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Job satisfaction, a literature review

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Internal Service Quality and Job Performance: Does Job Satisfaction Mediate?

Job satisfaction among healthcare workers in ghana and kenya during the covid-19 pandemic: role of perceived preparedness, stress, and burnout, quality of nursing work life among nurses working in selected government and private hospitals in thiruvananthapuram, strategies to improve job satisfaction and reduce voluntary employee turnover of nurses, emotional intelligence and job satisfaction among lecturers of universities in kano state: empirical evidence, job satisfaction: application, assessment, causes, and consequences, management and organizational behavior, encyclopedia of business and finance, organizational behavior: solutions for management, the effect of performance on job satisfaction, related papers (5), the nature and causes of job satisfaction, work and motivation, a handbook of human resource management practice, the motivation to work.

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(Faculty of Business and Economics, South East European University, Ilindenska 1200, Tetovo, Makedonia)

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• DOI: 10.55047/jekombital.v1i2.314
• Corpus ID: 253872778

SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW OF JOB SATISFACTION: AN OVERVIEW AND BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS

• Rosana Oktaviani , Sopiah
• Published in JURNAL EKONOMI KREATIF DAN… 23 November 2022
• JURNAL EKONOMI KREATIF DAN MANAJEMEN BISNIS DIGITAL

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Harmony in the workplace: exploring the interplay between talent management and job satisfaction, assessment of worker satisfaction with special emphasis on gig economy: a review for potential research paradigm, 56 references, organizational commitment, job satisfaction and their possible influences on intent to turnover, employee satisfaction, human resource management practices and competitive advantage, understanding the concept of job satisfaction, measurements, theories and its significance in the recent organizational environment: a theoretical framework, the role of human resource management practices and employee job satisfaction in predicting organizational commitment in saudi arabian banking sector, the impact of job stress and job satisfaction on workforce productivity in an iranian petrochemical industry, the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between job training satisfaction and turnover intentions, work environment and job satisfaction among nurses in government tertiary hospitals in nigeria, impact of working environment on job satisfaction, the mediation effect of job satisfaction and organizational commitment on the organizational learning effect of the employee performance, job crafting and its impact on work engagement and job satisfaction in mining and manufacturing, related papers.

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Job Satisfaction: a Literature Review

Aziri B. mrp.ase.ro JOB SATISFACTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

MANAGEMENT RESEARCH AND PRACTICE VOL. 3 ISSUE 4 (2011) PP: 77-86

JOB SATISFACTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

Brikend AZIRI Faculty of Business and Economics, South East European University, Ilindenska 1200, Tetovo, Makedonia [email protected]

Abstract Job satisfaction represents one of the most complex areas facing today’s managers when it comes to managing their employees. Many studies have demonstrated an unusually large impact on the job satisfaction on the motivation of workers, while the level of motivation has an impact on productivity, and hence also on performance of business organizations .Unfortunately, in our region, job satisfaction has not still received the proper attention from neither scholars nor managers of various business organizations. Keywords: job satisfaction.

1. DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF JOB SATISFACTION

Despite its vide usage in scientific research,as well as in everyday life,there is still no general agreement regarding what job satisfaction is. In fact there is no final definition on what job represents. Therefore before a definition on job satisfaction can be givven , the nature and importance of work as a universal human activity must be considered.

Different authors have different approaches towards defining job satisfaction. Some of the most commonly cited definitions on job satisfaction are analysed in the text that folows. ManagementResearch and Practice

Volume3, Issue 4 / December 2011 Hoppock defined job satisfaction as any combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances that cause a person truthfully to say I am satisfied with my job (Hoppock, 1935). According to this approach although job satisfaction is under the influence of many external factors, it remains something internal that has to do with the way how the employee feels. That is job satisfaction presents a set of factors that cause a feeling of satisfaction.

Vroom in his definition on job satisfaction focuses on the role of the employee in the workplace. Thus he defines job satisfaction as affective orientations on the part of individuals toward work roles wich they are presently occupying (Vroom, 1964).

One of the most often cited definitions on job satisfaction is thr one given by Spector according to whome job satisfaction has to do with the way how people feel about their job and its various aspects. It has to do with

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the extent to wich people like ore dislike their job. Thatswhy job satisfaction and job disstatisfaction can appear in any givern work situation.

Job satisfaction represents a combination of positive or negative feelings that workers have towards their work. Meanwhile, when a worker employed in a business organization , brings with it the needs, desires and experiences which determinates expectations that he has dismissed. Job satisfaction represents the extent to which expectations are and match the real awards. Job satisfaction is closely linked to that individual's behaviour in the work place (Davis et al.,1985).

Job satisfaction is a worker’s sense of achievement and sucess on the job. It is generally perceived to be directly linked to productitivty as well as to personal well-being. Job satisfaction implies doing a job one enjoys, doing it well and being rewarded for one’s efforts. Job satisfaction further implies enthusiasm and happiness with one’s work. Job satisfaction is the key ingridient that leads to recognition, income, promotion, and the achevement of other goals that lead to a feeling of fullfillment (Kaliski,2007).

Job satisfaction can be defined also as the extent to wich a worker is content with the rewards he or she gets out of his ore her job,particulary in terms of intrinsic motivacion (Statt, 2004).

The term job satisfactions refers to the attituted and feelings people have about their work. Positive and favorable attitudes towards the job indicate job satisfaction. Negative and unfavorable attitudes towards the job indicate job dissatisfaction (Armstrong, 2006).

Job satisfaction is the collection of feeling and beliefs that people have about their current job. People’s levels of degrees of job satisfaction can range from extreme satisfaction to extreme dissatisfaction. In addition to having attitudes about their jobs as a whole. People also can have attitudes about various aspects of their jobs such as the kind of work they do, their coworkers, supervisors or suborinates and their pay (George et ManagementResearch and Practice Volume3, Issue 4 / December 2011 al., 2008).

Job satisfaction is a complex and multifaceted concept wich can mean different things to different people. Job satisfaction is usually linked with motivation, but the nature of this relationship is not clear. Satisfaction is not the same as motivaton. Job satisfaction is more of an attitude, an internal state. It could,for example,be associated with a personal feeling of achievement, either quantitative or kualitative (Mullins, 2005).

We consider that job satisfaction represents a feeling that appears as a result of the perception that the job enables the material and psychological needs (Aziri, 2008).

Job satisfaction can be considered as one of the main factors when it comes to efficiancy and effectiveness of business organizations. In fact the new managerial paradigm wich insists that employees should be treated and considered primarily as human beans that have their own wants,needs,personal desires is a very good

2067- 2462 78 Aziri B. mrp.ase.ro JOB SATISFACTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

indicator for the importance of job satisfaction in comtemporary companies. When analysing job satisfaction the logic that a satisfied employee is a happy employee and a happy employee is a sucesful employee.

The importance of job satisfaction specially emerges to surface if had in mind the many negative consequences of job disstisfaction such a lack of loyalty,increased abstenteism, increase number of accidents etc. Spector (1997) lists three important features of job satisfaction. Firts, organizations should be guided by human values. Such organizations will be oriented towards treating workers fairly and with respect. In such cases the assesment of job satisfaction may serve as a good indicator of employee effectiveness. High levels of job satisfaction may be sign of a good emotional and mental state of employees. Second, the behaviour of workers depending on their level of job satisfaction will affect the functioning and activities of the organization's business. From this it can be concluded that job satisfaction will result in positive behaviour and vice versa, dissatisfaction from the work will result in negative behaviour of employees. Third, job satisfaction may serve as indicators of organizational activities. Through job satisfaction evaluation different levels of satisfaction in different organizational units can be defined, but in turn can serve as a good indication regarding in which organizational unit changes that would boost performance should be made.

Christen, Iyer and Soberman (2006) provide a model of job satisfaction presented in Figure 1 in wich the folowing elements are included:

Job related factors, Role perceptions, Job performance and Firm performance. + Firm performance Job performance ManagementResearch and Practice + Volume3, Issue 4 / December 2011

Job factors

- Problems with role Job satisfaction perceptions

FIGURE 1 - CHRISTEN , L YER AND SOBERMAN MODEL OF JOB SATISFACTION (C HRISTEN ET , 2006)

2067- 2462 79 Aziri B. mrp.ase.ro JOB SATISFACTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

Lawler and Porter (1967) give their model of job satisfaction wich unlike the previous model places a special importance on the impact of rewards on job satisfaction, Figure 2.

Intrinsic rewards Perceived equitable rewards

Performance Job satisfaction

Extrinsic rewards

FIGURE 2 - LAWLER ’S AND PORTER ’S MODEL OF JOB SATISFACTION (L AWLER AND PORTER , 1967)

According to this model the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not directly connected with job satisfaction,because of the employees perceptions regarding the deserved level of pay.

Locke and Latham (1990) provide a somewhat different model of job satisfaction. They proceed from the assumption that the objectives set at the highest level and high expectations for sucess in work provides achevement and sucess in performing tasks. Sucess is analysed as a factor that creates job satisfaction. This model is presented in Figure 3.

Moderating factors

ManagementResearch and Practice Volume3, Issue 4 / December 2011

Specific high goals

Mediating High Rewards mechanisms performance

High expectancy

self-efficiency

Commitment to the Satisfaction

goals of the and

organization anticipated

FIGURE 3 - LOCKE AND LATHAM MODEL OF JOB SATISFACTION (L OCKE AND LATHAM , 1990)

2067- 2462 80 Aziri B. mrp.ase.ro JOB SATISFACTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

2. FACTORS OF JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction is under the influence of a series of factors such as:The nature of work, Salary , Advancement opportunities, Management,Work groups and Work conditions.

A somewhat different approach regarding the factors of job satisfaction is provided by Rue and Byars, Figure 4.

- Manager’s concern for people - Job design (scope,depth,interest,perceived value) - Compensation (external and internal consistency) - Working conditions - Social relationships - Perceived long-range opportunities - Perceived oppurtunities elsewhere

- Levels of aspiration and need achievement

Job satisfaction/dissatisfaction

Co mmitment to Turnover , absenteeism ,

tardiness, accidents, strikes, organization grievances, sabotage etc.

