example research interview questions

12 research interview questions (with examples and answers)

Last updated

4 July 2024

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Dazzle the interviewing team and land the job of your dreams by coming prepared to answer the most commonly asked research interview questions.

Read our article (which includes example answers to get your brain juices flowing) to ensure you put your best foot forward for your next research interview.

• What are research interview questions?

If you have set your sights on working in research, you will have to answer research interview questions during the hiring process.

Whether you are interested in working as a research assistant or want to land an academic or industry research position in your chosen field, confidently answering research interview questions is the best way to showcase your skills and land the job.

Designed to be open-ended, research interview questions give your interviewer a chance to:

Get a better understanding of your research experience

Explore your areas of research expertise

Determine if you and your research are a good fit for their needs

Assess if they have the required resources for you to conduct your research effectively

• 12 research interview questions (with answers)

If you want to crush an upcoming interview for a research position, practicing your answers to commonly asked questions is a great place to start.

Read our list of research interview questions and answers to help get into the pre-interview zone (and, hopefully, ensure you land that position!)

• General research questions

General research questions are typically asked at the start of the interview to give the interviewer a sense of your work, personality, experience, and career goals. 

They offer a great opportunity to introduce yourself and your skills before you deep-dive into your specific area of expertise.

What is your area of research expertise?

Interviewers will ask this common kickoff question to learn more about you and your interests and experience. Besides providing the needed information, you can use this question to highlight your unique skills at the beginning of your interview to set the tone.

Example answer

“My research focuses on the interaction between social media use and teenager mental well-being. I’ve conducted [X number] studies which have been published in [X publications]. I love studying this topic because not only is it a pressing modern issue, it also serves a commonly overlooked population that requires and deserves additional attention and support.”

Why are you interested in [X research topic]?

Another icebreaker, this question allows you to provide some context and backstory into your passion for research.

“After completing my undergraduate degree in mechanical engineering, I had the opportunity to work with my current mentor on their research project. After we conducted the first experiment, I had a million other questions I wanted to explore—and I was hooked. From there, I was fortunate enough to be taken on as an assistant by my mentor, and they have helped me home in on my specific research topic over the past [X years].”

What are your favorite and least favorite aspects of research?

Playing off the classic “What are your greatest strengths and weaknesses?” interview question, this research-specific option often appears in these types of interviews.

This can be a tricky question to answer well. The best way to approach this type of question is to be honest but constructive. This is your opportunity to come across as genuine as you talk about aspects of research that challenge you—because no one wants to hear you like everything about your work!

“My favorite part of research is speaking directly to people in our target demographic to hear about their stories and experiences. My least favorite part is the struggle to secure grants to support my work—though now I have done that process a few times, it is less daunting than when I started.”

• In-depth interview questions about your research

Once the interviewer has a basic understanding of you, they will transition into asking more in-depth questions about your work.

Regardless of your level of experience, this is the portion of the interview where you can dazzle your potential employer with your knowledge of your industry and research topic to highlight your value as a potential employee.

Where has your work been published?

As this is a straightforward question, make sure you have to hand every place your work has been published. If your work is yet to be published, mention potential future publications and any other academic writing you have worked on throughout your career.

“My research has been published in [X number of publications]. If you want to read my published work, I am happy to share the publication links or print you a copy.”

Tell us about your research process

Getting into the meat and potatoes of your work, this question is the perfect opportunity to share your working process while setting clear expectations for the support you will need.

Research is a collaborative process between team members and your employer, so being clear about how you prefer to work (while acknowledging you will need to make compromises to adjust to existing processes) will help you stand out from other candidates.

“Historically, I have worked alongside a team of researchers to devise and conduct my research projects. Once we determine the topic and gather the needed resources, I strive to be collaborative and open as we design the study parameters and negotiate the flow of our work. I enjoy analyzing data, so in most cases, I take the lead on that portion of the project, but I am happy to jump in and support the team with other aspects of the project as well.”

What sources do you use to collect your research data?

Depending on the type of research you conduct, this question allows you to deep-dive into the specifics of your data-collection process. Use this question to explain how you ensure you are collecting the right data, including selecting study participants, filtering peer-reviewed papers to analyze, etc.

“Because my research involves collecting qualitative data from volunteers, I use strict criteria to ensure the people I interview are within our target demographic. During the interview, which I like doing virtually for convenience, I use [X software] to create transcripts and pool data to make the analysis process less time-consuming.”

• Leadership research questions

Many research positions require employees to take on leadership responsibilities as they progress throughout their careers.

If this is the case for your job position, have strong answers prepared to the following questions to showcase your leadership and conflict-management skills.

Are you interested in becoming a research leader or manager?

Many research positions are looking for people with leadership potential to take on more responsibility as they grow throughout their careers. If you are interested in pursuing research leadership, use this question to highlight your leadership qualities.

“While I currently do not have much research leadership experience, I have worked with so many lovely mentors, and I would love the opportunity to fulfill that role for the next generation of academics. Because I am quite organized and attuned to the challenges of research, I would love the opportunity to take on leadership responsibilities over time.”

How do you handle workplace conflicts within a research team?

Workplace conflict is always present when working with a team, so it is a common topic for research interview questions.

Despite being tricky to navigate, this type of question allows you to show you are a team player and that you know how to handle periods of interpersonal stress. 

“When I'm directly involved in a disagreement with my team members, I do my best to voice my opinion while remaining respectful. I am trained in de-escalation techniques, so I use those skills to prevent the argument from getting too heated. If I am a bystander to an argument, I try to help other team members feel heard and valued while disengaging any big emotions from the conversation.”

How would you support and motivate a struggling researcher on your team?

Research is a team effort. Employers are looking for people who can work well in teams as a priority when hiring. Describing your ability to support and encourage your team members is essential for crushing your research interview.

“Working in research is hard—so I have had my fair share of offering and receiving support. When I have noticed someone is struggling, I do my best to offset their workload (provided I have the space to assist). Also, because I pride myself on being a friendly and approachable person, I do my best to provide a safe, open space for my team members if they want to talk or vent about any issues.”

• Future-oriented research questions

As the interview comes to a close, your interviewer may ask you about your aspirations in academia and research.

To seal the deal and leave a positive impression, these types of questions are the perfect opportunity to remind your interviewer about your skills, knowledge base, and passion for your work and future in research.

What other areas of research are you interested in exploring?

Many hiring research positions may require their researchers to be open to exploring alternative research topics. If this applies to your position, coming prepared with adjacent topics to your current studies can help you stand out.

“While my primary interests are with my area of study, I also am interested in exploring [X additional topics] related to my current work.”

Where do you see your research in 5, 10, or 20 years?

Your employer wants to see you are interested in and invested in growing your research career with them. To scope out your aspirations (and to show you are a good match for their needs), they may ask you to detail your future career goals.

“In five years, I would love to have at least two more published projects, particularly in [X publication]. Past that, as I mature in my research career, I hope to take on more leadership roles in the next 10 to 20 years, including running my own lab or being invited to speak at conferences in my chosen field.”

In an ideal world, what would your perfect research job look like?

As a fun hypothetical question, the “ideal world” inquiry allows you to get creative and specific about your wishes and aspirations. If you get asked this question, do your best not to limit yourself. Be specific about what you want; you never know, some of your wishes may already be possible to fulfill!

“In an ideal world, I would love to be the lead of my own research team. We would have our own working space, access to [X specific research tool] to conduct our research, and would be able to attend conferences within our field as keynote speakers.”

• Get ready to ace your next research interview

Now you’re ready to dazzle your interviewers and land the research job of your dreams. Prepare strong and competent answers after reading this article on the most common research interview questions.

Arriving prepared for your interview is a great way to reduce stress, but remember: Showcasing yourself and your passion for your research is the number one way to stand out from the other applicants and get the job.

Best of luck. You’ve got this!

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Research, Record, and Transcribe Better

Preparing Questions for a Qualitative Research Interview

Updated on: June 22, 2024

A qualitative research interview is an invaluable tool for researchers. Whether one’s studying social phenomena, exploring personal narratives, or investigating complex issues, interviews offer a means to gain unique insights. 

“The quality of the data collected in a qualitative research interview is highly dependent on the quality and appropriateness of the questions asked.”

But how do you prepare the right questions to ensure your interviews yield rich data? In this guide, we’ll explore the types of qualitative research interviews and provide tips for crafting effective questions.

Table of Contents

Types of Qualitative Research Interviews

Before diving into question preparation, it’s important to select the type of qualitative research interview that’s best suited for the study at hand.

There are three types of qualitative research interviews:

Structured Interviews 

Structured interviews involve asking the same set of pre-written questions to every participant. This approach ensures consistency, making it easier to compare data between participants or groups later.

When conducting structured interviews, keep these guidelines in mind:

• Pre-written Questions : All questions, including probes, should be meticulously written in advance.
• Detailed Questions : Questions should be detailed enough to be used verbatim during interviews.
• Consistent Sequence : The sequence of questions should be pre-decided and consistent across interviews.

Example of a Structured Interview Question

Question : Thinking back to your childhood days in Chelsea, can you remember what kind of local music was popular at the time?

• Why do you think it was so popular?
• Where was it played?
• Were there other popular genres?

Structured interviews are ideal when you need uniform data collection across all participants. They are common in large-scale studies or when comparing responses quantitatively.

Read more: Advantages & Disadvantages of Structured Interviews

Semi-structured Interviews 

The second type of qualitative interviews are semi-structured interviews. In these interviews, the  interview guide outlines the topics to be explored, but the actual questions are not pre-written.

This approach allows interviewers the freedom to phrase questions spontaneously and explore topics in more depth.

Example of a Semi-Structured Interview Question

Question : What problems did the participant face growing up in the community?

• Education-related.
• Related to their immediate family.
• Related to the community in general.

Semi-structured interviews strike a balance between flexibility and structure. They offer a framework within which interviewers can adapt questions to participants’ responses, making them suitable for in-depth exploration.

Unstructured Interviews 

In unstructured interviews, often referred to as  informal conversational interviews , are characterized by a lack of formal guidelines, predefined questions, or sequencing.

Questions emerge during the interview based on the conversation’s flow and the interviewee’s observations. Consequently, each unstructured interview is unique, and questions may evolve over time.

Unstructured interviews are highly exploratory and can lead to unexpected insights. They are particularly valuable when studying complex or novel phenomena where predefined questions may limit understanding.

Deciding What Information You Need

Once you’ve chosen the type of interview that suits your research study, the next step is to decide what information you need to collect.

Patton’s six types of questions offer a framework for shaping your inquiries:

• Behavior or Experience : Explore participants’ actions and experiences.
• Opinion or Belief : Probe participants’ beliefs, attitudes, and opinions.
• Feelings : Delve into the emotional aspects of participants’ experiences.
• Knowledge : Assess participants’ understanding and awareness of a topic.
• Sensory : Investigate how participants perceive and interact with their environment.
• Background or Demographic : Collect information about participants’ personal characteristics and histories.

Based on these categories, create a list of the specific information you aim to collect through the interview. This step ensures that your questions align with your research objectives.

Writing the Qualitative Research Interview Questions

After deciding the type of interview and nature of information you’d like to gather, the next step is to write the actual questions. 

Using Open-Ended Questions

Open-ended questions are the backbone of qualitative research interviews. They encourage participants to share their experiences and thoughts in-depth, providing rich, detailed data.

Avoid ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions, as they limit responses. Instead, use open-ended questions that grant participants the freedom to express themselves. Here are some examples – 

Examples of Open-Ended Questions

How do you feel about working at ABC Corp. during your initial years there?

• Encourages participants to share their emotions and experiences.

Can you describe the attitudes and approach to work of the other people working with you at the time?

• Invites participants to reflect on their colleagues’ behaviors and attitudes.

Tell me more about your relationship with your peers.

• Encourages participants to provide narrative insights into their relationships.

Read More: 100 Open-Ended Qualitative Interview Questions

Going from Unstructured to Structured Questions

Unstructured Questions allow the interviewee to guide the conversation, letting them focus on what they think is most important.

These questions make the interview longer, but also provide richer and deeper insight.

Examples of Unstructured Questions

• Tell me about your experience working at [xxx].
• What did it feel like to live in that neighborhood?
• What stood out to you as the defining characteristic of that neighborhood?

Examples of Structured Questions

• What are some ways people dealt with the health issues caused by excessive chemical industries in the neighborhood?
• As an employee at ABC Corp. during the time, did you observe any specific actions taken by the employers to address the issue?

Probing Questions

Probing questions are used to get more information about an answer or clarify something. They help interviewers dig deeper, clarify responses, and gain a more comprehensive understanding.

Examples of Probing Questions

Tell me more about that.

• Encourages participants to elaborate on their previous response.

And how did you feel about that?

• Invites participants to share their emotional reactions.

What do you mean when you say [xxx]?

• Seeks clarification on ambiguous or complex statements.

Probing questions enhance the depth and clarity of the data collected, however they should be used judiciously to avoid overwhelming participants.

A General Last Question

As your interview approaches its conclusion, it’s beneficial to have a general last question that allows the interviewee to share any additional thoughts or opinions they feel are relevant.

For instance, you might ask:

Thank you for all that valuable information. Is there anything else you’d like to add before we end?

This open-ended question provides participants with a final opportunity to express themselves fully, ensuring that no critical insights are left unshared.

Preparing questions for qualitative research interviews requires a thoughtful approach that considers the interview type, desired information, and the balance between structured and unstructured questioning.

Here’s a great guide from the Harvard University on the subject.

Read More: How to Transcribe an Interview – A Complete Guide

• Choosing the Right Setting for a Qualitative Research Interview
• 5 Ways Researchers can Transcribe from Audio to Text

Reader Interactions

hlabishi says

April 8, 2015 at 12:37 pm

I found the information valuable. It will assist me a lot with my research work.

Harpinder says

June 8, 2015 at 10:40 pm

I am going for my pilot study. Above information is really valuable for me. Thank you.

