und werde «Teil dieser Gesellschaft». Ein Asyl auf Zeit, heisst das, ist mit den Grünen nicht zu machen, für Integration gibt es keine Obergrenze. Das Gegenteil steht im Positionspapier der FDP-Bundestagsfraktion: Die gesamte Migration müsse «auf ein kontrolliertes Mass» reduziert und der Familiennachzug bei nur subsidiär Schutzberechtigten ganz ausgesetzt werden. Asylbewerber sollten, so die FDP weiter, in Zentren untergebracht werden, um Ausschaffungen zu erleichtern.

Olaf Scholz erwartet seine Wiederwahl

Nach dem islamistischen Anschlag von Solingen , bei dem drei Menschen ihr Leben verloren, sorgte die grüne Aussenministerin für Verwunderung. Annalena Baerbock sagte vor wenigen Tagen, Terrorismus bekämpfe man «vor allen Dingen mit der gemeinsamen, vielfältigen Gesellschaft». Der Satz erinnert an das Diktum der grünen Bundestagsvizepräsidentin Katrin Göring-Eckardt, die 2015 erklärt hatte, Willkommenskultur sei «der beste Schutz vor Terroristen».

Nun, nach dem neuen islamistischen Anschlag von München , sprach Baerbock in Potsdam zu den Delegierten und warb für die «Kraft der Differenzierung»: «Gerade weil wir uns gegen Terrorismus verteidigen, Islamisten und Rechtsextremisten, die doch Brüder im Geiste sind, haben wir als Demokratinnen und Demokraten die Kraft, zu unterscheiden, wer Islamist ist und wer vor Islamismus geflohen ist.» Alles andere widerspreche sowohl der christlichen Nächstenliebe als auch den wirtschaftlichen Interessen Deutschlands: «Wir brauchen auch die Fachkräfte, die aus Syrien oder andernorts gekommen sind, die sich nichts vorzuwerfen haben.»

Vor Baerbock hatte die grüne Co-Sprecherin des Kreisverbands Havelland, Inge Schwenger, jedoch auf eine Weise differenziert, die sparsamen Applaus erntete. Schwenger warnte davor, «alle gemeinsam einzuprügeln auf die paar Messerstecher, die sich hier leider Gottes noch in diesem Land aufhalten», und darüber die soziale Frage zu vernachlässigen. Als Beispiel nannte sie die Kita-Kosten und die geringe Bafög-Höhe.

Des Kanzlers hohe Meinung von sich selbst bleibt in all dem Gezänk eine verlässliche Grösse. Dem «Tagesspiegel» sagte Scholz, dessen Partei momentan auf 15 Prozent taxiert wird, während CDU und CSU 31 Prozent erreichen: Ja, er gehe davon aus, auch die nächste Regierung anzuführen und also Kanzler zu bleiben.

Scholz war es indes auch, der vor einem Jahr, nach der bisher letzten Kabinettsklausur auf Schloss Meseberg, fröhlich verkündete, nun gehe es voran und aufwärts, für die «Ampel» und das ganze Land. Die Regierung, so Scholz im August 2023, werde weiterhin «hämmern und klopfen, aber mit Schalldämpfer». Dreizehn Monate später regiert der Presslufthammer.

Friedrich Merz hat recht: Deutschland muss die politische Komfortzone verlassen. Nur so lässt sich die Kontrolle über die Zuwanderung zurückgewinnen

Im herbst 2023 hat olaf scholz angekündigt, «im grossen stil» abzuschieben – ist das geglückt, die spd-seele dürstet nach frieden: warum olaf scholz die deutsche militärhilfe für die ukraine kürzt, mehr von alexander kissler (kis), «am ende etwas zusammenbinden»: die cdu stimmt ihre wähler auf linke bündnisse ein, abgestraft und angezählt: die thüringer wähler zeigen der «ampel» die rote karte, «um die rückführung gar nicht gekümmert»: in der migrationsdebatte wächst die kritik an hendrik wüst, ende der illusionen die deutsche regierung einigt sich auf neue migrationspolitische massnahmen, will aber am grundrecht auf asyl nicht rütteln, die landtagswahlen im osten werden zur volksabstimmung über die bundesregierung, mehr zum thema migration, initiative gegen die 10-millionen-schweiz: jans und der bundesrat dürfen die illegale migration nicht ausklammern, nach solingen und druck der opposition: die deutsche bundesinnenministerin faeser will grenzkontrollen einführen, integration statt migration: in einem schulprojekt in den bergen guatemalas entdecken maya-mädchen ihre lange unterdrückte stimme, migrationskrise in europa: italienische küstenwache birgt sechs leichen vor sizilien, alle gegen friedrich merz – ein irreführender videoclip geht viral, sie nehmen das geld, aber nicht die abgewiesenen landsleute: bürgerliche allianz will renitenten ländern die entwicklungshilfe streichen.

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