ManagementResearch and Practice

Volume3, Issue 4 / December 2011

FIGURE 4 D ETERMINANTS OF SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION (R UE AND BYAES , 2003)

When talking about factors of job satisfaction the fact that they can alo couse job dissatisfaction must be kept in mind. Therefore the issue weather job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are two opposite and excudable phenomena? There is no concensus regarding this issue among authors. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory is probably the most often cited point of view. In fact the main idea is that employees in their work environment are under the influence of factors that cause job satisfaction and factors that cause job dissatisfaction. Therefore al factors that have derived from a large empirical research and devided in factors that cause job satisfaction (motivators) and factors that cause job dissatisfaction (hygiene factors), Table 1.

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TABLE 1 - JOB SATISFACTION FACTORS (H ERZBERG , 1976) Hygiene factors Motivators Company policies Achievement Supervision Recognition Interpersonal relations Work itself Work conditions Responsibility Salary Advancement Statuse Growth Job security

3. MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION

Usualy job satisfaction is measured by using general scientific research methods such as the questonaire. Some of the most commonly used techniques for measuring job satisfaction include: Minnesota satisfaction questonaire and Job description index The Minnesota Satisfaction Questonaire is a paper-pencil type of a questonaire and can be implemented both individualy and in group, but it does not take sex differences into consideration. This questonaire has one short form and two long forms that date from 1967 and 1977. In fact 20 work features in five levels are measured with this questonaire. Responding to this questonaire usually takes between 15-20 minutes.

The 1967 version of the Minessota Satisfaction Questonaire uses the folowing response categories:

Not satisfied, Somewhat satisfied, Satisfied, Very satisfied and Extremely satisfied. ManagementResearch and Practice Volume3, Issue 4 / December 2011 The 1977 version of the Minessota Satisfaction Questonaire uses the folowing response categories:

Very satisfied, Satisfied, Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, Dissatisfied and Very dissatisfied. If compared its obvious that in a way the 1977 version of this questonaire is more balanced compared to the 1967 version. This questonaire the folowing aspects of job:

Co-workers Achievement Activity ISSN

2067- 2462 82 Aziri B. mrp.ase.ro JOB SATISFACTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

Advancement Authority Company Policies Compensation Moral Values Creativity Independence Security Social Service Social Status Recognition Responsibility Supervision-HumanRelations Supervision-Technical Variety Working Conditions The Job Description Index is one of the most videly used techniques for measuring job satisfaction. It is a simple and easily applicable method. The measurement of strength and weakness within each factor are a sign as in wich field improvement and changes are neceseary.

This questonaire alows acqquisition of information on all major aspects of work and takes sex differences into consideration. This questonaire was first introduced in 1969 and it measures five major job satisfaction

ManagementResearch and Practice aspects with a total of over 70 potential job descriptions. Volume3, Issue 4 / December 2011 The factors considered by the job description idex are:

The nature of work, Compensation and benefits, Attitudes toward supervisors, Relations with co-workers and Opportunities for promotion. Descriptors on each of the five factors can be evaluated with three potenctial options by the employees: 1 wich means that the description is relevant, 2 wich means that the description is not relevant and 3 that means that the employee does not have an opinion.

2067- 2462 83 Aziri B. mrp.ase.ro JOB SATISFACTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

One of the oldest approaches to measure job satisfaction is the degree of facial expressions presented by Kunin, Figure 5. Perhaps this is the simplest form of job satisfaction measurement. In fact according to this approach several facial expressions are presented to the employee and he should put a check underneath the expresion that decribes his feeling and opinion the best.

Put a check under the face that expresses how you feel about your job in general, including the work, the pay, the supervision, the opportunities for promotion and the people you work with. FIGURE 5 – F ACIAL EXPRESSIONS PRESENTED BY KUNIN

4. EFFECTS OF JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction causes a series of onfluences on various aspects of organizational life. Some of them such as the influence of job satisfaction on employee productivity, loyalty and abstenteism are analysed as part of this text.

The proponderance of research evidence indicates that there is no strong linkage between satisfaction and productivity. For example a comprehesive meta-analysis of the research literature finds only a.17 best- estimate correlation between job satisfaction and productivity . Satisfied workers will not necessearily be the highest producers. There are many possible moderating variables , the most important of which seems to be rewards. If people receive rewards they feel are equitable , they will be satisfies and this is likely to result in greater performance effort. Also, recent research evidence indicates that satisfaction may not necessarily lead to individual performance improvement but does lead to departamental and organizational level ManagementResearch and Practice

Volume3, Issue 4 / December 2011 improvements. Finally there is still considerable debate weather satisfaction leads to performance or performance leads to satisfaction (Luthans, 1998).

Employee loyalty is one of the most significant factors that human resource managers in particular must have in mind. Employee loyalty os usualy measured with the Loyalty Questonaire and can cause serious negative consequences when not in a high level.

Usualy three typs of employee loyalty are considered: affective loyalty, normative loyalty and continuity loyalty. Affective loyalty has do with the cases when an employee feels an emotional connection to the company, normative loyalty is a sort of loyalty that appears in cases when the employee feels like he ows something to the comapny and continuity loyalty comes as a result of the fact that the employee does not have an opportunity to find a job somewhere else.

2067- 2462 84 Aziri B. mrp.ase.ro JOB SATISFACTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

Research conducted by Vanderberg and Lance (1992) during wich they surveyed 100 profesionists in the information services for five months showd a strong relations between job satisfaction and employee loyalty. Their research proved that the higher the degree of job satisfaction the higher is the level of employee loyalty.

Employee abstenteism causes serious aditional costs forcompanies, therefore managers are in permanent persue of ways how to decrease and reduce it to its minimum. Probabbly, the best way o reduvce ameployee abstenteism would be through a increase in the level of employee satisfaction. The main idea behind this approach is that the higher the degree of job satisfaction is the lower employee abstenteism should be.

Even though the effects are modest the fact that job satisfaction contributes to decreasing the level of employee abstenteism remaines. So satisfaction is worth payng attention to , especially since it is potentially under your control – unlike some of the other causes of abstenteism (e.g. illness, accidents). But aswe said circumstances caan alter this equation. As a manager you could be implicitly encouraging absteenteism by inforcing company policies. If people are paid for sick days, and if they must be “used or lost” this is pretty strong encouragement for employees to be absent. In other words, you’ve helped create a culture of absteenteism that can overcome the “satisfaction” effect. (Sweney and McFarlin, 2005)

When satisfaction is high, abstenteeism tends to be low; when satisfaction is low, abstenteeism tends to be high. However as with the other relationships with satisfaction, there are moderating variables such as the degree to wich people feel their jobs are important. Additionally, it is important to remember that while high job satisfaction will not necessarily result in low abenteeism, low job satisfaction is likely to bring about high absenteeism.

5. CONCLUSIONS ManagementResearch and Practice

Volume3, Issue 4 / December 2011 Job satisfaction represents one of the most complex areas facing today’s managers when it comes to managing their employees. Although thousands of papers and research have been conducted on job satisfaction all over the world, in the Republic of Macedonia this is one of the least studied research fields.

Many studies have demonstrated an unusually large impact on the job satisfaction on the motivation of workers, while the level of motivation has an impact on productivity, and hence also on performance of business organizations.

There is a considerable impact of the employees perceptions for the nature of his work and the level of overall job satisfaction. Financial compansation has a great impact on the overall job satisfaction of employees .

2067- 2462 85 Aziri B. mrp.ase.ro JOB SATISFACTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

Armstrong, M. (2006). A Handbook of Human resource Management Practice , Tenth Edition, Kogan Page Publishing, London, , p. 264 Aziri, B. (2008). Menaxhimi i burimeve njerëzore, Satisfaksioni nga puna dhe motivimi i punëtorëve, Tringa Design, Gostivar, , p. 46 Christen, M., Iyer, G. and Soberman, D. (2006). Job Satisfaction, Job Performance, and Effort: A Reexamination Using Agency Theory, Journal of Marketing , Januaryr, Vol. 70, pp. 137-150 Davis, K. and Nestrom, J.W. (1985). Human Behavior at work: Organizational Behavior , 7 edition,McGraw Hill, New York, p.109 Herzberg, H. F. (1976). Motivation-Hygiene Profiles , p. 20 George, J.M. and Jones, G.R. (2008). Understanding and Managing Organizational behavior , Fifth Edition, Pearson/Prentice Hall, New Yersey, p. 78 Hoppock, R. (1935). Job Satisfaction , Harper and Brothers, New York, p. 47 Kaliski, B.S. (2007). Encyclopedia of Business and Finance , Second edition, Thompson Gale, Detroit, p. 446 Lawler, E.E. III and Porter, L.W. (1967). The Effect of Performance on Job Satisfaction , Industrial Relations, pp. 20-28 Locke, E.A. and Latham, G.P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance , Prentice Hall, p.4 Luthans, F. (1998). Organizational Behavior , 8 Edition, McGraw-Hill/Irwin, Boston, p. 147 Mullins, J.L. (2005). Management and organizational behavior , Seventh Edition, Pearson Education Limited, Essex, p. 700 Rue, L.W. and Byars, L. (2003). Management, Skills and Application , 10 ed., McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York, p. 259 Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes and consequences ,Thousand Oaks, CA,Sage Publications, Inc ManagementResearch and Practice

Volume3, Issue 4 / December 2011 Statt, D. (2004). The Routledge Dictionary of Business Management , Third edition, Routledge Publishing, Detroit, p. 78 Sweney, P.D. and McFarlin, D.B. (2005). Organizational Behavior, Solutions for Management , McGraw- Hill/Irwin, New York,p. 57 Sweney, P.D. and McFarlin, D.B. (2005). Organizational Behavior, Solutions for Management , McGraw- Hill/Irwin, New York, p. 57 Vanderberg, R.J. and Lance, Ch.E. (1992). Examining the Causal Order of Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitmen’t, Journal of Management, Vol.18, No.1, pp. 153-167 Vroom, V.H. (1964). Work and motivation , John Wiley and Sons, New York, p.99

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Advanced practice nurse work environments and job satisfaction and intent to leave: Six-state cross sectional and observational study

Lusine poghosyan.

1 Stone Foundation and Elise D. Fish Professor of Nursing, Columbia University School of Nursing, New York, New York, USA

2 Department of Health Policy and Management, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA

Supakorn Kueakomoldej

3 Columbia University School of Nursing, New York, New York, USA

Jianfang Liu

Grant martsolf.

4 University of Pittsburgh School of Nursing, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA

Associated Data

To explore the relationship between nurse practitioner work environment and nurse practitioner outcomes (job satisfaction and intent to leave) in the United States.