September 28, 2015 at 10:21 am

thank you for Patton’s 6 types of questions related to: 1. Behavior or experience. 2. Opinion or belief. 3. Feelings. 4. Knowledge. 5. Sensory. 6. Background or demographic. Really helpful

IBRAHIM A. ALIYU says

October 7, 2015 at 6:04 pm

Very interesting and good guides, thanks a lot

Dumisani says

July 31, 2017 at 7:55 am

Very informative. Thank you

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June 5, 2018 at 11:57 pm

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Joshua Nonwo says

June 3, 2019 at 11:02 pm

vital information that really help me to do my research. thank you so much.

June 12, 2019 at 7:36 pm

Thanks a lot. Example of structured interview broadens My mind in formulating my structured research question. Indeed very helpful.

mwiine says

November 29, 2019 at 6:31 am

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Kayayoo isaac says

November 29, 2019 at 7:54 am

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leslie says

December 27, 2019 at 4:29 pm

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January 20, 2020 at 3:19 pm

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Daniel says

June 1, 2020 at 6:21 pm

Thank you very much. Helpful information in my preparations for structured interviews for my research .

abby kamwana says

December 8, 2020 at 9:03 am

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Cosmas W.K. Mereku (Prof.) says

June 15, 2021 at 8:59 am

I am teaching 42 MPhil and 6 PhD postgraduate music students research methods this academic year. Your guide to qualitative research interview questions has been very useful. Because the students are in different disciplines (music education, music composition, ethnomusicology and performance), all the types of questions discussed have been very useful. Thank you very much.

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June 16, 2021 at 12:45 pm

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Qualitative Research 101: Interviewing

5 Common Mistakes To Avoid When Undertaking Interviews

By: David Phair (PhD) and Kerryn Warren (PhD) | March 2022

Undertaking interviews is potentially the most important step in the qualitative research process. If you don’t collect useful, useable data in your interviews, you’ll struggle through the rest of your dissertation or thesis.  Having helped numerous students with their research over the years, we’ve noticed some common interviewing mistakes that first-time researchers make. In this post, we’ll discuss five costly interview-related mistakes and outline useful strategies to avoid making these.

Overview: 5 Interviewing Mistakes

• Not having a clear interview strategy /plan
• Not having good interview techniques /skills
• Not securing a suitable location and equipment
• Not having a basic risk management plan
• Not keeping your “ golden thread ” front of mind

1. Not having a clear interview strategy

The first common mistake that we’ll look at is that of starting the interviewing process without having first come up with a clear interview strategy or plan of action. While it’s natural to be keen to get started engaging with your interviewees, a lack of planning can result in a mess of data and inconsistency between interviews.

There are several design choices to decide on and plan for before you start interviewing anyone. Some of the most important questions you need to ask yourself before conducting interviews include:

• What are the guiding research aims and research questions of my study?
• Will I use a structured, semi-structured or unstructured interview approach?
• How will I record the interviews (audio or video)?
• Who will be interviewed and by whom ?
• What ethics and data law considerations do I need to adhere to?
• How will I analyze my data? 

Let’s take a quick look at some of these.

The core objective of the interviewing process is to generate useful data that will help you address your overall research aims. Therefore, your interviews need to be conducted in a way that directly links to your research aims, objectives and research questions (i.e. your “golden thread”). This means that you need to carefully consider the questions you’ll ask to ensure that they align with and feed into your golden thread. If any question doesn’t align with this, you may want to consider scrapping it.

Another important design choice is whether you’ll use an unstructured, semi-structured or structured interview approach . For semi-structured interviews, you will have a list of questions that you plan to ask and these questions will be open-ended in nature. You’ll also allow the discussion to digress from the core question set if something interesting comes up. This means that the type of information generated might differ a fair amount between interviews.

Contrasted to this, a structured approach to interviews is more rigid, where a specific set of closed questions is developed and asked for each interviewee in exactly the same order. Closed questions have a limited set of answers, that are often single-word answers. Therefore, you need to think about what you’re trying to achieve with your research project (i.e. your research aims) and decided on which approach would be best suited in your case.

It is also important to plan ahead with regards to who will be interviewed and how. You need to think about how you will approach the possible interviewees to get their cooperation, who will conduct the interviews, when to conduct the interviews and how to record the interviews. For each of these decisions, it’s also essential to make sure that all ethical considerations and data protection laws are taken into account.

Finally, you should think through how you plan to analyze the data (i.e., your qualitative analysis method) generated by the interviews. Different types of analysis rely on different types of data, so you need to ensure you’re asking the right types of questions and correctly guiding your respondents.

Simply put, you need to have a plan of action regarding the specifics of your interview approach before you start collecting data. If not, you’ll end up drifting in your approach from interview to interview, which will result in inconsistent, unusable data.

2. Not having good interview technique

While you’re generally not expected to become you to be an expert interviewer for a dissertation or thesis, it is important to practice good interview technique and develop basic interviewing skills .

Let’s go through some basics that will help the process along.

Firstly, before the interview , make sure you know your interview questions well and have a clear idea of what you want from the interview. Naturally, the specificity of your questions will depend on whether you’re taking a structured, semi-structured or unstructured approach, but you still need a consistent starting point . Ideally, you should develop an interview guide beforehand (more on this later) that details your core question and links these to the research aims, objectives and research questions.

Before you undertake any interviews, it’s a good idea to do a few mock interviews with friends or family members. This will help you get comfortable with the interviewer role, prepare for potentially unexpected answers and give you a good idea of how long the interview will take to conduct. In the interviewing process, you’re likely to encounter two kinds of challenging interviewees ; the two-word respondent and the respondent who meanders and babbles. Therefore, you should prepare yourself for both and come up with a plan to respond to each in a way that will allow the interview to continue productively.

To begin the formal interview , provide the person you are interviewing with an overview of your research. This will help to calm their nerves (and yours) and contextualize the interaction. Ultimately, you want the interviewee to feel comfortable and be willing to be open and honest with you, so it’s useful to start in a more casual, relaxed fashion and allow them to ask any questions they may have. From there, you can ease them into the rest of the questions.

As the interview progresses , avoid asking leading questions (i.e., questions that assume something about the interviewee or their response). Make sure that you speak clearly and slowly , using plain language and being ready to paraphrase questions if the person you are interviewing misunderstands. Be particularly careful with interviewing English second language speakers to ensure that you’re both on the same page.

Engage with the interviewee by listening to them carefully and acknowledging that you are listening to them by smiling or nodding. Show them that you’re interested in what they’re saying and thank them for their openness as appropriate. This will also encourage your interviewee to respond openly.

Need a helping hand?

3. Not securing a suitable location and quality equipment

Where you conduct your interviews and the equipment you use to record them both play an important role in how the process unfolds. Therefore, you need to think carefully about each of these variables before you start interviewing.

Poor location: A bad location can result in the quality of your interviews being compromised, interrupted, or cancelled. If you are conducting physical interviews, you’ll need a location that is quiet, safe, and welcoming . It’s very important that your location of choice is not prone to interruptions (the workplace office is generally problematic, for example) and has suitable facilities (such as water, a bathroom, and snacks).

If you are conducting online interviews , you need to consider a few other factors. Importantly, you need to make sure that both you and your respondent have access to a good, stable internet connection and electricity. Always check before the time that both of you know how to use the relevant software and it’s accessible (sometimes meeting platforms are blocked by workplace policies or firewalls). It’s also good to have alternatives in place (such as WhatsApp, Zoom, or Teams) to cater for these types of issues.

Poor equipment: Using poor-quality recording equipment or using equipment incorrectly means that you will have trouble transcribing, coding, and analyzing your interviews. This can be a major issue , as some of your interview data may go completely to waste if not recorded well. So, make sure that you use good-quality recording equipment and that you know how to use it correctly.

To avoid issues, you should always conduct test recordings before every interview to ensure that you can use the relevant equipment properly. It’s also a good idea to spot check each recording afterwards, just to make sure it was recorded as planned. If your equipment uses batteries, be sure to always carry a spare set.

4. Not having a basic risk management plan

Many possible issues can arise during the interview process. Not planning for these issues can mean that you are left with compromised data that might not be useful to you. Therefore, it’s important to map out some sort of risk management plan ahead of time, considering the potential risks, how you’ll minimize their probability and how you’ll manage them if they materialize.

Common potential issues related to the actual interview include cancellations (people pulling out), delays (such as getting stuck in traffic), language and accent differences (especially in the case of poor internet connections), issues with internet connections and power supply. Other issues can also occur in the interview itself. For example, the interviewee could drift off-topic, or you might encounter an interviewee who does not say much at all.

You can prepare for these potential issues by considering possible worst-case scenarios and preparing a response for each scenario. For instance, it is important to plan a backup date just in case your interviewee cannot make it to the first meeting you scheduled with them. It’s also a good idea to factor in a 30-minute gap between your interviews for the instances where someone might be late, or an interview runs overtime for other reasons. Make sure that you also plan backup questions that could be used to bring a respondent back on topic if they start rambling, or questions to encourage those who are saying too little.

In general, it’s best practice to plan to conduct more interviews than you think you need (this is called oversampling ). Doing so will allow you some room for error if there are interviews that don’t go as planned, or if some interviewees withdraw. If you need 10 interviews, it is a good idea to plan for 15. Likely, a few will cancel , delay, or not produce useful data.

5. Not keeping your golden thread front of mind

We touched on this a little earlier, but it is a key point that should be central to your entire research process. You don’t want to end up with pages and pages of data after conducting your interviews and realize that it is not useful to your research aims . Your research aims, objectives and research questions – i.e., your golden thread – should influence every design decision and should guide the interview process at all times. 

A useful way to avoid this mistake is by developing an interview guide before you begin interviewing your respondents. An interview guide is a document that contains all of your questions with notes on how each of the interview questions is linked to the research question(s) of your study. You can also include your research aims and objectives here for a more comprehensive linkage. 

You can easily create an interview guide by drawing up a table with one column containing your core interview questions . Then add another column with your research questions , another with expectations that you may have in light of the relevant literature and another with backup or follow-up questions . As mentioned, you can also bring in your research aims and objectives to help you connect them all together. If you’d like, you can download a copy of our free interview guide here .

Recap: Qualitative Interview Mistakes

In this post, we’ve discussed 5 common costly mistakes that are easy to make in the process of planning and conducting qualitative interviews.

To recap, these include:

If you have any questions about these interviewing mistakes, drop a comment below. Alternatively, if you’re interested in getting 1-on-1 help with your thesis or dissertation , check out our dissertation coaching service or book a free initial consultation with one of our friendly Grad Coaches.

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How to write qualitative research questions.

11 min read Here’s how to write effective qualitative research questions for your projects, and why getting it right matters so much.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a blanket term covering a wide range of research methods and theoretical framing approaches. The unifying factor in all these types of qualitative study is that they deal with data that cannot be counted. Typically this means things like people’s stories, feelings, opinions and emotions , and the meanings they ascribe to their experiences.

Qualitative study is one of two main categories of research, the other being quantitative research. Quantitative research deals with numerical data – that which can be counted and quantified, and which is mostly concerned with trends and patterns in large-scale datasets.

What are research questions?

Research questions are questions you are trying to answer with your research. To put it another way, your research question is the reason for your study, and the beginning point for your research design. There is normally only one research question per study, although if your project is very complex, you may have multiple research questions that are closely linked to one central question.

A good qualitative research question sums up your research objective. It’s a way of expressing the central question of your research, identifying your particular topic and the central issue you are examining.

Research questions are quite different from survey questions, questions used in focus groups or interview questions. A long list of questions is used in these types of study, as opposed to one central question. Additionally, interview or survey questions are asked of participants, whereas research questions are only for the researcher to maintain a clear understanding of the research design.

Research questions are used in both qualitative and quantitative research , although what makes a good research question might vary between the two.

In fact, the type of research questions you are asking can help you decide whether you need to take a quantitative or qualitative approach to your research project.

Discover the fundamentals of qualitative research

Quantitative vs. qualitative research questions

Writing research questions is very important in both qualitative and quantitative research, but the research questions that perform best in the two types of studies are quite different.

Quantitative research questions

Quantitative research questions usually relate to quantities, similarities and differences.

It might reflect the researchers’ interest in determining whether relationships between variables exist, and if so whether they are statistically significant. Or it may focus on establishing differences between things through comparison, and using statistical analysis to determine whether those differences are meaningful or due to chance.

• How much? This kind of research question is one of the simplest. It focuses on quantifying something. For example:

How many Yoruba speakers are there in the state of Maine?

• What is the connection?

This type of quantitative research question examines how one variable affects another.

For example:

How does a low level of sunlight affect the mood scores (1-10) of Antarctic explorers during winter?

• What is the difference? Quantitative research questions in this category identify two categories and measure the difference between them using numerical data.

Do white cats stay cooler than tabby cats in hot weather?

If your research question fits into one of the above categories, you’re probably going to be doing a quantitative study.

Qualitative research questions

Qualitative research questions focus on exploring phenomena, meanings and experiences.

Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research isn’t about finding causal relationships between variables. So although qualitative research questions might touch on topics that involve one variable influencing another, or looking at the difference between things, finding and quantifying those relationships isn’t the primary objective.

In fact, you as a qualitative researcher might end up studying a very similar topic to your colleague who is doing a quantitative study, but your areas of focus will be quite different. Your research methods will also be different – they might include focus groups, ethnography studies, and other kinds of qualitative study.

A few example qualitative research questions:

• What is it like being an Antarctic explorer during winter?
• What are the experiences of Yoruba speakers in the USA?
• How do white cat owners describe their pets?

Qualitative research question types

Marshall and Rossman (1989) identified 4 qualitative research question types, each with its own typical research strategy and methods.

• Exploratory questions

Exploratory questions are used when relatively little is known about the research topic. The process researchers follow when pursuing exploratory questions might involve interviewing participants, holding focus groups, or diving deep with a case study.

• Explanatory questions

With explanatory questions, the research topic is approached with a view to understanding the causes that lie behind phenomena. However, unlike a quantitative project, the focus of explanatory questions is on qualitative analysis of multiple interconnected factors that have influenced a particular group or area, rather than a provable causal link between dependent and independent variables.

• Descriptive questions

As the name suggests, descriptive questions aim to document and record what is happening. In answering descriptive questions , researchers might interact directly with participants with surveys or interviews, as well as using observational studies and ethnography studies that collect data on how participants interact with their wider environment.

• Predictive questions

Predictive questions start from the phenomena of interest and investigate what ramifications it might have in the future. Answering predictive questions may involve looking back as well as forward, with content analysis, questionnaires and studies of non-verbal communication (kinesics).

Why are good qualitative research questions important?

We know research questions are very important. But what makes them so essential? (And is that question a qualitative or quantitative one?)

Getting your qualitative research questions right has a number of benefits.

• It defines your qualitative research project Qualitative research questions definitively nail down the research population, the thing you’re examining, and what the nature of your answer will be.This means you can explain your research project to other people both inside and outside your business or organization. That could be critical when it comes to securing funding for your project, recruiting participants and members of your research team, and ultimately for publishing your results. It can also help you assess right the ethical considerations for your population of study.
• It maintains focus Good qualitative research questions help researchers to stick to the area of focus as they carry out their research. Keeping the research question in mind will help them steer away from tangents during their research or while they are carrying out qualitative research interviews. This holds true whatever the qualitative methods are, whether it’s a focus group, survey, thematic analysis or other type of inquiry.That doesn’t mean the research project can’t morph and change during its execution – sometimes this is acceptable and even welcome – but having a research question helps demarcate the starting point for the research. It can be referred back to if the scope and focus of the project does change.
• It helps make sure your outcomes are achievable

Because qualitative research questions help determine the kind of results you’re going to get, it helps make sure those results are achievable. By formulating good qualitative research questions in advance, you can make sure the things you want to know and the way you’re going to investigate them are grounded in practical reality. Otherwise, you may be at risk of taking on a research project that can’t be satisfactorily completed.

Developing good qualitative research questions

All researchers use research questions to define their parameters, keep their study on track and maintain focus on the research topic. This is especially important with qualitative questions, where there may be exploratory or inductive methods in use that introduce researchers to new and interesting areas of inquiry. Here are some tips for writing good qualitative research questions.

1. Keep it specific

Broader research questions are difficult to act on. They may also be open to interpretation, or leave some parameters undefined.

Strong example: How do Baby Boomers in the USA feel about their gender identity?

Weak example: Do people feel different about gender now?

2. Be original

Look for research questions that haven’t been widely addressed by others already.

Strong example: What are the effects of video calling on women’s experiences of work?

Weak example: Are women given less respect than men at work?

3. Make it research-worthy

Don’t ask a question that can be answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’, or with a quick Google search.

Strong example: What do people like and dislike about living in a highly multi-lingual country?

Weak example: What languages are spoken in India?

4. Focus your question

Don’t roll multiple topics or questions into one. Qualitative data may involve multiple topics, but your qualitative questions should be focused.

Strong example: What is the experience of disabled children and their families when using social services?

Weak example: How can we improve social services for children affected by poverty and disability?

4. Focus on your own discipline, not someone else’s

Avoid asking questions that are for the politicians, police or others to address.

Strong example: What does it feel like to be the victim of a hate crime?

Weak example: How can hate crimes be prevented?

5. Ask something researchable

Big questions, questions about hypothetical events or questions that would require vastly more resources than you have access to are not useful starting points for qualitative studies. Qualitative words or subjective ideas that lack definition are also not helpful.

Strong example: How do perceptions of physical beauty vary between today’s youth and their parents’ generation?

Weak example: Which country has the most beautiful people in it?

Related resources

Qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, business research methods 12 min read, qualitative research interviews 11 min read, market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, request demo.

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Qualitative Research Questions: Gain Powerful Insights + 25 Examples

We review the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, how to craft them effectively, & 25 example questions.

Einstein was many things—a physicist, a philosopher, and, undoubtedly, a mastermind. He also had an incredible way with words. His quote, "Everything that can be counted does not necessarily count; everything that counts cannot necessarily be counted," is particularly poignant when it comes to research. 

Some inquiries call for a quantitative approach, for counting and measuring data in order to arrive at general conclusions. Other investigations, like qualitative research, rely on deep exploration and understanding of individual cases in order to develop a greater understanding of the whole. That’s what we’re going to focus on today.

Qualitative research questions focus on the "how" and "why" of things, rather than the "what". They ask about people's experiences and perceptions , and can be used to explore a wide range of topics.

The following article will discuss the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, and how to craft them effectively. You'll also find 25 examples of effective qualitative research questions you can use as inspiration for your own studies.

Let’s get started!

What are qualitative research questions, and when are they used?

When researchers set out to conduct a study on a certain topic, their research is chiefly directed by an overarching question . This question provides focus for the study and helps determine what kind of data will be collected.

By starting with a question, we gain parameters and objectives for our line of research. What are we studying? For what purpose? How will we know when we’ve achieved our goals?

Of course, some of these questions can be described as quantitative in nature. When a research question is quantitative, it usually seeks to measure or calculate something in a systematic way.

For example:

• How many people in our town use the library?
• What is the average income of families in our city?
• How much does the average person weigh?

Other research questions, however—and the ones we will be focusing on in this article—are qualitative in nature. Qualitative research questions are open-ended and seek to explore a given topic in-depth.

According to the Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , “Qualitative research aims to address questions concerned with developing an understanding of the meaning and experience dimensions of humans’ lives and social worlds.”

This type of research can be used to gain a better understanding of people’s thoughts, feelings and experiences by “addressing questions beyond ‘what works’, towards ‘what works for whom when, how and why, and focusing on intervention improvement rather than accreditation,” states one paper in Neurological Research and Practice .

Qualitative questions often produce rich data that can help researchers develop hypotheses for further quantitative study.

• What are people’s thoughts on the new library?
• How does it feel to be a first-generation student at our school?
• How do people feel about the changes taking place in our town?

As stated by a paper in Human Reproduction , “...‘qualitative’ methods are used to answer questions about experience, meaning, and perspective, most often from the standpoint of the participant. These data are usually not amenable to counting or measuring.”

Both quantitative and qualitative questions have their uses; in fact, they often complement each other. A well-designed research study will include a mix of both types of questions in order to gain a fuller understanding of the topic at hand.

If you would like to recruit unlimited participants for qualitative research for free and only pay for the interview you conduct, try using Respondent  today. 

Crafting qualitative research questions for powerful insights

Now that we have a basic understanding of what qualitative research questions are and when they are used, let’s take a look at how you can begin crafting your own.

According to a study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, there is a certain process researchers should follow when crafting their questions, which we’ll explore in more depth.

1. Beginning the process 

Start with a point of interest or curiosity, and pose a draft question or ‘self-question’. What do you want to know about the topic at hand? What is your specific curiosity? You may find it helpful to begin by writing several questions.

For example, if you’re interested in understanding how your customer base feels about a recent change to your product, you might ask: 

• What made you decide to try the new product?
• How do you feel about the change?
• What do you think of the new design/functionality?
• What benefits do you see in the change?

2. Create one overarching, guiding question 

At this point, narrow down the draft questions into one specific question. “Sometimes, these broader research questions are not stated as questions, but rather as goals for the study.”

As an example of this, you might narrow down these three questions: 

into the following question: 

• What are our customers’ thoughts on the recent change to our product?

3. Theoretical framing 

As you read the relevant literature and apply theory to your research, the question should be altered to achieve better outcomes. Experts agree that pursuing a qualitative line of inquiry should open up the possibility for questioning your original theories and altering the conceptual framework with which the research began.

If we continue with the current example, it’s possible you may uncover new data that informs your research and changes your question. For instance, you may discover that customers’ feelings about the change are not just a reaction to the change itself, but also to how it was implemented. In this case, your question would need to reflect this new information: 

• How did customers react to the process of the change, as well as the change itself?

4. Ethical considerations 

A study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education stresses that ethics are “a central issue when a researcher proposes to study the lives of others, especially marginalized populations.” Consider how your question or inquiry will affect the people it relates to—their lives and their safety. Shape your question to avoid physical, emotional, or mental upset for the focus group.

In analyzing your question from this perspective, if you feel that it may cause harm, you should consider changing the question or ending your research project. Perhaps you’ve discovered that your question encourages harmful or invasive questioning, in which case you should reformulate it.

5. Writing the question 

The actual process of writing the question comes only after considering the above points. The purpose of crafting your research questions is to delve into what your study is specifically about” Remember that qualitative research questions are not trying to find the cause of an effect, but rather to explore the effect itself.

Your questions should be clear, concise, and understandable to those outside of your field. In addition, they should generate rich data. The questions you choose will also depend on the type of research you are conducting: 

• If you’re doing a phenomenological study, your questions might be open-ended, in order to allow participants to share their experiences in their own words.
• If you’re doing a grounded-theory study, your questions might be focused on generating a list of categories or themes.
• If you’re doing ethnography, your questions might be about understanding the culture you’re studying.

Whenyou have well-written questions, it is much easier to develop your research design and collect data that accurately reflects your inquiry.

In writing your questions, it may help you to refer to this simple flowchart process for constructing questions:

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25 examples of expertly crafted qualitative research questions

It's easy enough to cover the theory of writing a qualitative research question, but sometimes it's best if you can see the process in practice. In this section, we'll list 25 examples of B2B and B2C-related qualitative questions.

Let's begin with five questions. We'll show you the question, explain why it's considered qualitative, and then give you an example of how it can be used in research.

1. What is the customer's perception of our company's brand?

Qualitative research questions are often open-ended and invite respondents to share their thoughts and feelings on a subject. This question is qualitative because it seeks customer feedback on the company's brand. 

This question can be used in research to understand how customers feel about the company's branding, what they like and don't like about it, and whether they would recommend it to others.

2. Why do customers buy our product?

This question is also qualitative because it seeks to understand the customer's motivations for purchasing a product. It can be used in research to identify the reasons  customers buy a certain product, what needs or desires the product fulfills for them, and how they feel about the purchase after using the product.

3. How do our customers interact with our products?

Again, this question is qualitative because it seeks to understand customer behavior. In this case, it can be used in research to see how customers use the product, how they interact with it, and what emotions or thoughts the product evokes in them.

4. What are our customers' biggest frustrations with our products?

By seeking to understand customer frustrations, this question is qualitative and can provide valuable insights. It can be used in research to help identify areas in which the company needs to make improvements with its products.

5. How do our customers feel about our customer service?

Rather than asking why customers like or dislike something, this question asks how they feel. This qualitative question can provide insights into customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a company. 

This type of question can be used in research to understand what customers think of the company's customer service and whether they feel it meets their needs.

20 more examples to refer to when writing your question

Now that you’re aware of what makes certain questions qualitative, let's move into 20 more examples of qualitative research questions:

• How do your customers react when updates are made to your app interface?
• How do customers feel when they complete their purchase through your ecommerce site?
• What are your customers' main frustrations with your service?
• How do people feel about the quality of your products compared to those of your competitors?
• What motivates customers to refer their friends and family members to your product or service?
• What are the main benefits your customers receive from using your product or service?
• How do people feel when they finish a purchase on your website?
• What are the main motivations behind customer loyalty to your brand?
• How does your app make people feel emotionally?
• For younger generations using your app, how does it make them feel about themselves?
• What reputation do people associate with your brand?
• How inclusive do people find your app?
• In what ways are your customers' experiences unique to them?
• What are the main areas of improvement your customers would like to see in your product or service?
• How do people feel about their interactions with your tech team?
• What are the top five reasons people use your online marketplace?
• How does using your app make people feel in terms of connectedness?
• What emotions do people experience when they're using your product or service?
• Aside from the features of your product, what else about it attracts customers?
• How does your company culture make people feel?

As you can see, these kinds of questions are completely open-ended. In a way, they allow the research and discoveries made along the way to direct the research. The questions are merely a starting point from which to explore.

This video offers tips on how to write good qualitative research questions, produced by Qualitative Research Expert, Kimberly Baker.

Wrap-up: crafting your own qualitative research questions.

Over the course of this article, we've explored what qualitative research questions are, why they matter, and how they should be written. Hopefully you now have a clear understanding of how to craft your own.

Remember, qualitative research questions should always be designed to explore a certain experience or phenomena in-depth, in order to generate powerful insights. As you write your questions, be sure to keep the following in mind:

• Are you being inclusive of all relevant perspectives?
• Are your questions specific enough to generate clear answers?
• Will your questions allow for an in-depth exploration of the topic at hand?
• Do the questions reflect your research goals and objectives?

If you can answer "yes" to all of the questions above, and you've followed the tips for writing qualitative research questions we shared in this article, then you're well on your way to crafting powerful queries that will yield valuable insights.

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Asking the right questions in the right way is the key to research success. That’s true for not just the discussion guide but for every step of a research project. Following are 100+ questions that will take you from defining your research objective through  screening and participant discussions.

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83 Qualitative Research Questions & Examples

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Qualitative research questions help you understand consumer sentiment. They’re strategically designed to show organizations how and why people feel the way they do about a brand, product, or service. It looks beyond the numbers and is one of the most telling types of market research a company can do.

The UK Data Service describes this perfectly, saying, “The value of qualitative research is that it gives a voice to the lived experience .”

Read on to see seven use cases and 83 qualitative research questions, with the added bonus of examples that show how to get similar insights faster with Similarweb Research Intelligence.

What is a qualitative research question?

A qualitative research question explores a topic in-depth, aiming to better understand the subject through interviews, observations, and other non-numerical data. Qualitative research questions are open-ended, helping to uncover a target audience’s opinions, beliefs, and motivations.

How to choose qualitative research questions?

Choosing the right qualitative research questions can be incremental to the success of your research and the findings you uncover. Here’s my six-step process for choosing the best qualitative research questions.

• Start by understanding the purpose of your research. What do you want to learn? What outcome are you hoping to achieve?
• Consider who you are researching. What are their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs? How can you best capture these in your research questions ?
• Keep your questions open-ended . Qualitative research questions should not be too narrow or too broad. Aim to ask specific questions to provide meaningful answers but broad enough to allow for exploration.
• Balance your research questions. You don’t want all of your questions to be the same type. Aim to mix up your questions to get a variety of answers.
• Ensure your research questions are ethical and free from bias. Always have a second (and third) person check for unconscious bias.
• Consider the language you use. Your questions should be written in a way that is clear and easy to understand. Avoid using jargon , acronyms, or overly technical language.