The study used a cross-sectional survey design to collect survey data from primary care nurse practitioners in six states in the United States.

We sent mail surveys to 5689 eligible nurse practitioners in Arizona, New Jersey, Washington, Pennsylvania, California and Texas. The mail also contained an online link. Participants could complete either the paper or online questionnaire. In total, 1244 participants completed the survey in 2018–2019. The work environment was measured using the Nurse Practitioner-Primary Care Organizational Climate Questionnaire comprised of four subscales: Nurse Practitioner-Administration Relations, Nurse Practitioner-Physician Relations, Independent Practice and Support and Professional Visibility. Global items measured job satisfaction and intent to leave. We used mixed-effect proportional-odds cumulative logit models to assess the association between work environment and job satisfaction and intent to leave.

Overall, 90% of participants were either very satisfied or somewhat satisfied with their job and 22% reported intent to leave their job in 1 year. With a one-unit increase in the organizational-level Nurse Practitioner-Administration Relations score, the odds of having a higher job satisfaction level increased by about four times and the odds of intent to leave job decreased by about 60%. A higher organizational-level Nurse Practitioner-Physician Relations score was significantly associated with higher job satisfaction and lower odds of intent to leave.

Conclusion:

Improvements in work environments may improve nurse practitioner job satisfaction and retention.

This study examined the relationship between work environment, job satisfaction and turnover intention of nurse practitioners. Better work environment is associated with higher job satisfaction and lower turnover intention. Findings have implications for clinical leadership who can take actions to create better work environments to increase the nurse practitioner workforce capacity.

1 ∣. INTRODUCTION

Due to an ageing population, increasing prevalence of chronic conditions and workforce shortages, the United States healthcare system faces challenges meeting the growing demand for primary care. Almost 80 million Americans live in health professional shortage areas ( Health Resources & Services Administration, 2019 ). To meet the demand for primary care, significant efforts are implemented to increase the capacity of the healthcare workforce. One important strategy includes increasing the utilization of the advanced practice nurses (APNs), specifically nurse practitioners (NPs) ( Buerhaus, 2018 ). Internationally, many definitions of APNs exist; the most common refers to nurses working in roles beyond the scope of practice of a registered nurse and have received additional training ( Maier & Aiken, 2016 ). In many countries—including the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands, Thailand and Singapore ( Ladd & Schober, 2018 ; Maier & Aiken, 2016 )—established educational programs train nurses at Master's and Doctoral level to become APNs such as NPs, and their scope of practice is expanded to include making treatment decisions and referrals, prescribing medications and ordering tests among other functions. In other countries such as France and Germany, the APN role is in its early stages. While Master's and Doctoral programs have been established, the scope of practice is expanded only for some pilot projects (Germany) or for specific functions only, such as prescribing (France) ( Maier et al., 2017 ). Despite inconsistencies, the uptake of APNs internationally is growing, and policies are being designed to shift tasks from physicians to APNs and expand APN scope of practice as an effective strategy to increase primary care capacity ( Maier & Aiken, 2016 ). Across many countries, policy, regulatory and educational reforms are being designed to strengthen APN workforce and expand their scope of practice to ensure patients have access to high quality primary care services.

The APN workforce plays a critical role in the U.S. healthcare system. APNs are registered nurses with Masters or Doctoral level education and training in caring for specific patient populations. NPs, certified registered nurse anaesthetists, nurse-midwives and clinical nurse specialists comprise the APN workforce with NPs being the largest group. The NP workforce is projected to increase by 93% between 2013 and 2025 ( U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Bureau of Health Workforce & National Center for Health Workforce Analysis, 2017 ). Many studies show that the care NPs provide is of similar quality to primary care physicians and improves patient outcomes ( Kurtzman & Barnow, 2017 ; Perloff et al., 2016 ). Thus, this growing workforce both in the United States and internationally can play a critical role in meeting the demand for healthcare services.

However, many barriers affect the optimal utilization of the NP workforce that may limit their contributions to healthcare systems globally. For example, while NPs in the U.S. must pass standardized national certification exams, there are variable scope of practice (SOP) regulations governing NP practice across the states, which determine the care and the services NPs can provide to patients ( Buerhaus, 2018 ). These SOP regulations fall under the following categories: full, reduced, and restricted. Full SOP allows NPs to independently deliver care and prescribe medications to patients without physician involvement; reduced SOP requires NPs to collaborate with physicians; and restricted SOP requires NPs to be supervised by physicians to deliver the same care.

In addition, poor NP work environment in the employment setting of these clinicians, characterized by a lack of support and resources, poor relations with administration, role ambiguity, or limited involvement in organizational decisions ( Poghosyan et al., 2013 ) affect NPs' ability to deliver care and predispose NPs to negative outcomes including job dissatisfaction and intent to leave ( Faraz, 2017 ; Poghosyan, Liu, et al., 2017 ). Dissatisfied clinicians may leave their jobs at higher rates, and high turnover will deplete valuable workforce resources in healthcare organizations and further challenge the delivery of safe care. Turnover in primary care practices also adversely affects patients' care experiences ( Reddy et al., 2015 ) and increased patients' emergency care use and health spending ( Sabety et al., 2021 ).

While the APN workforce is growing globally, knowledge about this workforce and about their outcomes are still limited. To date, little is known about primary care NP job satisfaction and intent to leave their job and how varying levels of SOP regulations and work environments may predispose them to negative outcomes. Our study aims to examine the relationship between work environment, varying levels of SOP and workforce outcomes of NPs in the United States. Studying the United States NP workforce with varied state SOP regulations produces important insight about the potential impact of policy and work environment for NPs in other countries. Creating favourable policies and work environments is beneficial for clinicians globally, and the findings of this study will have important implications not only for NP practice in the United States, but also in other countries that are beginning to employ APNs in roles similar to NPs in the United States but with varying regulations and organizational structures.

1.1 ∣. Background

Despite the importance of NPs to increasing the global primary care capacity, literature that examine NP workforce outcomes are limited. Among other healthcare professionals, a salient predictor of clinician workforce outcomes is their work environment ( Abraham et al., 2020 ; Nantsupawat et al., 2017 ; Paguio et al., 2020 ). Work environment has been defined as practice characteristics that may promote or restrict optimal nursing practice ( Lake, 2002 ). Previous nurse studies demonstrated that supportive work environments are associated with improved clinician and patient outcomes ( Nantsupawat et al., 2017 ; Olds et al., 2017 ). However, unlike other professions, NPs face unique challenges of restricted practice due to variability of SOP policies. SOP policies are related to NPs' practice autonomy ( Park et al., 2018 ), which has frequently been cited as predictor of NP job satisfaction and turnover intention ( Han et al., 2018 ). Both NP work environment and SOP polices may influence NP turnover intention and job satisfaction. Therefore, we hypothesize that both work environment and SOP policies are associated with NPs' job satisfaction and turnover intention.

To test our hypothesis, we are guided by an adapted National Academy of Medicine's (NAM) systems model of clinician burnout and professional well-being ( National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, & Medicine, 2019 ). The model was originally created to address health care clinician burnout and professional well-being, which NAM defined to include engagement, quality of life and satisfaction at work ( Chari et al., 2018 ; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, & Medicine, 2019 ). This model posits that levels of health systems (e.g. policy, management and organizational level) interact together to influence work system factors, which predict professional well-being. Work system factors contain two dimensions: demands (e.g. excessive workload, inadequate staffing) and resources (e.g. organizational culture and relationships). In our study, professional wellbeing is operationalized as NPs' job satisfaction and turnover intention. State SOP represents a system variable at the policy level and NP work environment represents the job resources dimension of work system factors (i.e. NP visibility, relationship with physician and administrations and autonomous practice). According to the model, individual clinician factors such age, gender, personality and social support may intervene in the relationship between systems and professional well-being. We will include NP demographic factors (e.g. age, gender) as control variables.

2 ∣. THE STUDY

2.1 ∣. aims.

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between NP work environment, SOP policies and NP job satisfaction and intent to leave in six U.S. states.

2.2 ∣. Design

The study used a cross-sectional observational design to collect data from primary care NPs at one point in time. The study setting included the following six U.S. states: Arizona (AZ), California (CA), New Jersey (NJ), Pennsylvania (PA), Texas (TX) and Washington (WA). These states were selected because they have different state SOP regulations governing NP practice. AZ and WA represent full SOP states, NJ and PA represent reduced SOP states, and CA and TX represent restricted SOP states. We have also selected these states because of their geographic and population diversity. The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) reporting guidelines and checklist was followed (see Appendix S1 ).

2.3 ∣. Participants

We used the SK&A database to identify primary care NPs ( DesRoches et al., 2015 ). This database contains information on ambulatory care providers in the United States. To identify primary care NPs, we retained all primary care practices in the selected states which we defined as any practice in which the majority of physicians had a primary care specialty. The database did not have information about practices that only employed NPs. We selected practices that had at least one NP and extracted contact information for all NPs in AZ, NJ and WA, a 75% random sample for PA, and a 50% random sample for CA and TX given the large number of NPs in these states. Random samples ensured similar counts of NPs by state. We also called each of the potential respondents to confirm that the address reported through SK&A was valid, the practice was truly primary care, and the NP worked at the practice. The final sample consisted of 5,209 NPs.

2.4 ∣. Data collection

A professional survey organization conducted the data collection. A cover letter describing the study, the paper questionnaire and questionnaire's online link with a unique identification for each NP were mailed to NPs. NPs could complete either a paper or online survey. Following a modified Dillman process for mixed-mode surveys to achieve maximum response rate ( Dillman et al., 2009 ), a postcard reminder was sent to non-respondents 2 weeks after the initial mailing and then we conducted the second mailing to non-respondents 2 weeks after the postcard reminder. In total, three surveys and two postcard reminders 2 weeks apart were sent to NPs. All mailings included an online link which allowed participants to complete the survey online at their convenience. After the last attempt, NPs who did not complete the survey were contacted by phone. Three phone reminders were made to each NP. The data collection took place in 2018–2019. More details about the study methodology have been previously published ( Harrison et al., 2021 ).

2.5 ∣. Variables

2.5.1 ∣. main explanatory variables.