Types of qualitative research questions

For a question to be considered qualitative, it usually needs to be open-ended. However, as I’ll explain, there can sometimes be a slight cross-over between quantitative and qualitative research questions.

Open-ended questions

These allow for a wide range of responses and can be formatted with multiple-choice answers or a free-text box to collect additional details. The next two types of qualitative questions are considered open questions, but each has its own style and purpose.

• Probing questions are used to delve deeper into a respondent’s thoughts, such as “Can you tell me more about why you feel that way?”
• Comparative questions ask people to compare two or more items, such as “Which product do you prefer and why?” These qualitative questions are highly useful for understanding brand awareness , competitive analysis , and more.

Closed-ended questions

These ask respondents to choose from a predetermined set of responses, such as “On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied are you with the new product?” While they’re traditionally quantitative, adding a free text box that asks for extra comments into why a specific rating was chosen will provide qualitative insights alongside their respective quantitative research question responses.

• Ranking questions get people to rank items in order of preference, such as “Please rank these products in terms of quality.” They’re advantageous in many scenarios, like product development, competitive analysis, and brand awareness.
• Likert scale questions ask people to rate items on a scale, such as “On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied are you with the new product?” Ideal for placement on websites and emails to gather quick, snappy feedback.

Qualitative research question examples

There are many applications of qualitative research and lots of ways you can put your findings to work for the success of your business. Here’s a summary of the most common use cases for qualitative questions and examples to ask.

Qualitative questions for identifying customer needs and motivations

These types of questions help you find out why customers choose products or services and what they are looking for when making a purchase.

• What factors do you consider when deciding to buy a product?
• What would make you choose one product or service over another?
• What are the most important elements of a product that you would buy?
• What features do you look for when purchasing a product?
• What qualities do you look for in a company’s products?
• Do you prefer localized or global brands when making a purchase?
• How do you determine the value of a product?
• What do you think is the most important factor when choosing a product?
• How do you decide if a product or service is worth the money?
• Do you have any specific expectations when purchasing a product?
• Do you prefer to purchase products or services online or in person?
• What kind of customer service do you expect when buying a product?
• How do you decide when it is time to switch to a different product?
• Where do you research products before you decide to buy?
• What do you think is the most important customer value when making a purchase?

Qualitative research questions to enhance customer experience

Use these questions to reveal insights into how customers interact with a company’s products or services and how those experiences can be improved.

• What aspects of our product or service do customers find most valuable?
• How do customers perceive our customer service?
• What factors are most important to customers when purchasing?
• What do customers think of our brand?
• What do customers think of our current marketing efforts?
• How do customers feel about the features and benefits of our product?
• How do customers feel about the price of our product or service?
• How could we improve the customer experience?
• What do customers think of our website or app?
• What do customers think of our customer support?
• What could we do to make our product or service easier to use?
• What do customers think of our competitors?
• What is your preferred way to access our site?
• How do customers feel about our delivery/shipping times?
• What do customers think of our loyalty programs?

Qualitative research question example for customer experience

• ‍♀️ Question: What is your preferred way to access our site?
• Insight sought: How mobile-dominant are consumers? Should you invest more in mobile optimization or mobile marketing?
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: While using this type of question is ideal if you have a large database to survey when placed on a site or sent to a limited customer list, it only gives you a point-in-time perspective from a limited group of people.
• A new approach: You can get better, broader insights quicker with Similarweb Digital Research Intelligence. To fully inform your research, you need to know preferences at the industry or market level.
• ⏰ Time to insight: 30 seconds
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb offers multiple ways to answer this question without going through a lengthy qualitative research process. 

First, I’m going to do a website market analysis of the banking credit and lending market in the finance sector to get a clearer picture of industry benchmarks.

Here, I can view device preferences across any industry or market instantly. It shows me the device distribution for any country across any period. This clearly answers the question of how mobile dominate my target audience is , with 59.79% opting to access site via a desktop vs. 40.21% via mobile

I then use the trends section to show me the exact split between mobile and web traffic for each key player in my space. Let’s say I’m about to embark on a competitive campaign that targets customers of Chase and Bank of America ; I can see both their audiences are highly desktop dominant compared with others in their space .

Qualitative question examples for developing new products or services

Research questions like this can help you understand customer pain points and give you insights to develop products that meet those needs.

• What is the primary reason you would choose to purchase a product from our company?
• How do you currently use products or services that are similar to ours?
• Is there anything that could be improved with products currently on the market?
• What features would you like to see added to our products?
• How do you prefer to contact a customer service team?
• What do you think sets our company apart from our competitors?
• What other product or service offerings would like to see us offer?
• What type of information would help you make decisions about buying a product?
• What type of advertising methods are most effective in getting your attention?
• What is the biggest deterrent to purchasing products from us?

Qualitative research question example for service development

• ‍♀️ Question: What type of advertising methods are most effective in getting your attention?
• Insight sought: The marketing channels and/or content that performs best with a target audience .
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: When using qualitative research surveys to answer questions like this, the sample size is limited, and bias could be at play.
• A better approach: The most authentic insights come from viewing real actions and results that take place in the digital world. No questions or answers are needed to uncover this intel, and the information you seek is readily available in less than a minute.
• ⏰ Time to insight: 5 minutes
• ✅ How it’s done: There are a few ways to approach this. You can either take an industry-wide perspective or hone in on specific competitors to unpack their individual successes. Here, I’ll quickly show a snapshot with a whole market perspective.

Using the market analysis element of Similarweb Digital Intelligence, I select my industry or market, which I’ve kept as banking and credit. A quick click into marketing channels shows me which channels drive the highest traffic in my market. Taking direct traffic out of the equation, for now, I can see that referrals and organic traffic are the two highest-performing channels in this market.

Similarweb allows me to view the specific referral partners and pages across these channels. 

Looking closely at referrals in this market, I’ve chosen chase.com and its five closest rivals . I select referrals in the channel traffic element of marketing channels. I see that Capital One is a clear winner, gaining almost 25 million visits due to referral partnerships.

Next, I get to see exactly who is referring traffic to Capital One and the total traffic share for each referrer. I can see the growth as a percentage and how that has changed, along with an engagement score that rates the average engagement level of that audience segment. This is particularly useful when deciding on which new referral partnerships to pursue.  

Once I’ve identified the channels and campaigns that yield the best results, I can then use Similarweb to dive into the various ad creatives and content that have the greatest impact.

These ads are just a few of those listed in the creatives section from my competitive website analysis of Capital One. You can filter this list by the specific campaign, publishers, and ad networks to view those that matter to you most. You can also discover video ad creatives in the same place too.

In just five minutes ⏰ 

• I’ve captured audience loyalty statistics across my market
• Spotted the most competitive players
• Identified the marketing channels my audience is most responsive to
• I know which content and campaigns are driving the highest traffic volume
• I’ve created a target list for new referral partners and have been able to prioritize this based on results and engagement figures from my rivals
• I can see the types of creatives that my target audience is responding to, giving me ideas for ways to generate effective copy for future campaigns

Qualitative questions to determine pricing strategies

Companies need to make sure pricing stays relevant and competitive. Use these questions to determine customer perceptions on pricing and develop pricing strategies to maximize profits and reduce churn.

• How do you feel about our pricing structure?
• How does our pricing compare to other similar products?
• What value do you feel you get from our pricing?
• How could we make our pricing more attractive?
• What would be an ideal price for our product?
• Which features of our product that you would like to see priced differently?
• What discounts or deals would you like to see us offer?
• How do you feel about the amount you have to pay for our product?

Get Faster Answers to Qualitative Research Questions with Similarweb Today

Qualitative research question example for determining pricing strategies

• ‍♀️ Question: What discounts or deals would you like to see us offer?
• Insight sought: The promotions or campaigns that resonate with your target audience.
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: Consumers don’t always recall the types of ads or campaigns they respond to. Over time, their needs and habits change. Your sample size is limited to those you ask, leaving a huge pool of unknowns at play.
• A better approach: While qualitative insights are good to know, you get the most accurate picture of the highest-performing promotion and campaigns by looking at data collected directly from the web. These analytics are real-world, real-time, and based on the collective actions of many, instead of the limited survey group you approach. By getting a complete picture across an entire market, your decisions are better informed and more aligned with current market trends and behaviors.
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb’s Popular Pages feature shows the content, products, campaigns, and pages with the highest growth for any website. So, if you’re trying to unpack the successes of others in your space and find out what content resonates with a target audience, there’s a far quicker way to get answers to these questions with Similarweb.

Here, I’m using Capital One as an example site. I can see trending pages on their site showing the largest increase in page views. Other filters include campaign, best-performing, and new–each of which shows you page URLs, share of traffic, and growth as a percentage. This page is particularly useful for staying on top of trending topics , campaigns, and new content being pushed out in a market by key competitors.

Qualitative research questions for product development teams

It’s vital to stay in touch with changing consumer needs. These questions can also be used for new product or service development, but this time, it’s from the perspective of a product manager or development team. 

• What are customers’ primary needs and wants for this product?
• What do customers think of our current product offerings?
• What is the most important feature or benefit of our product?
• How can we improve our product to meet customers’ needs better?
• What do customers like or dislike about our competitors’ products?
• What do customers look for when deciding between our product and a competitor’s?
• How have customer needs and wants for this product changed over time?
• What motivates customers to purchase this product?
• What is the most important thing customers want from this product?
• What features or benefits are most important when selecting a product?
• What do customers perceive to be our product’s pros and cons?
• What would make customers switch from a competitor’s product to ours?
• How do customers perceive our product in comparison to similar products?
• What do customers think of our pricing and value proposition?
• What do customers think of our product’s design, usability, and aesthetics?

Qualitative questions examples to understand customer segments

Market segmentation seeks to create groups of consumers with shared characteristics. Use these questions to learn more about different customer segments and how to target them with tailored messaging.

• What motivates customers to make a purchase?
• How do customers perceive our brand in comparison to our competitors?
• How do customers feel about our product quality?
• How do customers define quality in our products?
• What factors influence customers’ purchasing decisions ?
• What are the most important aspects of customer service?
• What do customers think of our customer service?
• What do customers think of our pricing?
• How do customers rate our product offerings?
• How do customers prefer to make purchases (online, in-store, etc.)?

Qualitative research question example for understanding customer segments

• ‍♀️ Question: Which social media channels are you most active on?
• Insight sought: Formulate a social media strategy . Specifically, the social media channels most likely to succeed with a target audience.
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: Qualitative research question responses are limited to those you ask, giving you a limited sample size. Questions like this are usually at risk of some bias, and this may not be reflective of real-world actions.
• A better approach: Get a complete picture of social media preferences for an entire market or specific audience belonging to rival firms. Insights are available in real-time, and are based on the actions of many, not a select group of participants. Data is readily available, easy to understand, and expandable at a moment’s notice.
• ✅ How it’s done: Using Similarweb’s website analysis feature, you can get a clear breakdown of social media stats for your audience using the marketing channels element. It shows the percentage of visits from each channel to your site, respective growth, and specific referral pages by each platform. All data is expandable, meaning you can select any platform, period, and region to drill down and get more accurate intel, instantly.

This example shows me Bank of America’s social media distribution, with YouTube , Linkedin , and Facebook taking the top three spots, and accounting for almost 80% of traffic being driven from social media.

When doing any type of market research, it’s important to benchmark performance against industry averages and perform a social media competitive analysis to verify rival performance across the same channels.

Qualitative questions to inform competitive analysis

Organizations must assess market sentiment toward other players to compete and beat rival firms. Whether you want to increase market share , challenge industry leaders , or reduce churn, understanding how people view you vs. the competition is key.

• What is the overall perception of our competitors’ product offerings in the market?
• What attributes do our competitors prioritize in their customer experience?
• What strategies do our competitors use to differentiate their products from ours?
• How do our competitors position their products in relation to ours?
• How do our competitors’ pricing models compare to ours?
• What do consumers think of our competitors’ product quality?
• What do consumers think of our competitors’ customer service?
• What are the key drivers of purchase decisions in our market?
• What is the impact of our competitors’ marketing campaigns on our market share ? 10. How do our competitors leverage social media to promote their products?

Qualitative research question example for competitive analysis

• ‍♀️ Question: What other companies do you shop with for x?
• Insight sought: W ho are your competitors? Which of your rival’s sites do your customers visit? How loyal are consumers in your market?
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods:  Sample size is limited, and customers could be unwilling to reveal which competitors they shop with, or how often they around. Where finances are involved, people can act with reluctance or bias, and be unwilling to reveal other suppliers they do business with.
• A better approach: Get a complete picture of your audience’s loyalty, see who else they shop with, and how many other sites they visit in your competitive group. Find out the size of the untapped opportunity and which players are doing a better job at attracting unique visitors – without having to ask people to reveal their preferences.
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb website analysis shows you the competitive sites your audience visits, giving you access to data that shows cross-visitation habits, audience loyalty, and untapped potential in a matter of minutes.

Using the audience interests element of Similarweb website analysis, you can view the cross-browsing behaviors of a website’s audience instantly. You can see a matrix that shows the percentage of visitors on a target site and any rival site they may have visited.

With the Similarweb audience overlap feature, view the cross-visitation habits of an audience across specific websites. In this example, I chose chase.com and its four closest competitors to review. For each intersection, you see the number of unique visitors and the overall proportion of each site’s audience it represents. It also shows the volume of unreached potential visitors.

Here, you can see a direct comparison of the audience loyalty represented in a bar graph. It shows a breakdown of each site’s audience based on how many other sites they have visited. Those sites with the highest loyalty show fewer additional sites visited.

From the perspective of chase.com, I can see 47% of their visitors do not visit rival sites. 33% of their audience visited 1 or more sites in this group, 14% visited 2 or more sites, 4% visited 3 or more sites, and just 0.8% viewed all sites in this comparison. 

How to answer qualitative research questions with Similarweb

Similarweb Research Intelligence drastically improves market research efficiency and time to insight. Both of these can impact the bottom line and the pace at which organizations can adapt and flex when markets shift, and rivals change tactics.

Outdated practices, while still useful, take time . And with a quicker, more efficient way to garner similar insights, opting for the fast lane puts you at a competitive advantage.

With a birds-eye view of the actions and behaviors of companies and consumers across a market , you can answer certain research questions without the need to plan, do, and review extensive qualitative market research .

Wrapping up

Qualitative research methods have been around for centuries. From designing the questions to finding the best distribution channels, collecting and analyzing findings takes time to get the insights you need. Similarweb Digital Research Intelligence drastically improves efficiency and time to insight. Both of which impact the bottom line and the pace at which organizations can adapt and flex when markets shift.

Similarweb’s suite of digital intelligence solutions offers unbiased, accurate, honest insights you can trust for analyzing any industry, market, or audience.

• Methodologies used for data collection are robust, transparent, and trustworthy.
• Clear presentation of data via an easy-to-use, intuitive platform.
• It updates dynamically–giving you the freshest data about an industry or market.
• Data is available via an API – so you can plug into platforms like Tableau or PowerBI to streamline your analyses.
• Filter and refine results according to your needs.

Are quantitative or qualitative research questions best?

Both have their place and purpose in market research. Qualitative research questions seek to provide details, whereas quantitative market research gives you numerical statistics that are easier and quicker to analyze. You get more flexibility with qualitative questions, and they’re non-directional.

What are the advantages of qualitative research?

Qualitative research is advantageous because it allows researchers to better understand their subject matter by exploring people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations in a particular context. It also allows researchers to uncover new insights that may not have been discovered with quantitative research methods.

What are some of the challenges of qualitative research?

Qualitative research can be time-consuming and costly, typically involving in-depth interviews and focus groups. Additionally, there are challenges associated with the reliability and validity of the collected data, as there is no universal standard for interpreting the results.

by Liz March

Digital Research Specialist

Liz March has 15 years of experience in content creation. She enjoys the outdoors, F1, and reading, and is pursuing a BSc in Environmental Science.

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• 10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project

10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project

Published on October 30, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on October 19, 2023.

The research question is one of the most important parts of your research paper , thesis or dissertation . It’s important to spend some time assessing and refining your question before you get started.

The exact form of your question will depend on a few things, such as the length of your project, the type of research you’re conducting, the topic , and the research problem . However, all research questions should be focused, specific, and relevant to a timely social or scholarly issue.

Once you’ve read our guide on how to write a research question , you can use these examples to craft your own.

Note that the design of your research question can depend on what method you are pursuing. Here are a few options for qualitative, quantitative, and statistical research questions.

Other interesting articles

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

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18 Researcher Interview Questions (With Example Answers)

It's important to prepare for an interview in order to improve your chances of getting the job. Researching questions beforehand can help you give better answers during the interview. Most interviews will include questions about your personality, qualifications, experience and how well you would fit the job. In this article, we review examples of various researcher interview questions and sample answers to some of the most common questions.

or download as PDF

Common Researcher Interview Questions

What inspired you to pursue a career in research, what do you think sets research apart from other disciplines, what do you think is the most important skill for a researcher, what do you think is the most exciting thing about research, what do you think is the best thing about being a researcher, what do you think is the worst thing about being a researcher, what do you think is the most challenging thing about research, what do you think is the best thing about conducting research, what do you think is the worst thing about conducting research, what do you think is the most important thing to remember when conducting research, what do you think is the best way to approach research, what do you think is the worst way to approach research, what do you think is the most important thing to keep in mind when writing a research paper, what do you think is the best way to format a research paper, what do you think is the worst way to format a research paper, what do you think is the most important thing to consider when choosing a topic for a research paper, what do you think is the best way to go about finding sources for a research paper, what do you think is the worst way to go about finding sources for a research paper.

There are many reasons why someone might be inspired to pursue a career in research. For example, they may be inspired by the opportunity to make new discoveries that could improve the lives of people around the world. Or, they may be motivated by the challenge of solving complex problems and pushing the boundaries of knowledge.

It is important for interviewers to ask this question because it can help them to understand a candidate's motivation for pursuing a career in research. This can be helpful in assessing whether the candidate is likely to be successful in their role and whether they will be a good fit for the organisation.

Example: “ I have always been fascinated by the process of discovery and the role that research plays in advancing our understanding of the world around us. Pursuing a career in research allows me to contribute to this process and to make a difference in the world. ”

There are a few reasons why an interviewer might ask this question. First, they may be trying to gauge your level of experience and expertise in research. Second, they may be trying to understand your research process and methods. Finally, they may be trying to assess your ability to communicate and collaborate with other researchers.

This question is important because it can help the interviewer understand your level of experience and expertise in research. Additionally, it can help them understand your research process and methods. Finally, it can help them assess your ability to communicate and collaborate with other researchers.

Example: “ There are a few key things that set research apart from other disciplines: 1. The scientific method: In order to be considered research, an investigation must follow the scientific method, which is a systematic process for gathering and testing evidence. This ensures that research is as objective and unbiased as possible. 2. Peer review: Another key element of research is peer review, which is the process by which experts in a field check each other's work to ensure its quality. This helps to ensure that only the best and most reliable research is published. 3. Replication: Research is also designed to be replicated, or repeated, in order to verify its findings. This helps to ensure that the results are not simply due to chance or error. ”

There are many important skills for researchers, but some skills are more important than others. The most important skill for researchers is the ability to think critically. Critical thinking is the ability to analyze data and information and make decisions based on that analysis. It is important because it allows researchers to understand complex problems and find solutions to those problems.

Example: “ There are many important skills for a researcher, but some of the most important include: -The ability to ask clear and concise research questions -The ability to design effective research studies -The ability to collect high-quality data -The ability to analyze data effectively -The ability to communicate research findings clearly and effectively ”

There are many possible reasons an interviewer might ask this question to a researcher. They may be trying to gauge the level of enthusiasm the researcher has for their work, or they may be trying to assess how well the researcher understands the implications of their research. Additionally, the interviewer may be trying to determine if the researcher is able to articulate the significance of their work in a way that is understandable and relatable to a lay audience. Ultimately, it is important for the interviewer to gain a better understanding of the researcher's motivations and perspective on their work in order to get a sense of how well they will be able to communicate their findings to the public.

Example: “ There are many exciting things about research, but one of the most exciting things is the opportunity to make new discoveries. Every day, researchers are uncovering new information about the world around us and the universe we live in. This constantly expanding body of knowledge provides us with a greater understanding of our place in the world and how we can improve our lives. ”

There could be several reasons why an interviewer might ask this question. They may be trying to gauge the researcher's level of commitment to their work, or they may be trying to identify what motivates the researcher to do their job. Additionally, the interviewer may be trying to assess the researcher's ability to reflect on their work and identify areas of improvement. Ultimately, it is important for the interviewer to understand what the researcher finds most rewarding about their work in order to determine whether or not the researcher is a good fit for the position.

Example: “ There are many great things about being a researcher. One of the best things is that researchers get to learn new things all the time. They also get to help other people learn new things by sharing their findings with them. Researchers also get to travel to different places to conduct their research, which can be very exciting. ”

The interviewer is trying to gauge the researcher's self-awareness and ability to reflect on their work. This is important because it shows that the researcher is able to identify areas for improvement and is committed to professional development.

Example: “ There are a few potential drawbacks to being a researcher. First, the job can be quite isolating. Researchers often work alone in their labs or offices, and they may not have much interaction with other people on a daily basis. This can be lonely and frustrating for some people. Second, research can be slow and tedious. It can take years to complete a study, and the results may not be immediately apparent. This can be frustrating for people who want to see quick results. Finally, research can be expensive. Funding for research projects is often limited, so researchers may have to make do with less money than they would like. This can make it difficult to conduct high-quality research. ”

There are many potential challenges that come with research, such as finding accurate and reliable sources, developing a hypothesis, conducting experiments or surveys, and analyzing data. The most challenging thing about research can vary depending on the project and the researcher's individual skills and experience. By asking this question, the interviewer is trying to understand what the researcher feels is the most difficult part of the research process and why they feel that way. This information can help the interviewer determine if the researcher is a good fit for the project and if they will be able to overcome any challenges they may face.

Example: “ There are many challenges that come with research, but I think the most challenging thing is trying to find accurate and reliable information. With so much information available online, it can be difficult to know what is true and what is not. This can make it challenging to find the right data and resources to use for your research. ”

There are many reasons why an interviewer might ask a researcher what they think is the best thing about conducting research. It is important to remember that research is a process of inquiry that is used to uncover new knowledge or to confirm existing knowledge. The best thing about conducting research is that it allows us to constantly learn new things and to deepen our understanding of the world around us.

Example: “ There are many great things about conducting research, but one of the best things is that it allows you to explore new ideas and discover new knowledge. It can be very exciting to be on the cutting edge of new discoveries, and research allows you to do just that. Additionally, research is a great way to learn more about a specific topic or subject that you are interested in. Conducting research can help you gain a deeper understanding of the world around you and how it works. ”

The interviewer is trying to gauge the researcher's ability to reflect on their work and identify areas for improvement. This is important because it shows that the researcher is constantly trying to improve their methods and is willing to listen to criticism.

Example: “ There are a few potential worst things about conducting research, depending on the individual researcher's perspective. One worst thing could be the amount of time and effort required to produce high-quality research results. This can be especially true in fields where data is difficult to collect or analyze, or where experiments are expensive or time-consuming to carry out. Another worst thing about conducting research could be the pressure to publish results in prestigious journals, which can lead to cut corners being taken in the research process. Additionally, some researchers may find the constant criticism and peer review process to be frustrating and demoralizing. ”

An interviewer would ask this question in order to gauge the respondent's understanding of the research process and their ability to identify key components of a successful research project. It is important for researchers to be able to identify the most important aspects of their work in order to ensure that they are able to effectively communicate their findings to others. Additionally, this question can help to reveal areas where the respondent may need further training or education in order to improve their research skills.

Example: “ There are a few things that are important to remember when conducting research: 1. Make sure you have a clear research question that you want to answer. This will help guide your research and keep you focused. 2. Do your background research and make sure you understand the topic area you are researching. This will help ensure that your research is accurate and complete. 3. Be sure to use reliable and credible sources for your research. This will help ensure that your findings are trustworthy. 4. Be organized and keep track of your data and findings. This will help you to see patterns and trends in your data, and make it easier to write up your results. 5. Be critical of your data and findings, and try to identify any potential biases or errors. This will help you to produce more accurate results. ”

The interviewer is likely looking for qualities that the researcher has that make them successful at their job. This might include qualities such as being able to effectively plan and execute research projects, being able to troubleshoot problems that arise, and being able to communicate findings to others. It is important for the interviewer to gauge the researcher's self-awareness and ability to reflect on their own work in order to get a sense of how they might approach future projects.

Example: “ There is no one answer to this question as different researchers will have different opinions on the best way to approach research. However, some general tips that may be useful include: developing a clear research question or hypothesis, reviewing the relevant literature, designing an appropriate study methodology, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. It is also important to communicate the results of one's research in a clear and concise manner. ”

There are a few reasons why an interviewer might ask this question. First, they want to see if the researcher is familiar with different research approaches and can identify which ones are less effective. Second, the interviewer wants to gauge the researcher's critical thinking skills and ability to identify flaws in research methods. Finally, this question allows the interviewer to get a sense of the researcher's opinion on the best way to conduct research.

This question is important because it allows the interviewer to assess the researcher's knowledge of research methods, critical thinking skills, and opinion on the best way to conduct research. By understanding the researcher's thoughts on this topic, the interviewer can get a better sense of their thought process and whether they would be a good fit for the position.

Example: “ There is no one-size-fits-all answer to this question, as the worst way to approach research depends on the specific research question and context. However, some general approaches that could be considered bad ways to approach research include: 1. Not Defining the Research Question Clearly If the research question is not clearly defined from the outset, it can be difficult to know what direction to take the research in and what data to collect. This can lead to a lot of wasted time and effort, as well as potentially biased or irrelevant results. 2. Relying Too Much on Secondary Data While secondary data can be a valuable resource, it should not be relied upon too heavily. This is because secondary data may not be relevant to the specific research question or context, and it may also be out of date. In addition, secondary data cannot be controlled by the researcher, so it may not be possible to obtain the level of detail required for the research. 3. Collecting Data Without a Plan It is important to have a plan for how data will be collected before starting to collect it. This plan should specify what type of data will be collected, how it will be collected, and who will be responsible for collecting ”

The interviewer is likely trying to gauge the researcher's writing ability and whether they are able to produce a well-thought-out, comprehensive research paper. The most important thing to keep in mind when writing a research paper is to make sure that all of the information is accurate and that the sources are reliable. The paper should also be clear and concise so that the reader can easily follow the argument.

Example: “ There are a few things to keep in mind when writing a research paper that will help ensure your paper is well-received by your audience. First, make sure to choose a topic that is interesting and relevant to your audience. Second, take the time to thoroughly research your topic and provide well-supported arguments for your position. Third, be sure to edit and proofread your paper before submitting it for review. By following these simple tips, you can increase the chances that your research paper will be well-received by your intended audience. ”

The best way to format a research paper may vary depending on the discipline, but there are some general guidelines that can help a researcher ensure their paper is well-formatted and easy to read. Some important considerations for formatting a research paper include margins, font size and type, line spacing, and page numbers. Proper formatting can help make a research paper more accessible and easier to read, which can ultimately lead to more impactful research.

Example: “ There is no one correct answer to this question. Different researchers have different preferences for how to format a research paper. Some common elements that are typically included in a research paper are an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, results, and discussion. ”

There is no one answer to this question, as it depends on the specific field of research and the preferences of the journal or conference. However, some elements that could make a research paper poorly formatted include using an incorrect citation style, not following the required page layout, or using too many graphics and images. Poorly formatted papers can be difficult to read and may be less likely to be accepted for publication.