Our main explanatory variables are state SOP polices and organizational-level NP work environment. For SOP level, we used a three-level categorical variable to indicate the SOP policy in each state (1 = full SOP, 2 = reduced SOP and 3 = restricted SOP). NP work environment was measured by the Nurse Practitioner-Primary Care Organizational Climate Questionnaire (NP-PCOCQ) ( Poghosyan, Nannini, Finkelstein, et al., 2013 ). The development of NP-PCOCQ was based on existing evidence and conceptual models, and the tool went through rigorous psychometric evaluations ( Poghosyan et al., 2019 ; Poghosyan, Chaplin, & Shaffer, 2017 ; Poghosyan, Nannini, & Clarke, 2013 ; Poghosyan, Nannini, Finkelstein, et al., 2013 ). The NP-PCOCQ has strong psychometric properties with acceptable internal consistency, construct, discriminant and predictive validity ( Poghosyan, Nannini, Finkelstein, et al., 2013 ). The tool contains 29 items asking NPs to rate the degree to which certain characteristics are present in their organizations using a 4-point Likert-like scale from ‘strongly agree’ (1) to ‘strongly disagree’ (4). Higher scores on each item indicate a better work environment. The tool contains four subscales: NP-Administration Relations (NP-AR), NP-Physician Relations (NP-PR), Independent Practice and Support (IPS) and Professional Visibility (PV). NP-administration relationship is a critical aspect of NP work environment ( Poghosyan, Nannini, & Clarke, 2013 ) that focuses on collaboration and communication between NPs and administrators, and the NP-AR subscale with its nine items measures this domain. The NP-PR subscale has seven items measuring the relationship, communication and teamwork between NPs and physicians. The IPS subscale, which contains nine items, measures resources and support NPs have for their independent practice. Finally, the PV subscale has four items measuring how visible NP role is in the organization. The work environment measures were collected at the individual NP level and aggregated to the organization level. We first computed individual-level mean scores on each subscale for respondents if more than 70% of the subscale items were non-missing ( Downey & King, 1998 ), and then computed organizational-level mean scores on each subscale by aggregating the responses of all NPs in the same practice. Higher mean scores on each subscale indicate better work environment. The mean scores on these four subscales were included as the explanatory variables.

2.5.2 ∣. Outcome variables

The main outcome variables included job satisfaction and intent to leave. The job satisfaction measure was derived from NP responses to a single item which asked how satisfied they were with their present job and was measured on a 4-point scale ranging from ‘very satisfied’ (1) to ‘very dissatisfied’ (4). To ease interpretation, we reverse coded this variable (i.e. higher score indicates higher job satisfaction) for analysis. Global job satisfaction items have been used in research and have been shown to be effective measures ( Wanous et al., 1997 ). The intent to leave job measure was derived from responses to a single item which probed how likely they were to leave their current position in the next year and was measured on a 4-point scale ranging from ‘very likely’ (1) to ‘very unlikely’ (4). The item has been extensively used in past research of nurses ( Nantsupawat et al., 2017 ; Poghosyan, Liu, et al., 2017 ).

2.5.3 ∣. Covariates

The questionnaire also included measures of demographics (e.g. age, sex, race and education) and organizational characteristics such as practice setting (e.g. whether they work in a physician's office, community health centre or hospital-based clinic), length of time in current primary position, hours worked per week over the last month in their primary position and number of other NPs in their organization.

2.6 ∣. Ethical considerations

The study protocol received ethics approval by a university institutional review board.

2.7 ∣. Data analysis

We computed descriptive statistics to characterize the overall sample and respondents by state SOP status. Frequency analysis of the outcome measures were computed by SOP status and overall sample. Then, we examined the association between the four organizational-level NP-PCOCQ subscales and job satisfaction and intent to leave. We assessed the multicollinearity between explanatory variables using variance inflation factor: values higher than 5, a commonly used threshold, indicate high multicollinearity ( Kock & Lynn, 2012 ). Effects of potential covariates (i.e. age, sex, race, hours work per week, years working as NP and number of NPs in the practice, clinic type) were controlled in the final multivariable regression models. We used proportional-odds cumulative logit models for both outcome measures as they were measured on a 4-point Likert scale. Mixed-effect models were fitted to account for the hierarchical design of the data, where 1,244 participants (Level 1) were nested in 1,109 practices (Level 2). Adjusted cumulative odds ratio (OR) and associated 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were reported for assessing the direction and strength of the associations. Data analysis was conducted in SAS 9.4 ( SAS Institute Inc., 2013 ). Patterns of missing data were assessed, and there was no pattern of missing data for key demographic variables, NP-PCOCQ subscale scores and outcomes. The amount of missing data were about 5% for responses with outcome values. Thus, list wise deletion was used in final mixed-effect regression models. We performed sensitivity analyses using mixed-effect linear regression models to assess relationship between NP-PCOCQ subscales and outcome measures.

2.8 ∣. Validity and reliability

The NP-PCOCQ has been widely used by researchers to study NP work environment and the tool is capable of predicting NP and patient outcomes such as NP burnout, job satisfaction or quality of care ( Abraham et al., 2021 ; Brooks Carthon et al., 2020 ; Poghosyan et al., 2018 ). The internal consistency and construct validity of the four NP-PCOCQ subscales were assessed and validated in the study. Individual-level Cronbach's α were .94, .94, .87 and .85 for PV, NP-PR, NP-AR and IPS, respectively. Both the individual-level and group-level of the internal consistency for all four subscales were acceptable (>0.8). Confirmatory factor analysis assessed the construct validity of the instrument. Standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) and Bentler comparative fit index (CFI) were used to assess the absolute model fit due to the relatively large number of observed variables ( p = 29) and the large sample size ( n = 1244) ( Maydeu-Olivares et al., 2018 ). Bootstrapping method with 500 replicates were used to obtain the 95% CIs of the indices. Results indicate a reasonable fit (SRMR: 0.062 (95% CI: 0.0585–0.678); CFI: 0.904 (95% CI: 0.889–0.910)). The model fit measured by Chi-square was significant ( χ 2 = 1009, df = 82, p value < .01), and the significance is probably due to the large sample size of the study ( Alavi et al., 2020 ).

3 ∣. RESULTS

3.1 ∣. sample characteristics.

Overall, 1244 NPs completed the survey yielding a 22% response rate. Our sample size of 1244 is larger than the minimally required sample size of 500 for observational studies that involve logistic regression to derive the statistics that represent the parameters in the population ( Bujang et al., 2018 ). The participants' demographic and work characteristics are presented in Table 1 . The average age of participants was about 49 years in the overall sample, and there was no difference across SOP categories. Overall, most participants were female (87%), White (80%), non-Hispanic (91%) and did not hold a doctoral degree (88%). There were significant differences among the SOP categories in race, ethnicity and educational level ( p value < .05). There was a greater racial and ethnic diversity in the restricted SOP states compared with reduced and full SOP states; in restricted SOP states, 68% of the participants were White and 15% were Hispanic.

Demographic and work characteristics of study participants

Note : The p value was calculated using the χ 2 test with the exception of age. A one-way ANOVA test was used for age. Doctoral degree includes Doctor of Nursing Practice, PhD, or any other Doctorate. The number in parentheses next to each variable represents the number of missing data values for that variable.

Abbreviations: NP, nurse practitioner; SD, standard deviation; SOP, scope of practice.

In the overall sample, the majority of participants worked 20–40 h a week in their primary position and in organizations with two to six NPs. Additionally, the highest percentage of NPs reported practicing in physician offices, working less than 3 years in their primary position and having ≥10 years' experience as an NP. There were significant differences in SOP categories in terms of the practice setting, average hours worked per week in primary position and number of NPs working in their organization ( p value < .05).

3.2 ∣. Organizational-level work environment and NP outcomes in states with variable SOP

We have compared the scores of NP-PCOCQ subscales among the online and mail respondent and did not find a difference. Descriptive statistics on work environment and outcome measures in each SOP category are presented in Table 2 . In the overall sample, the highest mean scores were present in the IPS subscale with a mean of 3.48 on a 4-point scale ( SD 0.47) while the lowest mean scores were present in the NP-AR subscale with a mean of 2.90 on a 4-point scale ( SD 0.73). The same trends were present across all SOP categories with the IPS subscale having the highest mean scores and NP-AR subscales having the lowest mean scores. The one-way ANOVA tests indicate significant differences among the SOP categories in mean scores for PV, NP-AR and IPS ( p value < .05) while there were no significant differences among the SOP categories in NP-PR mean score ( p value = .63). NPs practicing in full SOP states reported the highest mean scores for NP-AR (mean = 2.99; SD 0.71), NP-PR (mean = 3.33; SD 0.54) and IPS (mean = 3.54; SD 0.43).

Descriptive statistics of predictor and outcomes variables

Note : The number in parentheses next to each variable represents the number of missing data values for that variable.

Abbreviations: IPS, independent practice and support; NP, nurse practitioner; NP-AR, NP-administration relations; NP-PR, NP-physician relations; PV, professional visibility; SD, standard deviation; SOP, scope of practice.

Ninety percent of NPs reported being satisfied with their current job (i.e. either ‘somewhat satisfied’ or ‘very satisfied’) while 22% of NPs reported an intent to leave (i.e. ‘likely’ or ‘very likely’ to leave their position in the next year). There were no significant differences among SOP categories in the distribution of job satisfaction categories (Pearson χ 2 = 1.36, p value = .97) or for intent to leave (Pearson χ 2 = 4.17, p value = .65). NPs in full SOP states reported the highest levels of job satisfaction (92%), and NPs in full and reduced SOP states both reported the lowest levels of intent to leave (20%).

3.3 ∣. The relationship between work environment and NP outcomes

There was no significant multi-collinearity in the explanatory variables; thus, all four NP-PCOCQ subscales measuring work environment were included in the final multivariable models. The effects of organizational-level work environment measures and SOP categories on the outcomes after controlling for covariates are presented in Table 3 . In Model 1 with job satisfaction as the outcome variable, after controlling for covariates, a higher organizational-level NP-AR score was associated with higher job satisfaction (cumulative OR = 4.15; 95% CI: 2.81–6.12, p value < .001): with a one-unit increase in organizational-level NP-AR score, the odds of having a higher job satisfaction level increased by about four times. A higher organizational-level NP-PR score was also associated with higher job satisfaction (cumulative OR = 1.73; 95% CI: 1.13–2.66, p value < .05). Organizational-level PV and IPS scores were not significantly associated with job satisfaction. SOP was not significantly associated with job satisfaction.