Example: “ There is no one "worst" way to format a research paper. However, there are several common formatting errors that can make a paper difficult to read and understand. These include: • Not using proper headings and subheadings to organize the paper. • Not using clear and concise sentences. • Not using proper grammar and punctuation. • Not citing sources properly. ”

There are many things to consider when choosing a topic for a research paper, but the most important thing is to choose a topic that is interesting and relevant to the researcher. The topic should also be something that the researcher is familiar with and has some knowledge about. Additionally, the topic should be something that is not too narrow or too broad, and it should be something that has been researched before.

Example: “ There are many things to consider when choosing a topic for a research paper. The most important thing is to choose a topic that is interesting and relevant to you. It is also important to choose a topic that is narrow enough to be covered in a single research paper. Additionally, it is important to consider the resources available to you when choosing a topic. Finally, it is also important to consider the audience you are writing for when choosing a topic. ”

One of the most important aspects of research is finding reliable sources. Without sources that can be verified and relied upon, the researcher's findings will not be credible. Therefore, it is important for the interviewer to ask how the researcher plans to find sources for their paper in order to ensure that the research is of high quality.

Example: “ There is no one answer to this question as it depends on the topic of the research paper and the type of sources required. However, some tips on finding sources for a research paper include using online search engines such as Google Scholar, looking through bibliographies of relevant books and articles, and searching for open access journals that cover the topic. Additionally, contacting experts in the field and asking for recommendations can be helpful. ”

The interviewer is trying to gauge the researcher's ability to find reliable sources of information. This is important because research papers are only as good as the sources they are based on. If a researcher cannot find reliable sources, then their paper will not be credible.

Example: “ There are a few ways that researchers can go about finding sources for their papers that are considered to be less than ideal. One way is to simply do a Google search on the topic and hope that relevant sources come up. This is often not very effective, as much of the information that comes up in a general search may not be relevant or reliable. Another way is to ask friends or colleagues for recommendations. This can be somewhat helpful, but it is often limited to the resources that those individuals are aware of. A better way to find sources is to use a database or search engine specifically designed for academic research. These tools will allow you to narrow your search to more reputable and relevant sources. ”

Related Interview Questions

• Market Researcher
• Survey Researcher
• Clinical Researcher
• User Experience Researcher

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Sample Interview Questions for Research

Candidate’s research.

• What is innovative about your research?
• How is your work distinct from your supervisor’s/principal investigator’s? How intellectually independent are you?
• What influences have you been exposed to? Do you think you have enough breadth of experience?
• Who has influenced you the most?
• What has been your role so far in developing research ideas and carrying them forward?
• What do you think are your most significant research accomplishments?
• What do you consider to be your best paper/work and why? What did it change about the way people approach the field?
• What are your most important publications?
• What has been the impact of your research?
• What papers do you have coming through in the next year?
• If we gave you the position what might go wrong? How will you manage the risks?

General Research Questions

• What do you see yourself doing in ten years' time? What are your professional goals in the next five, and ten years?
• How will this job help you achieve your long-term career plans?
• What would you do on the first day of the job?
• What are the big issues in your research area?
• Who are the key researchers in your area? How does your work compare with theirs?
• Who are your main competitors? What are they doing? How will you compete with them?
• Why would someone come to work for you and not for your competitors?
• How does your work align with contemporary trends or funding priorities?
• How would you bridge the gap from your research to research users?
• The university is keen to serve the wider community and economy. Does your planned research have any potential in these areas?
• How do you feel about translating your research into innovation or spin-outs? Can you give an example of when you have been enterprising?
• Describe in layperson’s terms and in two minutes why your research project is interesting.

Candidate's Capabilities

• How have you managed your research project?
• How do you balance your time? If several challenges came up at the same time (grant deadline, pastoral care for a student, teaching commitments) how would you prioritize?
• If you were starting your project again today, what would you do differently?
• Describe a research problem you have faced. What did you learn?
• What has been the most productive period in your research career and why?
• Why do you think you are ready for this position?
• If you get this position how will you run your research project?
• Why do you think you are the right person for this position?
• What experience do you have of attracting funding?
• Where will you apply for grants? If your funding applications are unsuccessful, what alternatives do you have in mind? (looking for knowledge of the funding infrastructure)
• How would you convince a funding body that they should fund your research rather than one of the other hundreds of proposals they receive?
• Who are you currently funded by, and why do you think they were interested in funding your project?

 Candidate’s Proposed Research

• What will be your major focus as an independent researcher?
• In one sentence, what is the most important question you want to address?
• How does the work you propose follow on from what you are already doing?
• What will you focus on and what gives you a competitive edge in this area?
• What is the overall importance of this project? How do you see this work impacting the field?
• What will you do if your hypothesis is proved wrong? Can you see any of your research proposals failing?
• Why is the technique you have chosen more likely to succeed than other approaches?
• Have you already done anything to test the feasibility of your project?
• If you could only do one aspect of this project, which one do you think is key?
• If we gave you unlimited resources, what would you do with them?
• If we gave you X amount of money, what would you do with it?
• What resources will you need?
• How would you deal with the more limited resources or facilities compared to what you anticipate for the project?
• How do you plan to manage this project on a day-to-day level?

Candidate’s Role as Supervisor/Teacher

• Describe your teaching experience. How do you feel about teaching? What is your teaching philosophy?
• Do you have any experience in curriculum development?
• Have you supervised doctoral candidates, and how did you find this experience? How did you manage them?
• What advice would you give to a new researcher about supervising undergraduate or masters students?
• How would you go about interviewing a prospective postgraduate researcher?
• How would you induce a new doctoral candidate into their research project?
• How would you go about motivating a researcher who is going through a low point?
• How would you deal with a weak researcher?
• How would you deal with any conflict/disagreement within the research group? Do you have an example of when you have had to deal with a disagreement?
• Do you anticipate building a research group? How many people would you like for it to be optimal?

 Candidate’s ‘fit’ with the department

• Why do you want to come here?
• What will you bring to the institution?
• We are keen to develop collaborations between departments. What opportunities for multi-disciplinary work does your research offer?
• How would you fit with the existing activities in the department? Who do would you expect to collaborate with in the institution? Why do you want to collaborate with them?
• What committee work have you done and what challenges has it presented?
• In what ways, other than research and teaching, could you contribute to this department?

50+ Most Common Interview Questions and Answers

Wouldn’t it be great if you knew exactly what questions a hiring manager would be asking you in your next job interview ?

We can’t read minds, unfortunately, but we’ll give you the next best thing: a list of 53 of the most commonly asked interview questions and answers, along with advice on how to come up with your own responses.

While we don’t recommend having a canned response for every interview question (in fact, please don’t), we do recommend spending some time getting comfortable with what you might be asked, what hiring managers are really looking for in your responses, and what it takes to show that you’re the right person for the job.

Land more interviews by looking for more open jobs on The Muse »

Consider this list your job interview answer and question study guide. (And don’t miss our bonus list at the end, with links to resources on specific types of interview questions—about emotional intelligence or diversity and inclusion , for example—and interview questions by role, from accountant to project manager to teacher.)

50+ most common job interview questions and answers

1. tell me about yourself..

This question seems simple, so many people fail to prepare for it, but it’s crucial. Here's the deal: Don’t give your complete employment (or personal) history. Instead, give a pitch—one that’s concise and compelling and that shows exactly why you’re the right fit for the job. Muse writer and MIT career counselor Lily Zhang recommends using a present, past, future formula. Talk a little bit about your current role (including the scope and perhaps one big accomplishment), then give some background as to how you got there and experience you have that’s relevant. Finally, segue into why you want—and would be perfect for—this role.

Possible answer to “Tell me about yourself.”

“ Well, I’m currently an account executive at Smith, where I handle our top-performing client. Before that, I worked at an agency where I was on three different major national healthcare brands. And while I really enjoyed the work that I did, I’d love the chance to dig in much deeper with one specific healthcare company, which is why I’m so excited about this opportunity with Metro Health Center.”

Read More: A Complete Guide to Answering “Tell Me About Yourself” in an Interview (Plus Examples!)

2. Walk me through your resume.

Like “Tell me about yourself,” this question is a common interview opener. But instead of framing your answer around what qualities and skills make you best for the position, your answer should group your qualifications by your past jobs and tell your career story. You might choose to tell this story chronologically, especially if there’s a great anecdote about what set you on this path. Or, as with “Tell me about yourself,” you can begin with your present job then talk about what brought you here and where you’re going next. But regardless, when you speak about your “past” and “present,” highlight your most relevant experiences and accomplishments for this job and wrap up by talking about the future, i.e. connect your past and present together to show why this job should be the next one you add to your resume.

Possible answer to “Walk me through your resume.”

“Well, as you can see from my resume, I took a bit of a winding road to get to where I am today. In college, I double majored in chemistry and communications. I found early on that working in a lab all day wasn’t for me and at some point I realized I looked forward to the lab class I TA’ed the most.

“So when I graduated, I found a job in sales for a consumer healthcare products company, where I drew on my teaching experience and learned even more about tailoring your message and explaining complex health concepts to people without a science background. Then, I moved into a sales training role at a massive company where I was responsible for teaching recent graduates the basics of selling. My trainees on average had more deals closed in their first quarter than any of the other trainers’ cohorts. Plus, I got so much satisfaction from finding the right way to train each new hire and watching them progress and succeed. It reminded me of my time as a TA in college. That’s when I started taking night classes to earn my chemistry teaching certificate.

“I left my full-time job last year to complete my student teaching at P.S. 118 in Manhattan, and over the summer, I worked for a science camp, teaching kids from the ages of 10 to 12 about basic chemistry concepts and best practices for safe experiments. Now, I’m excited to find my first full-time teaching job, and your district is my top choice. The low student-to-teacher ratio will let me take the time to teach each student in the best way for them—which is my favorite part of the job.”

Read More: How to Respond to “Walk Me Through Your Resume”—and Get Your Interview Started on the Right Note

3. How did you hear about this position?

Another seemingly innocuous interview question, this is actually a perfect opportunity to stand out and show your passion for and connection to the company. For example, if you found out about the gig through a friend or professional contact, name-drop that person, then share why you were so excited about the job. If you discovered the company through an event or article, share that. Even if you found the listing through a random job board, share what, specifically, caught your eye about the role.

Possible answer to “How did you hear about this position?”

  “I heard about an opening on the product team through a friend of a friend, Akiko, and since I’m a big fan of your work and have been following you for a while I decided it would be a great role for me to apply for.” Read More: 3 Ways People Mess Up the (Simple) Answer to “How Did You Come Across This Job Opportunity?”

4. Why do you want to work at this company?

Beware of generic answers! If what you say can apply to a whole slew of other companies, or if your response makes you sound like every other candidate, you’re missing an opportunity to stand out. Zhang recommends one of four strategies: Do your research and point to something that makes the company unique that really appeals to you; talk about how you’ve watched the company grow and change since you first heard of it; focus on the organization’s opportunities for future growth and how you can contribute to it; or share what’s gotten you excited from your interactions with employees so far. Whichever route you choose, make sure to be specific. And if you can’t figure out why you’d want to work at the company you’re interviewing with by the time you’re well into the hiring process? It might be a red flag telling you that this position is not the right fit.

Possible answer to “Why do you want to work at this company?”

“I saw on The Muse that you were also hiring for new positions on the West Coast to support your new operations there. I did some more reading about the new data center you’re building there and that excites me as I know this means there’ll be opportunities to train new teammates. I also learned through a Wall Street Journal article that you’re expanding in Mexico as well. I speak Spanish fluently and would be eager to step up and help liaise whenever necessary.”

Read More: 4 Better Ways to Answer “Why Do You Want to Work at This Company?”

5. Why do you want this job?

Again, companies want to hire people who are passionate about the job, so you should have a great answer about why you want the position. (And if you don’t? You probably should apply elsewhere.) First, identify a couple of key factors that make the role a great fit for you (e.g., “I love customer support because I love the constant human interaction and the satisfaction that comes from helping someone solve a problem”), then share why you love the company (e.g., “I’ve always been passionate about education, and I think you’re doing great things, so I want to be a part of it”).

Possible answer to “Why do you want this job?”

“I’ve always been a fan of X Co’s products and I’ve spent countless hours playing your games. I know that your focus on unique stories is what drew me and other fans into your games initially and keeps us coming back for more. I’ve followed X Co on social media for a while, and I’ve always loved how you have people in different departments interact with users. So I was psyched when I came across this posting for a social media manager with TikTok experience. At my last job, I was responsible for launching our TikTok account and growing it to 10,000 followers in six months. Between that experience, my love of gaming, and my deep knowledge of your games and fanbase, I know I could make this TikTok account something special and exciting.”

Read More: 3 Steps for Answering “Why Do You Want This Job?”

6. Why should we hire you?

This interview question seems forward (not to mention intimidating!), but if you’re asked it, you’re in luck: There’s no better setup for you to sell yourself and your skills to the hiring manager. Your job here is to craft an answer that covers three things: that you can not only do the work, but also deliver great results; that you’ll really fit in with the team and culture; and that you’d be a better hire than any of the other candidates.

Possible answer to “Why should we hire you?”

“ I know it’s been an exciting time for General Tech—growing so much and acquiring several startups—but I also know from experience that it can be challenging for the sales team to understand how new products fit in with the existing ones. It’s always easier to sell the product you know, so the newer stuff can get shortchanged, which can have company-wide ramifications. I have over a decade of experience as a sales trainer, but more importantly, most of those years were working with sales teams that were in the exact same boat Gen Tech is in now. Growth is wonderful, but only if the rest of the company can keep up. I’m confident I can make sure your sales team is confident and enthusiastic about selling new products by implementing an ongoing sales training curriculum that emphasizes where they sit in a product lineup.”

Read More: 3 Better Ways to Answer “Why Should We Hire You?”

7. What can you bring to the company?

When interviewers ask this question, they don’t just want to hear about your background. They want to see that you understand what problems and challenges they’re facing as a company or department as well as how you’ll fit into the existing organization. Read the job description closely, do your research on the company, and make sure you pay attention in your early round interviews to understand any issues you’re being hired to solve. Then, the key is to connect your skills and experiences to what the company needs and share an example that shows how you’ve done similar or transferable work in the past.

Possible answer to “What can you bring to the company?”