Assessing the relationship between practice-level work environment scores and NP outcomes

Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; IPS, independent practice and support; NP, nurse practitioner; NP-AR, NP-administration relations; NP-PR, NP-physician relations; PV, professional visibility.

In Model 2 with intent to leave as the outcome variable, after adjusting for the effects of potential covariates, a higher organizational-level NP-AR score was associated with lower odds of intent to leave current job (cumulative OR = 0.39; 95% CI: 0.27–0.57, p value < .001): with a one-unit increase in organizational-level NP-AR score, the odds of intent to leave current job decreased by about 60%. A higher organizational-level NP-PR score was also associated with lower odds of intent to leave (cumulative OR = 0.64; 95% CI: 0.42–0.96, p value < .05). Neither organizational-level PV nor IPS scores were significantly associated with intent to leave. SOP was not significantly associated with intention to leave.

Our results indicate that when both work environment and SOP were considered in a multivariable regression analysis, only work environment significantly predicted job satisfaction and turnover intention. SOP was not significantly associated with the outcome in either model, therefore, we reject the hypothesis about a possible relationship between SOP and NP workforce outcomes. Sensitivity analyses from mixed-effect linear regression models demonstrated similar results of relationship between work environment and NP outcomes.

4 ∣. DISCUSSION

This is the first large-scale study investigating the association between NP work environment and two workforce outcomes—job satisfaction and intent to leave, among primary care NPs in six geographically diverse U.S. states with variable SOP regulations. We found that most NPs reported being satisfied with their job; however, almost a quarter of NPs reported intent to leave their current position. Our findings also indicate that regardless of state-level SOP regulations, favourable work environments are associated with job satisfaction and reduce intent to leave among NPs, which are consistent with the literature about the importance of work environments and their potential influence on job satisfaction and intent to leave ( Poghosyan, Liu, et al., 2017 ). Yet, our findings add more robust evidence produced from a large sample of NPs related to the crucial importance of NP relations with administration and physicians in influencing NP job satisfaction and intent to leave their job.

Specifically, we found that the relationship NPs have with administrators was associated with NPs' job satisfaction and intent to leave. Yet, among the domains of NP work environment, NP-administration relations domain was ranked the lowest by NPs. This is concerning as for decades, business management and organizational researchers have emphasized the role of administrative leadership in the success of individuals, teams and organizations. Leadership plays an important role in employee job satisfaction and retention ( Long & Thean, 2011 ), and job satisfaction is a crucial factor determining employee commitment to the organization and their work productivity and outcomes ( Aziri, 2011 ). Still, NPs report poor relationships with leadership characterized by leaders' lack of awareness about NP skills and competencies and lack of support for the NP role. Such evidence is concerning given the shortage of primary care providers and the impact of the relations NPs have with leadership on their job satisfaction and intent to leave—two critically important outcomes for workforce management. Our findings are consistent with past research showing consistently low score on the NP-AR subscale ( Poghosyan, Liu, et al., 2017 ). More in-depth investigation of this relationship is critically important to understand factors that may explain the poor relationship between NPs and administrators and also take actions and design interventions to promote it. Favourable relationship between NPs and leaders is critically important as it not only affects the individual job satisfaction and performance, but also affect the overall team. Our findings are important as primary care across the globe increasingly relies on team-based care to meet the growing and evolving needs of patients, and NPs become increasingly important members of primary care teams. Research has shown NP relations with leadership have also affected the quality of teamwork between NPs and physicians ( Poghosyan & Liu, 2016 ). Thus, favourable relationships between NPs and administrators are not only important for promoting NP job satisfaction and retention, but also for designing effective primary care teams.

Primary care practices increasingly rely on NPs regardless of state SOP laws and with an increased preference for interdisciplinary clinician configurations in team-based models. Strong leadership in primary care is critically important for increasing primary care capacity through retaining NPs and designing high-performing teams. Greater efforts are needed from leadership to enhance NP satisfaction and potentially better teamwork. One proposed strategy entails leaders adopting transformational leadership principles. Transformational leaders are capable of motivating their employees, supporting their work performance and helping the team and organization achieve the best outcomes ( Wang et al., 2011 ). The transformational leadership principles, including fostering trust between NPs and leaders, enhancing clear communication, having a sense for common goals and leaders focusing on NP needs, may promote job satisfaction and retention.

Our findings also indicate that NPs working in clinics with favourable NP-physician relationships are more satisfied with their job and have less intent to leave their job. In this and previous studies, NPs reported favourable relationships with physicians despite concerns that overlapping scope of practice in primary care and lack of clarity between these clinicians about their respective roles could lead to strained relationships ( Donelan et al., 2013 ; Poghosyan et al., 2020 ). The relationships between NPs and physicians grow stronger the more NPs and physicians work together. Clarity about roles and responsibilities of NPs and physicians in primary care may also lead to improvements in the relationship.

Even though SOP did not significantly influence NPs' job satisfaction and turnover intention, our results showed that NPs practicing with less restrictive SOP reported better work environment scores. Less restrictive SOP may indirectly improve NP workforce outcomes by creating favourable work environments ( Poghosyan et al., 2021 ). Favourable SOP policies may help healthcare organizations to create supportive environments for NPs. Such policies will not only improve NP work environment and potentially NP workforce outcome but they will also improve access to care without compromising quality ( Xue et al., 2018 ). Efforts should be focused on addressing organizational issues affecting the NP workforce to maximize their contributions to healthcare systems. Organizational-level policies can be designed to improve the work environment. Such favourable policies have the potential to increase the capacity of the healthcare system through optimal utilization and retention of the growing APN workforce. Our findings have implications for the professional development of nursing. As the APN workforce grows globally, our findings show that for the optimal development of the APN profession, healthcare organizations should create optimal work environments to retain these clinicians and also enable them to deliver high-quality care.

Our findings also have implications for research. The NAM model that guided our study was created to examine clinician burnout and professional well-being, which encompass concepts such as satisfaction and engagement with one's life and work ( Chari et al., 2018 ; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, & Medicine, 2019 ). We adapted the model to include job satisfaction and turnover intention. Although the NAM model was not originally designed to address these outcomes, our study demonstrated that the NAM model may be applicable in future studies examining the impact of policy and work environment on these outcomes. We indeed found relationship between NP work environment and NP outcomes guided by the NAM model.

Future studies can examine how APN workforce outcomes affect quality of care and patient outcomes in primary care. As the APN workforce is growing globally and APNs are ideally positioned to help meet the demand for primary care services, international research focusing on APN workforce and their environments and outcomes are critically important. Identifying country-specific barriers in APN work environments may be of high relevance to policymakers. Due to recent policy changes and the advancement of nursing education, now is an opportune time to analyse the APN workforce from a cross-country perspective to aid in its development and expansion.

4.1 ∣. Limitations

The study has several limitations. It relied on self-reported measures, which may be susceptible to bias. Another limitation was non-response bias. Our response rate was 22%, and it is possible that NPs who completed the survey are different from those who did not. However, the demographic characteristics in our sample mirror those of a 2018 nationally representative sample of NPs in terms of age, sex, race, ethnicity and educational level ( American Association of Nurse Practitioners, 2019 ); for example, the average age of the participants in our study and the national sample were identical (49 years). Additionally, an overwhelming majority of our samples were female (87%), white (80%) and non-Hispanic (91%) which is consistent with the national sample (92% female, 87% white and 97% non-Hispanic). Despite our response being lower, it is typical of response rate for surveys of healthcare providers and we used best practices to increase response rate ( Cho et al., 2013 ). NP-PCOCQ only measured NP work environment, other factors might also affect NP outcomes that are not captured in this study. Although the study was conducted in six states, the findings might not be generalizable outside of these states or internationally. Lastly, our study addressed the job resources dimension of work system factors in the NAM model, but not the job demands dimension.

5 ∣. CONCLUSION

This is the first large-scale study examining the relationship between APN work environment and job outcomes in U.S. states with variable SOP regulations governing NP practice. Study findings provide timely evidence for healthcare administrators to take actions to improve NP work environment in healthcare organizations regardless of SOP regulations. Improvements in work environments, especially relationships with administrators and physicians, may improve job satisfaction and reduce intent to leave among NPs and potentially increase healthcare workforce capacity.

CLINICAL RESOURCES

Guidelines on Advanced Practice Nursing 2020. https://www.icn.ch/system/files/documents/2020-04/ICN_APN%20Report_EN_WEB.pdf

Healthy Work Environment. https://www.nursingworld.org/practice-policy/work-environment/

American Association of Nurse Practitioners: Policy Briefs. https://www.aanp.org/advocacy/advocacy-resource/policy-briefs

National and Regional Projections of Supply and Demand for Primary Care Practitioners: 2013–2025. https://bhw.hrsa.gov/sites/default/files/bhw/health-workforce-analysis/research/projections/primary-care-national-projections2013-2025.pdf

Supplementary Material

Funding information.

This study was funded by National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities [R01MD011514]. SK is supported by NIH-NINR T32NR014205 training grant.

SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Additional supporting information may be found in the online version of the article at the publisher’s website.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors report no conflict of interest.

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Employee Perception of HR Practices and Its Impact on Job Satisfaction

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• D. Bindhu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3714-3331 11 ,
• V. A. Namreen Asif   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8533-4488 12 ,
• Sanath Bhaskar Baikadi   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0009-1390-5996 11 ,
• Chethanraj   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0007-0069-4208 12 ,
• Nanditha Sunil   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1542-9881 11 ,
• Chandravathi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1067-5389 13 &
• Neil Gladwin Dlima   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0008-3597-1831 12  

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In today’s business world, HR practices are crucial in shaping employee experiences and organizational success. This study focuses on understanding how employees perceive workplace regulations and how it impacts their overall job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is important because it directly influences the effort and concentration employees put into their work. Our findings indicate that factors like compensation and benefits policies, career growth and development opportunities, and health and well-being initiatives have a significant impact on job satisfaction. This study stands out in the field of HR practices literature as it aims to analyse how employee perception of HR practices impacts job satisfaction. The study focuses on employees in public sector companies. To examine the mediating effect of educational qualification on employee perception and job satisfaction, regression, and SOBEL tests were used. The findings reveal that various aspects of HR practices have a positive influence on job satisfaction. These findings emphasize the significance of HR practices in shaping employee perceptions and attitudes, ultimately impacting job satisfaction.

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Bindhu, D. et al. (2024). Employee Perception of HR Practices and Its Impact on Job Satisfaction. In: Alareeni, B., Hamdan, A. (eds) Navigating the Technological Tide: The Evolution and Challenges of Business Model Innovation. ICBT 2024. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol 1083. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-67431-0_15

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REVIEW article

Positive psychology and employee adaptive performance: systematic literature review.

• Department of Management and Marketing, Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Adaptive performance will increasingly be confronted with new insights as society today changes constantly. This raises questions as to what factors will impact employee’s adaptive performance and what is their inner psychological mechanism. The terms of positive psychology and adaptive performance are important concepts in the domain of organizational behavior and human resource development areas. The literature, however, lacks a systematic review of it. Our research seeks to explore the inherence of employee adaptive performance via the prism of positive psychology, including Psychological Capital and PERMA (Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment). We selected 27 papers out of 382, which were generated from Web of Science and Scopus databases associated the keywords of the two concepts, and used the 2020 PRISMA flow program for the paper screening. By analyzing the underpin theories, the causation, and the measurement, we discovered that there is a complex and nuanced relationship between positive psychology and adaptive performance, and most of the research to date suggests that positive psychology components improve employee adaptive performance. This study maps the current knowledge at the nexus of positive psychology and adaptive performance to identify existing gaps and potential for further investigation.

1 Introduction

The current state of the global and technical environment has become more complex, confusing, and dynamic. Working in an era of complex demand that professionals need to be prepared to use their extensive experience bases, develop new knowledge ( Mylopoulos et al., 2018 ) and quickly acquire new skills when required. In most areas, people will have to keep coming up with new ideas and changing the way things are seen, and people who can handle these changes are known as “adaptive experts” in the literature ( van Tartwijk et al., 2023 ). For example, in the food and beverage industry, it is imperative for enterprises and their employees to swiftly respond to the dynamic nature of customer demands and preferences in order to optimize customer satisfaction and gain a competitive edge ( Reig-Botella et al., 2024 ). Additionally, since the COVID-19 pandemic crisis has made the workplace more uncertain and unpredictable, it is essential that we examine at potential approaches to enhance employee’s motivation and adaptive performance ( Junça-Silva and Menino, 2022 ).

Adaptive performance-“employees’ ability to adapt to fast-changing work conditions” ( Ilgen and Pulakos, 1999 ), therefore has gain a better comprehension of the capabilities and performance of employees in the face of ever-evolving circumstances ( Jundt et al., 2015 ; Park and Park, 2019 ). This line of research is anticipated to offer guidance to employers on how to foster employee expertise and capacity development that is most appropriate for the new work environments ( Jundt et al., 2015 ).

There are many factors that influence adaptive performance. In their review article, Park and Park (2019) break down these factors into four categories: individual, job, group and organization. However, as talent becomes increasingly crucial in today’s business environment, the importance of individual is getting more significant, as innovation, productivity and customer satisfaction are all dependent on talent ( Sondhi and Nirmal, 2013 ). In numerous disciplines, the effect of experts’ motivation is becoming more widely acknowledged ( Wang and Wang, 2021 ), which is crucial and cost-effective. Employee’s motivation is significantly determined by their psychology states ( Chintalapti, 2021 ), therefore, to improve the positive psychology of the employees is essential in nowadays workplace.

Nearly a decade ago, in a paper titled “The Future of Positive Psychology,” Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) called for “positive psychology” should include a study of human well-being, happiness, excellence and optimal human functioning. There’s no denying the importance of positive psychology in improving organizational performance and it’s become increasingly popular in recent years ( Seligman et al., 2005 ). Positive psychology emphasizes human qualities, such as positive attributes and individual strengths, which has been widely accepted as having a beneficial effect in fostering an organizational culture that appreciates the potential of individuals ( Peterson and Spiker, 2005 ). In recent years, positive psychology has seen a surge in popularity and has been utilized at a variety of levels, however, its application to the workplace and its impact to talent’s work performance has not been as widely explored. It would be highly intriguing to investigate the potential and the numerous advantages that positive psychology can bring to adaptive performance. Additionally, there is a lack of consensus regarding the methodology used, the theoretical frameworks adopted, and the location and identity of the investigation’s topics ( Vada and Prentice, 2022 ). Therefore, this research is trying to conduct a systematic literature review (SLR) of research on adaptive performance from the prism of positive psychology and to provide the literature gaps for future studies.

We extract and analyze their findings across relevant results from existing papers, this is a straightforward and well-organized process to search for and locate several peer-reviewed publications on connected research issues in the same field of study ( Kraus et al., 2022 ). An overview is employed to lay out the evidence that is currently available and pinpoint literature gaps ( Lunny et al., 2018 ). The research on employee adaptive performance in the area of positive psychology is summarized in our overview of reviews.

The research questions are:

RQ1. What are the theories underlying positive psychology’s application to adaptive performance?

RQ2. What is the causality between positive psychology and adaptive performance?

RQ3. What positive psychology factors and adaptive performance measurements are used in this type of research?

In order to evaluate employee adaptive performance research within the context of positive psychology, we structure our study in a systematic manner. RQ1 is essential for comprehending the underlying presumptions utilized to create the adaptive performance conceptualization as it sheds light on the theoretical underpinnings of positive psychology and the methods employed by researchers to establish these linkages. RQ2 is important because determining the cause-effect relationship is an essential part of method development for employee adaptive performance research. RQ3 is a critical factor in determining the optimal selection of positive psychology constructs for adaptive performance. This research utilizes a systematic literature review methodology to address these questions. The remaining portions of this study are organized as follows: The research methods used in the literature review are described in Section 2, the bibliographic commentary of the prior literature is presented in Section 3, the content of the literature is analyzed in Section 4, the study is concluded with a summary of the findings in Section 5, and the limitations, identified gaps in the literature, and areas for future research are listed in Section 6.

2 Research method

2.1 inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study.

By employing a systematic literature review, this research builds on the work of Tranfield et al. (2003) and Xiao and Watson (2019) . “Adaptive performance” here refers the capacity to adapt and modify one’s behavior as a result of changes in circumstances or information. It is characterized by adaptability, the ability to learn from experiences, and the capacity to adjust to new situations ( Zheng et al., 2020 ; Liu et al., 2021 ). We consider “positive psychology” to encompass all facets of one’s inner resources, such as virtues, psychic powers, self-discipline, resilience, self-efficacy, optimism, hope and self-confidence ( Chintalapti, 2021 ). Numerous contexts, such as psycho-oncology, education, and the workplace, can benefit from the use of positive psychology ( Galanakis and Tsitouri, 2022 ). Observing the research objectives, the inclusion criteria of this study should be papers that investigate the relation between positive psychology and “adaptive performance” in workplace, including keywords of “psychological capital” (Optimism”, “Resilience”, “Hope”, “Self-efficacy”) and “PERMA” (“positive emotion”, “engagement”, “relationship”, “meaning”, “accomplishment”) and their dimensions. While duplication, papers not written in English, conference reviews, papers with unrelated substance, and so forth are examples of exclusion criteria.

2.2 Search strategy

This research uses the Web of Science and Scopus databases to compile articles on positive psychology and adaptive performance. These two databases are the most reputable platforms for this study since they allow researchers to map excellent research papers from many fields. In addition to the user-friendly nature of the databases, it is possible to access a comprehensive set of research article profiles through the use of discipline-specific keywords and search terms ( Tranfield et al., 2003 ). The first keywords enter (“positive psychology” OR “PERMA” OR “positive emotion” OR “engagement” OR “relationship” OR “meaning” OR “accomplishment” OR “psychological capital” OR “PsyCap” OR “Optimism” OR “Resilience” OR “Hope” OR “Self-efficacy”) AND (“work adaptive performance” OR “employee adaptive performance” OR “adaptive performance”) includes in titles and abstracts all the terms linked to positive psychology and adaptive performance. The papers are collected on 6 July 2024. To find the most relevant publications, we do not employ additional search parameters such as the publication date. Furthermore, according to the 2020 version of PRISMA framework ( Haddaway et al., 2022 ), we use the same keywords to search pertinent publications in our prior research and records.

2.3 Study selection process

With the strain set, we obtain 185 papers from Web of Science, 197 papers from Scopus, and a selection process starts with a total of 382 publications. 131 papers are found duplicated in step 1 and after removing, there are 251 left. Step 2 reports are screened via title and abstract. The publications that most closely match the research goals and have a high probability of contributing to the RQs are found in this stage. The terms “adaptive performance” and “positive psychology,” as well as their synonyms, bring up 47 papers after our initial search. Upon the closer examination, total 204 documents have been determined that in question are related to no abstract can be retrieved, conference papers and conference reviews, topics on physics and engineering, medical research, migrants’ adaptation, leadership, training or even sports; none of which apply to this study as they are not towards the individual adaptive performance in the workplace. Table 1 is the summary of these 204 publications that are categorized as inappropriate:

Table 1 . Category of inappropriate papers.

After the abstract filtering, we select 47 most relevant articles to this study. The results of the search were then filtered based on the criteria of inclusion and exclusion. We restrict our search to complete English-language articles written in the workplace. This implies excluding studies which without full texts, do not write in English, not in workplace, and are not published in good journal, means that the journal which cannot be found by the SCImago Journal and Country Rank. The relationships between positive psychology and adaptive performance, including their dimensions, are explained in the paper’s content and papers answering the research questions are considered to meet the inclusion criterion. Following this last filter, we obtain the 27 articles that are most pertinent, which are published between 1989 and 2024 ( Table 2 ).

Table 2 . Inclusion and Exclusion process for the full-text paper selection.

According to the requirement of 2020 version of PRISMA, records identified from database is 382, prior studies and records have been screened and checked as well, 43 papers are considered related after keywords searching, but none of them apply to this research after full content examination. 6 papers from citation appear to relate to the topic but 0 of them has been selected due to duplication or not as relevant as expected. Table 2 demonstrates the detail of the whole inclusion and exclusion process, and Figure 1 indicates the decision-making process of paper selection in PRISMA.

Figure 1 . Publication PRISMA flow diagram ( Haddaway et al., 2022 ).

3 Bibliographic analysis

3.1 the positive psychology and adaptive performance publication trends.