“As Jocelyn talked about in our interview earlier, PopCo is looking to expand its market to small business owners with less than 25 employees, so I’d bring my expertise in this area and my experience in guiding a sales team that’s selling to these customers for the first time. In most of my past roles, this segment has been my focus and in my current role, I also played a big part in creating our sales strategies when the business began selling to these customers. I worked with my managers to develop the sales script. I also listened in on a number of sales calls with other account execs who were selling to these customers for the first time and gave them pointers and other feedback. In the first quarter, our 10-person sales team closed 50 new bookings in this segment, and I personally closed 10 of those deals. I helped guide my last company through the expansion into small businesses, and I’m eager to do that again at PopCo. Plus, I noticed you have a monthly karaoke night—so I’m eager to bring my rendition of ‘Call Me Maybe’ to the team as well.”

Read More : What Interviewers Really Want to Hear When They Ask “What Can You Bring to the Company?”

8. What are your greatest strengths?

Here’s an opening to talk about something that makes you great—and a great fit for this role. When you’re answering this question, think quality, not quantity. In other words, don’t rattle off a list of adjectives. Instead, pick one or a few (depending on the question) specific qualities that are relevant to this position and illustrate them with examples. Stories are always more memorable than generalizations. And if there’s something you were hoping to mention because it makes you a great candidate, but you haven’t had a chance yet, this would be the perfect time.

Possible answer to “What are your greatest strengths?”

“ I’d say one of my greatest strengths is bringing organization to hectic environments and implementing processes to make everyone’s lives easier. In my current role as an executive assistant to a CEO, I created new processes for pretty much everything, from scheduling meetings to planning monthly all hands agendas to preparing for event appearances. Everyone in the company knew how things worked and how long they would take, and the structures helped alleviate stress and set expectations on all sides. I’d be excited to bring that same approach to an operations manager role at a startup, where everything is new and constantly growing and could use just the right amount of structure to keep things running smoothly.”

Read More: 3 Smart Strategies for Answering “What's Your Greatest Strength?”

9. What do you consider to be your weaknesses?

What your interviewer is really trying to do with this question—beyond identifying any major red flags—is to gauge your self-awareness and honesty. So, “I can’t meet a deadline to save my life” is not an option—but neither is “Nothing! I’m perfect!” Strike a balance by thinking of something that you struggle with but that you’re working to improve. For example, maybe you’ve never been strong at public speaking, but you’ve recently volunteered to run meetings to help you get more comfortable when addressing a crowd.

Possible answer to “What do you consider to be your weaknesses?”

“It can be difficult for me to gauge when the people I’m working with are overwhelmed or dissatisfied with their workloads. To ensure that I’m not asking too much or too little from my team, we have weekly check-ins. I like to ask if they feel like they’re on top of their workload, how I could better support them, whether there’s anything they’d like to take on or get rid of, and if they’re engaged by what they’re doing. Even if the answer is ‘all good,’ these meetings really lay the groundwork for a good and trusting relationship.”

Read More: 4 Ways to Answer “What Is Your Greatest Weakness?” That Actually Sound Believable

10. What is your greatest professional achievement?

Nothing says “hire me” better than a track record of achieving amazing results in past jobs, so don’t be shy when answering this interview question! A great way to do so is by using the STAR method : situation, task, action, results. Set up the situation and the task that you were required to complete to provide the interviewer with background context (e.g., “In my last job as a junior analyst, it was my role to manage the invoicing process”), then describe what you did (the action) and what you achieved (the result): “In one month, I streamlined the process, which saved my group 10 person-hours each month and reduced errors on invoices by 25%.”

Possible answer to “What is your greatest professional achievement?”

“My greatest accomplishment was when I helped the street lighting company I worked for convince the small town of Bend, Oregon to convert antiquated street lighting to energy-efficient LED bulbs. My role was created to promote and sell the energy-efficient bulbs, while touting the long-term advantage of reduced energy costs. I had to develop a way to educate city light officials on the value of our energy-efficient bulbs—which was a challenge since our products had an expensive up-front cost compared to less efficient lighting options. I created an information packet and held local community events aimed at city officials and the tax-paying public. There, I was able to demo the company product, answer questions, and evangelize the value of LED bulbs for the long term. It was crucial to have the public on board and I was able to reach a wide variety of community members with these events. I not only reached my first-year sales goal of $100,000, but I was also able to help us land another contract in a neighboring city. Plus, the community-focused strategy garnered attention from the national media. And I’m proud to say I got a promotion within one year to senior sales representative.”

Read More: The Perfect Formula for Answering “What Is Your Greatest Accomplishment” in an Interview

11. Tell me about a challenge or conflict you’ve faced at work, and how you dealt with it.

You’re probably not eager to talk about conflicts you’ve had at work during a job interview. But if you’re asked directly, don’t pretend you’ve never had one. Be honest about a difficult situation you’ve faced (but without going into the kind of detail you’d share venting to a friend). “Most people who ask are only looking for evidence that you’re willing to face these kinds of issues head-on and make a sincere attempt at coming to a resolution,” former recruiter Richard Moy says. Stay calm and professional as you tell the story (and answer any follow-up questions), spend more time talking about the resolution than the conflict, and mention what you’d do differently next time to show “you’re open to learning from tough experiences.”

Possible answer to “Tell me about a challenge or conflict you’ve faced at work, and how you dealt with it.”

“ Funnily enough, last year I was part of a committee that put together a training on conflict intervention in the workplace and the amount of pushback we got for requiring attendance really put our training to the test. There was one senior staff member in particular who seemed adamant. It took some careful listening to understand he felt like it wasn’t the best use of his time given the workload he was juggling. I made sure to acknowledge his concern. And then I focused on his direct objection and explained how the training was meant to improve not just the culture of the company, but also the efficiency at which we operated—and that the goal was for the training to make everyone’s workload feel lighter. He did eventually attend and was there when I talked to the whole staff about identifying the root issue of a conflict and addressing that directly without bringing in other issues, which is how I aim to handle any disagreement in the workplace.”

Read More: 3 Ways You’re Messing Up the Answer to “Tell Me About a Conflict You’ve Faced at Work”

12. Tell me about a time you demonstrated leadership skills.

You don’t have to have a fancy title to act like a leader or demonstrate leadership skills. Think about a time when you headed up a project, took the initiative to propose an alternate process, or helped motivate your team to get something done. Then use the STAR method to tell your interviewer a story, giving enough detail to paint a picture (but not so much that you start rambling) and making sure you spell out the result. In other words, be clear about why you’re telling this particular story and connect all the dots for the interviewer.

Possible answer to “Tell me about a time you demonstrated leadership skills.”

“I think that a good leader is someone who can make decisions while also listening to others and being willing to admit when you’re wrong and course correct. In my last role, my team and I were responsible for giving a big presentation to a prospective client. I quickly assigned different tasks to members of my team, but the project never really got moving. I gave everyone an opportunity to share their input and concerns, and it turned out that they were struggling in the roles I’d given them. I ended up switching a few people around. Meanwhile, the employee I’d assigned to give the presentation was nervous, but still wanted to give it a try. I worked with them to make sure they were ready and even held a practice session so that they could rehearse in a more comfortable environment. When the time came for the real thing, they nailed it! We landed the client and the company still has the account to this day. And that employee became a go-to person for important client presentations. I’m really glad I took the time to listen to everyone’s concerns so that I could re-evaluate my approach and help my team be the best it could be.”

Read More: The Best Way to Answer “Tell Me About a Time You Demonstrated Leadership Skills” in a Job Interview

13. What’s a time you disagreed with a decision that was made at work?

The ideal anecdote here is one where you handled a disagreement professionally and learned something from the experience. Zhang recommends paying particular attention to how you start and end your response. To open, make a short statement to frame the rest of your answer, one that nods at the ultimate takeaway or the reason you’re telling this story. For example: “I learned early on in my professional career that it’s fine to disagree if you can back up your hunches with data.” And to close strong, you can either give a one-sentence summary of your answer (“In short…”) or talk briefly about how what you learned or gained from this experience would help you in the role you’re interviewing for.

Possible answer to “What’s a time you disagreed with a decision that was made at work?”

“In my job as a finance assistant, I was in charge of putting together reports for potential company investments. It was important to get the details and numbers right so that leaders had the best information to make a decision. One time, my boss asked me to generate a new report on a Wednesday morning and wanted it done by Thursday at 5 PM. Because I’m committed to high-quality work and I wasn’t sure my boss fully understood what goes into each report, I knew I needed to speak up. At her next available opening, I sat down with my boss and explained my concerns. She was firm that the report would be completed by Thursday at 5 PM. So I decided to ask if there was anyone who could help out. After thinking about it, my boss found another assistant who could put in a few hours. While it was a tight timeline, we got the report done, and the committee was really pleased to review it at the meeting. My boss appreciated my extra efforts to make it happen and I felt good that I hadn’t let the quality of the report slip. It was a good experience of being a team player but also knowing when and how to ask for help. And once I explained how much time and work goes into each report, my boss was careful to assign them further in advance.”

Read More: Here’s the Secret to Answering “Tell Me About a Time You Had a Conflict With Your Boss” in an Interview

14. Tell me about a time you made a mistake.

You’re probably not too eager to dig into past blunders when you’re trying to impress an interviewer and land a job. But talking about a mistake and winning someone over aren’t mutually exclusive, Moy says. In fact, if you do it right, it can help you. The key is to be honest without placing blame on other people, then explain what you learned from your mistake and what actions you took to ensure it didn’t happen again. At the end of the day, employers are looking for folks who are self-aware, can take feedback, and care about doing better.

Possible answer to “Tell me about a time you made a mistake.”

“Early in my career, I missed a deadline that ended up costing us a really big account. There were a lot of factors that contributed to this, but ultimately, I was the one who dropped the ball. From that experience, I went back and thought really hard about what I could’ve controlled and what I would’ve changed. It turns out that I was not nearly as organized as I thought I was. I sat down with my boss, asked for suggestions on how to improve my organizational skills, and a few months later I was able to score an even bigger account for the department.”

Read More: 3 Rules That Guarantee You'll Nail the Answer to “Tell Me About a Time You Made a Mistake”

15. Tell me about a time you failed.

This question is very similar to the one about making a mistake, and you should approach your answer in much the same way. Make sure you pick a real, actual failure you can speak honestly about. Start by making it clear to the interviewer how you define failure. For instance: “As a manager, I consider it a failure whenever I’m caught by surprise. I strive to know what’s going on with my team and their work.” Then situate your story in relation to that definition and explain what happened. Finally, don’t forget to share what you learned. It’s OK to fail—everyone does sometimes—but it’s important to show that you took something from the experience.

Possible answer to “Tell me about a time you failed.”

“ As a team manager, I consider it a failure if I don’t know what’s going on with my staff and their work—basically if a problem catches me by surprise then I’ve failed somewhere along the way. Even if the outcome is ultimately fine, it means I’ve left a team member unsupported at some point. A somewhat recent example would be this training we do every year for new project managers. Because it’s an event that my team has run so many times, I didn’t think to check in and had no idea a scheduling conflict was brewing into a full-on turf war with another team. The resolution actually ended up being a quick and easy conversation at the leadership team meeting, but had I just asked about it sooner it would never have been a problem to begin with. I definitely learned my lesson about setting reminders to check in about major projects or events even if they’ve been done dozens of times before.”

Read More: 4 Steps for Answering “Tell Me About a Time When You Failed”

16. Why are you leaving your current job?

This is a toughie, but one you can be sure you’ll be asked. Definitely keep things positive—you have nothing to gain by being negative about your current employer. Instead, frame things in a way that shows that you’re eager to take on new opportunities and that the role you’re interviewing for is a better fit for you. For example, “I’d really love to be part of product development from beginning to end, and I know I’d have that opportunity here.” And if you were let go from your most recent job? Keep it simple: “Unfortunately, I was let go,” is a totally acceptable answer.

Possible answer to “Why are you leaving your current job?”

“I’m ready for the next challenge in my career. I loved the people I worked with and the projects I worked on, but at some point I realized I wasn’t being challenged the way I used to be. Rather than let myself get too comfortable, I decided to pursue a position where I can continue to grow.”

Read More: 4 Better Ways to Answer “Why Are You Leaving Your Job?”

17. Why were you fired?

Of course, they may ask the follow-up question: Why were you let go? If you lost your job due to layoffs, you can simply say, “The company [reorganized/merged/was acquired] and unfortunately my [position/department] was eliminated.” But what if you were fired for performance reasons? Your best bet is to be honest (the job-seeking world is small, after all). But it doesn’t have to be a deal breaker. Frame it as a learning experience: Share how you’ve grown and how you approach your job and life now as a result. And if you can portray your growth as an advantage for this next job, even better.

Possible answer to “Why were you fired?”

“After working for XYZ Inc. for four years, there were some changes made to the amount of client calls we were expected to process per hour. I used the techniques we were taught after the change took effect, but didn’t want our customer service to slip. Unfortunately, I wasn’t consistently completing the required number of calls, and, as a result, I was let go. I felt really bad about this and in retrospect I could have done better sticking to the process that would have let me meet the per hour quota. But you’ve told me about the customer service standards and the volume expectations here, and I believe it won’t be a problem.”

Read More: Stop Cringing! How to Tell an Interviewer You've Been Fired

18. Why was there a gap in your employment?

Maybe you were taking care of children or aging parents, dealing with health issues, or traveling the world. Maybe it just took you a long time to land the right job. Whatever the reason, you should be prepared to discuss the gap (or gaps) on your resume. Seriously, practice saying your answer out loud. The key is to be honest, though that doesn’t mean you have to share more details than you’re comfortable with. If there are skills or qualities you honed or gained in your time away from the workforce—whether through volunteer work, running a home, or responding to a personal crisis—you can also talk about how those would help you excel in this role.

Possible answer to “Why was there a gap in your employment?”

“I spent a number of years working at a company in a very demanding job, in which—as you’ll see from my references—I was very successful. But I’d reached a stage in my career where I wanted to focus on my personal growth. The time I spent traveling taught me a lot about how to get along with people of all ages and cultures. Now I feel more than ready to jump back into my career with renewed energy and focus and I feel this role is the ideal way to do that.”