We discover that the earlier research done on positive psychology and adaptive performance conducted in the China (11.11%, n  = 3), India (11.11%, n  = 3), Malaysia (7.41%, n  = 2), United States (7.41%, n  = 2), Turkey (7.41%, n  = 2), Korea (7.41%, n  = 2), the rest (48.15%, n  = 13) are from Finland, France, Dubai, Indonesia, The Netherlands, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom, Spain and South Africa, etc. It reveals that this topic has attracted attention around the world although the publication number is still few. With the majority of studies appearing between 2020 and 2022, the focus on positive psychology and adaptive performance has been continuously increasing since 1989 ( Figure 2 ).

Figure 2 . Distribution of papers based on publication year.

Our article results are based on the previously mentioned 6 July 2024, Web of Science and Scopus search date. Consequently, we evaluate the frequency of the publications provided in this work with caution. Based on the most recent ranking supplied by SJR (SCImago Journal and Country Rank) Best Quartile Year 2023, we summarize the journals in Table 3 . According to the SJR Best Quartile report, majority of the articles we review (51.85%, n  = 14) are published in journals with a WOS-Q2 index, while the remaining papers are published in journals with a WOS-Q1 index (25.93% n  = 7), Scopus-Q4 index (11.11%, n  = 3) and 1 paper each with WOS-Q3, WOS-Q4 and Scopus Q3.

The 27 peer-reviewed studies ( Table 4 ) are published in 22 different journals. The majority of the articles have been published in the top management journals, including Human Performance, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management and Journal of Managerial Psychology. As we anticipate, research with a global setting is common. It indicates that change is becoming more widespread around the world and to motivate employees to adapt to the challenge is getting more and more essential ( Yang et al., 2022 ; Akyürek et al., 2023 ). It often involves the use of engagement, self-efficacy, meaning and other factors to achieve the objective and leading to the adaptive performance result of the professionals, bring cost-efficacy to the organizations ( Kossek and Perrigino, 2016 ), and eventfully boosting the development of the companies ( Reig-Botella et al., 2024 ).

Table 3 . Percentage of journal sources.

Table 4 . Existing articles and their ranking.

3.2 Research design distribution

The primary objective of the majority of these papers is to investigate and evaluate adaptive performance via positive psychology. Consequently, it is to be expected that quantitative research techniques will predominate in the literature. 92.59% of the 27 studies examine adaptive performance by employing the quantitative approach ( n  = 25), which include a variety of technical techniques like explanatory and models that are predictive. The related research is largely based on the use of archive methods, with a few experiments. Another paper (3.70%) use qualitative methods, the remaining 1 paper (3.70%) uses mixed method for analysis. These papers focus on the mechanism of positive factors and how they affect employee behavior and their adaptive performance.

3.3 Distribution based on dimensions

Both psychological capital and PERMA are positive psychological resources, and they are conceptualized as being multidimensional and including various psychological aspects ( Martínez et al., 2019 ). In this study, “hope, resilience, self-efficacy and optimism” are the four dimensions of psychological capital, and “Positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment” are the dimensions of PERMA. We identify the positive psychology with 7 factors are being discussed 30 times in the previous research (see Figure 3 ) in the selected articles, some papers use more than 1 elements to conduct the research. The most common used elements are engagement ( n  = 11), self-efficacy ( n  = 8), meaning ( n  = 4) and resilience ( n  = 3) and psychological capital ( n  = 2). There are another 2 papers each on optimism and positive emotion. Hospitality industry, digital technology-based industry, aerospace, bank and travel agencies, healthcare, railway, IT and military organization are the industries that have been separately addressed in different papers. We take this approach to comprehend adaptive performance in various working contexts more thoroughly, which the majority of the previous studies have approved that positive psychology has the significant effect on employee’s behavior and adaptive performance. This study finds that individuals who possess high engagement, self-efficacy or other facets related to positive psychology can have better adaptive performance and work outcome in their career. Adaptive performance has multiple dimensions, according to Pulakos et al. (2002) , it has been specified into 8 dimensions, 26 articles out of the selected 27 records in this review adapt the quantitative methodology (including 1 mixed method analysis), 73.08% ( n  = 19) analyze it with uni- dimensional, while the rest 26.92% ( n  = 7) treat it as multi-dimensions.

Figure 3 . Positive psychology factors discussed in the papers.

4 Content analysis

4.1 underpin theories.

There are 18 theories or models from the 27 peer-reviewed studies that are either cited or used ( Table 5 ). Not all theories arise from the field of positive psychology, for example, the most frequently used theory is conservation of resources theory, driving mechanisms responsible for a variety of stress-related responses and coping strategies ( Liao et al., 2022 ). The other theories that are frequently employed in positive psychology are the self-determination theory, social exchange theory, job demands-resources theory and self-efficacy theory.

Table 5 . Theories using in the peer-reviewed articles.

Conservation of resources theory (COR) takes up 18% of the theories using in the peer-reviewed articles, it elucidates the human psychological motivations to protect, acquire, and utilize resources through the continual alteration of a resource’s internal mechanism, which opens up new possibilities for resource depletion and provides a novel perspective to address and recognize stress-related and psychological issues ( Tang et al., 2022 ). The COR theory promotes the development of psychological capital to serve as a conduit or enrichment of the development of other important resources ( Al-zyoud and Mert, 2019 ). According to COR, Luo et al. (2021) explore the formation mechanism of adaptive performance, and the study demonstrates that the psychological capital has a positive effect on employees’ adaptive performance. Another study conducted by Van den Heuvel et al. (2020) , it predicts that work engagement trajectories during change are crucial for successful adaptation building on conservation of resources theory.

Three selected papers in this review use the self-determination theory, account for 9% of the total. According to this theory, various goal-directed behavioral norms that are reflective of psychological states influence motivation, and motivation may be intrinsic or extrinsic ( Diener, 2009 ). Extrinsic motivation seems to be less helpful than intrinsic motivation when it comes to an individual’s optimal functioning like happiness and performance. Hamid explains that when an individual’s intrinsic drive and well-being are encouraged, their inherent needs like competence, autonomy, and relatedness can be addressed based on self-determination theory, and they help people to dig out the meaning of job and have positive effect on their work and adaptive performance ( Abdul Hamid, 2022 ). Additionally, the self-determination theory suggests that although behavioral restrictions are distinct, they are arranged along a single continuum of self-determination ( Junça-Silva and Menino, 2022 ).

The broaden and build theory of positive emotions ( Vakola et al., 2021 ) is the another important theory used theories in positive psychology analysis as well. It states that certain positive emotions can expand a person’s ability to think and act in the present moment ( Bhambri, 2022 ). This broadened perspective leads to the building of personal resources like resilience, optimism, and social connections ( Xiang and Yuan, 2021 ), and increase flexibility to help people approach challenges from different angles and find innovative solutions. Meanwhile empirical studies have demonstrated that positive emotions can assist individuals in managing difficult situations ( Sriwidharmanely et al., 2021 ).

Other theories including career motivation theory ( Kossek and Perrigino, 2016 ), self-regulation theory ( Bruch et al., 1989 ), self-efficacy theory ( Şahin and Gürbüz, 2014 ), they focusing on how people motivate and regulate their own behavior in order to achieve their goals. In addition to these theories, other essential concepts are employed to construct research frameworks are person-environment fit theory, job demand-resource theory, social exchange theory ( Elshaer and Saad, 2022 ), the minnesota theory of work adjustment ( Griffin and Hesketh, 2003 ; Lowmiller, 2022 ), 6 out of 27 papers are found no specific theory applied in their studies.

4.2 Direction of causality between positive psychology and adaptive performance

In workplace adaptive performance investigation, researchers employ several methods based on theoretical underpinnings to describe the impact of positive psychology. Research has examined the correlation between adaptive performance and work-related psychological states and has demonstrated a positive correlation between work-related psychological health and adaptive performance ( Rowe et al., 2023 ). First, Psychological capital is the state of mind that motivates and encourages people to reach their full potential, employees who experience positive emotions are able to expand their cognitive abilities, resulting in more imaginative and exploratory thought and action ( Luo et al., 2021 ). Second, talent who with high engagement are more likely to remain motivated despite a decrease in resources, are willing to go above and beyond their duties to meet the objectives of their organization, and are able to compensate for temporary shortages of resources by drawing from larger resources ( Bakker and Oerlemans, 2016 ; Vakola et al., 2021 ; Kaltiainen and Hakanen, 2022 ). Vakola et al. (2021) reveal that individuals who are highly engaged in their work have an increased likelihood of adapting to organizational changes, as opposed to those who are more likely to be ambivalent. Third, individuals who view themselves as highly efficacy tend to put in more effort, which, when done correctly, leads to successful results ( Şahin and Gürbüz, 2014 ; Mujeeb et al., 2021 ). In contrast, Individuals with a low level of self-efficacy are more likely to give up in challenging circumstances and restrict their participation in similar activities ( Bruch et al., 1989 ). And last but not least, job meaningfulness is based on the notion that individuals experience a positive sense of purpose in their work, individual who perceive work as the primary source of meaning and believe that their work contributes to a greater purpose. People search for meaning in their work based on their experience, such as those who acknowledge their presence, their sense of belonging, their relationships, who they are, and their worth and contribution to the work ( Van den Heuvel et al., 2020 ; Abdul Hamid, 2022 ; Budhiraja and Rathi, 2022 ; Junça-Silva and Menino, 2022 ). Hence, job meaningfulness increases employees` sense of purpose and value, thus enabling them to rise to the challenge and foster adaptive performance.

4.3 Positive psychology and adaptive performance measurements

4.3.1 measurement of positive psychology variables.

There are total 7 different positive psychology facets that are mentioned and analyzed in these 27 peer-reviewed articles ( Table 6 ) for 34 times, engagement ( n  = 13), self-efficacy ( n  = 9), positive psychology ( n  = 2). Work engagement is a state of contentment and satisfaction associated with work. It is characterized by three dimensions: enthusiasm, commitment, and absorption ( Schaufeli et al., 2002 ). In the study conducted in Indonesia ( Nandini et al., 2022 ), participants were asked to answer a series of questions using the nine-point Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UwES-9). Within the selected papers, Van den Heuvel et al. (2020) adapt the Utrecht work engagement scale as well, but they measure with six items of Two items per subscale. Another frequent used facet to measure positive psychology in this review study is self-efficacy, an empirical assessment in France ( Joie-La Marle et al., 2023 ) use the 10-item scale, which is designed to measure adaptation and coping abilities, particularly in relation to unforeseen situations ( Luszczynska et al., 2005 ). The original English version of the scale was translated into French through a back translation process due to difficulties in understanding the existing French version. Participants rated the items of the scale on a scale of 1 (absolutely false) to 4 (absolutely true), with scores ranging from 1 to 4 ( Joie-La Marle et al., 2023 ). However, study conducted by Griffin and Hesketh (2003) adapt the 14-item scale to measure participants’ self-efficacy for adaptive behavior, participants were asked to indicate their level of confidence in achieving each of the behaviors at work, ranging from “1” meaning no confidence to “5” meaning very confidence. Jundt et al. (2015) in their review paper summaries that according to Griffin and Hesketh (2003) , role-wide self-efficacy was positively associated with self-reported adaptation frequency in the preceding month. Mujeeb et al. (2021) adapt 7-item scale for measure the self-efficacy and confirm that adaptive performance and task performance are not directly impacted by servant leadership, rather self-efficacy has a beneficial effect and acts as a mediator in understanding their relationship. However, according to Pulakos et al. (2002) and Griffin and Hesketh (2003) , self-effectiveness for each of the eight dimensions was positively correlated with supervisor ratings of total adaptive performance, but did not demonstrate incremental validity over cognitive capacity and personality ( Jundt et al., 2015 ).

Table 6 . Positive psychology facets mentioned in the papers.

4.3.2 Measurement of adaptive performance variables

Pulakos et al. (2002) studied 1,000 significant occurrences from 25 job classifications in the U.S. Army and illustrated the worldwide items of adaptive work performance, the scales with 8 dimensions. In the review of the peer 27 articles in this research, Luo et al. (2021) in their 2 articles adapt the measurement items from previous studies with preliminary questionnaire, consisting of 56 statements (ranging from 1 to 5) and participant demos (with 1 indicating strongly disagreement and 5 indicating strongly agree). The scale was translated using the Translation/Back-translation method ( McGorry, 2000 ). The translation was done in English, which was then translated into Chinese with the help of independent bilingual experts, and then re-translated into English to guarantee the quality of the translation. To assess the readiness of the preliminary instrument for use in the present study, four hotel human resources directors and over 50 frontline hotel employees were pretested ( Luo et al., 2022 ). Two behavioral constructs are utilized by another researches ( Van den Heuvel et al., 2020 ) to measure adaptive performance, which are based on adaptive work role performance and extra-role performance. Korean researchers ( Park et al., 2020 ) adapt the shorter version proposed by Charbonnier-Voirin et al., the original scale consists of 19 items, each of which measures five adaptive performance domains, however they select three items from each of the 19 subscales, resulting in a total of 15 items and the reliability of the scale (Cronbach’s α) result to be 0.886. Turkey scholars use originally 8 dimensions scale to measure the adaptive performance ( Şahin and Gürbüz, 2014 ) and two thirds of the articles in this study measure adaptive performance as uni-dimensional ( Bruch et al., 1989 ; Pradhan et al., 2017 ; Murali and Aggarwal, 2020 ; Abdullahi et al., 2021 ; Elshaer and Saad, 2022 ).

5 Conclusion

5.1 overall outcomes.

In this study, we provide an SLR to evaluate and synthesize the investigation stream of adaptive performance in a workplace context. Descriptive and substantive results are presented in our bibliography analysis and content analysis, respectively. The papers come from the Web of Science and Scopus databases, the restriction is workplace and without other preference to maximize the search result. We screen the papers and examine them throughout the history of this research.

As a result, 27 papers published from 1989 to 2024 are selected to carry out the systematic literature review to find the most appropriate papers to address our research questions. This study draws upon existing research findings regarding the relationship between positive psychology and employee work adaptive performance. Researchers have looked at conservation of resources theory, self-determination theory, person-environment fit theory and other theories explain the relationship between positive psychology facets and adaptive performance. In addition, this study analyzes the causality relationship of the constructs and reveal the underlying logic why positive psychology of the individual can impact their adaptive performance and work outcome. Measurements of variables are collected and compared in different context. The study finds that there is a significant relationship between positive psychology and employee’s adaptive performance, specifically antecedent positive emotion, engagement, meaning, psychological capital, resilience, optimism and self-efficacy improve the employee’s adaptive performance, empirical data from the banking, IT, hotel, and food and beverage sectors, among others.

5.2 The implications for management practice

Individual positive psychology can play an important role for employees to effectively adapting to the changeable working environment, this is the practical implication of this study. Employees who are engaged, or optimistic and self-efficacy are gregarious, determined, and committed, which may offer them the positive energy they need to adapt to change ( Van den Heuvel et al., 2020 ). Understanding that positive psychology is a critical and essential approach, recognizing that work engagement and self-efficacy as a prolonged and continuous process, managers must grasp the pivotal motivational role in fostering positive psychological states and subsequently influencing performance outcomes. It is imperative for employers to proactively furnish employees with training, career opportunities, and rewards, fostering a sense of obligation that prompts elevated levels of adaptive performance ( Isah Leontes and Hoole, 2024 ).

In conclusion, the connection between positive psychology and adaptive performance is effective and multifaceted. The majority of the existing research indicates that the positive psychology elements have a beneficial effect on the employee adaptive performance, however, further empirical research is necessary to determine the extent to which the single or multiple settings can affect the individual adaptive performance. It is critical to consider each of these elements, and cross-disciplinary research is essential in order to further understand the relationship between positive psychology and adaptive performance.

6 Limitations and future research

Despite the increasing prevalence of positive psychology and research on employee performance, there is still a lack of research on some aspects of positive psychology, such as “relationships,” “hope” and “accomplishment.” In addition, further empirical studies may be necessary to develop more reliable scales for certain components of the construct, such as self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resilience.

The selection of the research terms and the scope of the research is a limitation of a systematic literature review approach. In this review, only psychological capital, PERMA, and their subsidiary characteristics that were based on prior research are searched for. Peer-reviewed publications in academic journals published in English only are included in this comprehensive literature assessment. This might have limited the availability of pertinent material published in other languages or sources.

In light of the limitations and conclusions of this review, the following areas of future research are proposed in this study. Additional positive psychology ideas should be covered in further reviews, such as well-being, happiness, wellness and peace of mind. In this study, we consider adaptive performance as the dependent variable, researcher may examine if adaptive performance has the opposite impact on positive psychology in subsequent studies. Negative emotions also can be employed as an inverse term and investigate the topic from different perspectives. Academic journals published in languages other than English and a wider range of sources may also be included in the inclusion criteria. During future research, it is possible to conduct a search for relevant articles and examine the documents for which the full text cannot be obtained at this time. And investigations are encouraged to conduct in different contexts, such as different countries and areas, diverse cultures and various industries.

Author contributions

GT: Writing – original draft, Data curation. RA: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Formal analysis. SO: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: positive psychology, psychological capital, PERMA, engagement, self-efficacy, adaptive performance

Citation: Tang G, Abu Bakar R and Omar S (2024) Positive psychology and employee adaptive performance: systematic literature review. Front. Psychol . 15:1417260. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1417260

Received: 14 April 2024; Accepted: 18 July 2024; Published: 14 August 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Tang, Abu Bakar and Omar. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Raida Abu Bakar, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Gerd Groezinger , Wenzel Matiaske

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COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK

Practice Administrator

• Columbia University Medical Center
• Opening on: Aug 14 2024
• Job Type: Officer of Administration
• Bargaining Unit:
• Regular/Temporary: Regular
• End Date if Temporary:
• Hours Per Week: 35
• Standard Work Schedule:
• Salary Range: 75,700-87,700

Position Summary

The Practice Administrator of Multispecialty location in the department of surgery directs and maintains management of clinical operational issues for the practice including all the of NYPW Bariatric and General Surgery at Pondfield. Reports directly to the Division Chief and Director of Practice Operations.

Responsibilities

• Responsible for day to day administrative operations.
• Oversee practice administrative assistants and medical assistants
• Responsible for team meeting all front-end practice and revenue metrics.
• Ensure division is meeting budgeted revenue by working closely with department billing team to enhance revenue and capture all payment opportunities.
• Responsible for working missing charge/deferred and vascular lab reports to ensure timely submission of charges
• Analysis of OR Utilization for the Surgeons in the division of NYPW Bariatric and General Surgery at Pondfield.
• Ensure timely submission and processing of all invoices
• Ensure customer satisfaction and implement patient experience enhancement processes as needed.
• Hold regular staff and faculty meetings for feedback, problem solving, ensure compliance and productivity to meet established benchmarks of the clinical operation.
• Work closely with Division Chief and surgeons to ensure needs are being met including support for academic duties.
• Work closely with management of other sub-specialties seeing patients at Pondfield to ensure optimal service delivery.
• Approve and process invoices for Division with Division Chief oversight.
• Manage ordering of medical supplies/equipment for clinical space.
• Responsible for timesheets and annual evaluations for all staff both Columbia and Service Corporation
• Responsible for NYPW Bariatric and General Surgery Faculty credentialing
• Responsible for maintenance and distribution of monthly faculty and fellow call schedule
• Support marketing and social media efforts to enhance referral base, outreach and program expansion.

Minimum Qualifications

• Requires bachelor’s degree or equivalent in education and 4 yrs experience

Preferred Qualifications

• Masters in management preferred
• Minimum of two (5) years of relevant experience in a clinical setting preferred
• Minimum of two (2) years managing staff preferred

Other Requirements

• Excellent written and oral communication skills.
• Excellent organizational skills and the ability to prioritize multiple tasks, projects and assignments.
• Exceptional attention to detail and accuracy.
• Experience in specific hospital systems (EPIC).
• Proficiency in Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint)

Equal Opportunity Employer / Disability / Veteran

Columbia University is committed to the hiring of qualified local residents.

Commitment to Diversity 

Columbia university is dedicated to increasing diversity in its workforce, its student body, and its educational programs. achieving continued academic excellence and creating a vibrant university community require nothing less. in fulfilling its mission to advance diversity at the university, columbia seeks to hire, retain, and promote exceptionally talented individuals from diverse backgrounds.  , share this job.

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The Dynamics of Job Satisfaction and Its Impact on Employee Performance

• August 2024
• International Journal of Progressive Research in Engineering Management and Science 04(08):152-155
• 04(08):152-155

• Dr. Harisingh Gour University

• Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya
• This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.

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