Read More: How to Explain the Gap in Your Resume With Ease

19. Can you explain why you changed career paths?

Don’t be thrown off by this question—just take a deep breath and explain to the hiring manager why you’ve made the career decisions you have. More importantly, give a few examples of how your past experience is transferable to the new role. This doesn’t have to be a direct connection; in fact, it’s often more impressive when a candidate can show how seemingly irrelevant experience is very relevant to the role.

Possible answer to “Can you explain why you changed career paths?”

“Ever since my brother was diagnosed with a heart condition, I’ve been training and running with him in your annual Heart Run to raise money for your organization and help support patients with expenses not covered by insurance. Each time, I’ve been struck by how truly dedicated and happy to be there your employees have been. So when I saw this posting for a fundraising role, it felt like it was meant to be. For the last 10 years of my career I’ve been an account executive for various SaaS companies, and I’ve really honed my skills when it comes to convincing organizations to make regular payments for something over the long-term. But I’ve been looking for a position in fundraising where I can use these skills to really help people and I’m highly motivated to do that with your organization.”

Read More: How to Explain Your Winding Career Path to a Hiring Manager

20. What’s your current salary?

It’s now illegal for some or all employers to ask you about your salary history in several cities and states, including New York City; Louisville, North Carolina; California; and Massachusetts. But no matter where you live, it can be stressful to hear this question. Don’t panic—there are several possible strategies you can turn to. For example, you can deflect the question, Muse career coach Emily Liou says, with a response like: “Before discussing any salary, I’d really like to learn more about what this role entails. I’ve done a lot of research on [Company] and I am certain if it’s the right fit, we’ll be able to agree on a number that’s fair and competitive to both parties.” You can also reframe the question around your salary expectations or requirements (see question 38) or choose to share the number if you think it will work in your favor.

Possible answer to “What’s your current salary?”

“Before discussing any salary, I’d really like to learn more about what this role entails. I’ve done a lot of research on [Company] and I am certain if it’s the right fit, we’ll be able to agree on a number that’s fair and competitive to both parties.”

Read More: Here's How You Answer the Illegal “What's Your Current Salary” Question

21. What do you like least about your job?

Tread carefully here! The last thing you want to do is let your answer devolve into a rant about how terrible your current company is or how much you hate your boss or that one coworker. The easiest way to handle this question with poise is to focus on an opportunity the role you’re interviewing for offers that your current job doesn’t. You can keep the conversation positive and emphasize why you’re so excited about the job.

Possible answer to “What do you like least about your job?”

“In my current role, I’m responsible for drafting media lists to pitch. While I’ve developed a knack for this and can do it when it is necessary, I’m looking forward to a job that allows me to have a more hands-on role in working with media partners. That’s one of the things that most excited me about your account supervisor position.”

Read More: What Interviewers Really Want When They Ask, “What Do You Like Least About Your Job?”

22. What are you looking for in a new position?

Hint: Ideally the same things that this position has to offer. Be specific.

Possible answer to “What are you looking for in a new position?”

“I’ve been honing my data analysis skills for a few years now and, first and foremost, I’m looking for a position where I can continue to exercise those skills. Another thing that’s important to me is the chance to present my findings and suggestions directly to clients. I’m always very motivated by being able to see the impact of my work on other people. And I’m definitely looking for a position where I can grow since I hope to take on managerial responsibilities in the future. To sum it up, I’d love a position where I can use my skills to make an impact that I can see with my own eyes. Of course, the position is only part of the equation. Being at a company where I can grow and work toward something I care about matters, too. DNF’s goal of being at the intersection between data and education inspires me, and I’m really excited about this opportunity.”

Read More: 4 Steps for Answering “What Are You Looking for in a New Position?”

23. What type of work environment do you prefer?

Hint: Ideally one that's similar to the environment of the company you're applying to. Be specific.

Possible answer to “What type of work environment do you prefer?”

“I really like the environment in my current position. My manager is a great resource and always willing to help out when I run into an issue, but they trust me to get my work done so I have a lot of freedom in how I schedule and prioritize, which is very important to me. Everyone has their own cubicle, so it’s often pretty quiet to get our work done, but we all get lunch together and our team has a lot of check-in meetings and communicates frequently via Slack so we still get a lot of opportunities to bounce ideas off each other. So I like both individual and more collaborative work. How would you describe the mix here?”

Read More: 3 Steps to Answering “What Type of Work Environment Do You Prefer?”

24. What’s your work style?

When an interviewer asks you about your work style, they’re probably trying to imagine you in the role. How will you approach your work? What will it be like to work with you? Will you mesh well with the existing team? You can help them along by choosing to focus on something that’s important to you and aligns with everything you’ve learned about the role, team, and company so far. The question is broad, which means you have a lot of flexibility in how you answer: You might talk about how you communicate and collaborate on cross-functional projects, what kind of remote work setup allows you to be most productive, or how you approach leading a team and managing direct reports. Just try to keep it positive. And remember, telling a story will almost always make your answer more memorable. 

Possible answer to “What’s your work style?”

“I tend to do my best work when I’m collaborating with colleagues and we’re working together toward a common goal. I was that rare student who loved group projects and now I still get a rush of excitement when I’m planning marketing campaigns with a team and bringing new and different voices into the fold. When I was working at XYZ Agency, I made it a habit to extend invitations to folks in different departments to join certain brainstorming and feedback sessions. Some of our most successful campaigns grew out of the ideas we generated together with coworkers in IT, HR, product, and customer success. That’s why I was so excited to learn that this role would have me working closely with the product and sales teams as well as with a talented marketing team. The other thing I find is crucial to making these collaborations successful is organization and documentation, so I’m also really big on creating one central home for all materials related to a project, including meeting notes, action items, drafts of campaign copy and visuals, and timelines.”

Read More: How to Answer “What Is Your Work Style?” in an Interview (Plus Examples!)

25. What’s your management style?

The best managers are strong but flexible, and that’s exactly what you want to show off in your answer. (Think something like, “While every situation and every team member requires a bit of a different strategy, I tend to approach my employee relationships as a coach...”) Then share a couple of your best managerial moments, like when you grew your team from five to 15 or coached an underperforming employee to become the company’s top salesperson.

Possible answer to “What’s your management style?”

“ Management style is so hard to put your finger on, but I think in general a good manager gives clear directions and actually stays pretty hands-off, but is ready and available to jump in to offer guidance, expertise, and help when needed. I try my best to make that my management style. I also go out of my way to make sure I know when my team needs help. That means plenty of informal check-ins, both on the work they’re doing and on their general job satisfaction and mental well-being. I remember one project in particular at my most recent position that involved everyone working on a separate aspect of the product. This meant a lot of independent work for my team of seven people, but rather than bog everyone down with repetitive meetings to update me and everyone else on progress made, I created a project wiki that allowed us to communicate new information when necessary without disrupting another team member’s work. I then made it my job to make sure no one was ever stuck on a problem too long without a sounding board. Ultimately, despite the disparate project responsibilities, we ended up with a very cohesive product and, more importantly, a team that wasn’t burnt out.”

Read More: How to Answer “What’s Your Management Style?”

26. How would your boss and coworkers describe you?

First, be honest (remember, if you make it to the final round, the hiring manager will be calling your former bosses and coworkers for references!). Then try to pull out strengths and traits you haven’t discussed in other aspects of the interview, such as your strong work ethic or your willingness to pitch in on other projects when needed.

Possible answer to “How would your boss and coworkers describe you?”

“Actually, in my most recent performance review in April, my direct supervisor described me as someone who takes initiative and doesn’t shy away from hard problems. My role involves a lot of on-site implementation, and when things go wrong, it’s usually up to me to fix it. Rather than punting the problem back to the team, I always try to do what I can first. I know she appreciates that about me.”

Read More: 3 Strategies for Answering “How Would Your Boss or Coworkers Describe You?”

27. How do you deal with pressure or stressful situations?

Here’s another question you may feel the urge to sidestep in an effort to prove you’re the perfect candidate who can handle anything. But it’s important not to dismiss this one (i.e. don’t say, “I just put my head down and push through it,” or, “I don’t get stressed out”). Instead, talk about your go-to strategies for dealing with stress (whether it’s meditating for 10 minutes every day or making sure you go for a run or keeping a super-detailed to-do list) and how you communicate and otherwise proactively try to mitigate pressure. If you can give a real example of a stressful situation you navigated successfully, all the better.

Possible answer to “How do you deal with pressure or stressful situations?”

“I stay motivated by thinking about the end result. I’ve found that even in the midst of a challenging situation, reminding myself of my goals helps me take a step back and stay positive.”

Read More: 3 Ways You’re Messing Up the Answer to “How Do You Deal With Stressful Situations?”

28. What do you like to do outside of work?

Interviewers will sometimes ask about your hobbies or interests outside of work in order to get to know you a little better—to find out what you’re passionate about and devote time to during your off-hours. It’s another chance to let your personality shine. Be honest, but keep it professional and be mindful of answers that might make it sound like you’re going to spend all your time focusing on something other than the job you’re applying for.

Possible answer to “What do you like to do outside of work?”

“I’m a huge foodie. My friends and I love trying new restaurants in town as soon as they open—the more unusual the better! I love discovering new foods and cuisines, and it’s also a great activity to share with friends. I try to go out with the same group at least once a week and it’s a fun way to make sure we keep in touch and share experiences even when we’re busy with other things. We even took a trip to New York City and spent each day in a different neighborhood, buying something to share from a few restaurants.”

Read More: How to Answer “What Are Your Hobbies?” in an Interview (It’s Not a Trick Question!)

29. Are you planning on having children?

Questions about your family status, gender (“How would you handle managing a team of all men?”), nationality (“Where were you born?”), religion, or age are illegal—but they still get asked (and frequently). Of course, not always with ill intent—the interviewer might just be trying to make conversation and might not realize these are off-limits—but you should definitely tie any questions about your personal life (or anything else you think might be inappropriate) back to the job at hand. 

Possible answer to “Are you planning on having children?”

“You know, I’m not quite there yet. But I am very interested in the career paths at your company. Can you tell me more about that?”

Read More: 5 Illegal Interview Questions and How to Dodge Them

30. How do you stay organized?

Would you want to work with a hot mess? Yeah, we didn’t think so. Neither does anyone else. A disorganized worker doesn’t just struggle in their own role, they can also create chaos for peers, managers, direct reports, clients, customers, and anyone else they interact with. So interviewers will often ask about how you keep yourself organized to make sure you’d be able to handle the workload and gauge what you’d be like to work with. In your answer, you’ll want to reassure them you’d have things under control (both in what you say and how you say it), describe a specific system or method you’ve used (bonus points if you can tie it to the role you’re interviewing for), and explain how it benefited you and your team. Just make sure your answer is succinct and, well, organized.

Possible answer to “How do you stay organized?”

“I take pride in my ability to stay organized, and it’s really come in handy in my past roles and especially the social media assistant job I’m in now. First, I keep a really meticulous calendar for each of the platforms I’m responsible for using Hootsuite—which I noticed you use here as well—and I try to block off time twice a week to get ahead on creating and slotting in posts. 

“ Second, I’m a big fan of Trello, where I have one personal board I use as a to-do list color-coded by type of task and marked with priority level and one shared marketing team board that we use to coordinate campaigns launching across social, email, and other channels. We pay very close attention to the news in case we need to pause a campaign. If needed, I’d tag all the relevant stakeholders on Trello, immediately suspend all scheduled content in Hootsuite, and start a discussion on Slack or suggest a meeting to reassess strategy.

“Finally, I created a shared folder on Google Drive with subfolders by campaign that I update with one-pagers on goals and strategies, assets, a record of the actual posts deployed, performance analyses, and retros. That way, there’s a go-to place for anyone on the team to refer back to past projects, which I’ve found really helps us learn from every campaign and incorporate those learnings into what we’re working on next.”

Read More: What Interviewers Really Want to Know When They Ask “How Do You Stay Organized?”

31. How do you prioritize your work?

Your interviewers want to know that you can manage your time, exercise judgement, communicate, and shift gears when needed. Start by talking about whatever system you’ve found works for you to plan your day or week, whether it’s a to-do list app you swear by or a color-coded spreadsheet. This is one where you’ll definitely want to lean on a real-life example. So go on to describe how you’ve reacted to a last-minute request or another unexpected shift in priorities in the past, incorporating how you evaluated and decided what to do and how you communicated with your manager and/or teammates about it.

Possible answer to “How do you prioritize your work?”

“I’d be lost without my daily to-do list! At the beginning of each workday, I write out tasks to complete, and list them from highest to lowest priority to help keep me on track. But I also realize priorities change unexpectedly. On one particular day recently, I had planned to spend most of my time making phone calls to advertising agencies to get price quotes for an upcoming campaign. Then I did a quick check-in with my manager. She mentioned she needed help putting together a presentation ASAP for a major potential client. I moved the more flexible task to the end of the week and spent the next few hours updating the time-sensitive presentation. I make it a point to keep lines of communication open with my manager and coworkers. If I’m working on a task that will take a while to complete, I try to give a heads-up to my team as soon as possible. If my workload gets to be unmanageable, I check in with my boss about which items can drop to the bottom of the priority list, and then I try to reset expectations about different deadlines.”

Read More: A Foolproof Method to Answer the Interview Question “How Do You Prioritize Your Work?”

32. What are you passionate about?

You’re not a robot programmed to do your work and then power down. You’re a human, and if someone asks you this question in an interview, it’s probably because they want to get to know you better. The answer can align directly with the type of work you’d be doing in that role—like if, for example, you’re applying to be a graphic designer and spend all of your free time creating illustrations and data visualizations to post on Instagram.

But don’t be afraid to talk about a hobby that’s different from your day-to-day work. Bonus points if you can “take it one step further and connect how your passion would make you an excellent candidate for the role you are applying for,” says Muse career coach Al Dea. Like if you’re a software developer who loves to bake, you might talk about how the ability to be both creative and precise informs your approach to code.

Possible answer to “What are you passionate about?”

“One of my favorite pastimes is knitting—I love being able to create something beautiful from nothing. Of course, knitting also requires a keen attention to detail and a lot of patience. Luckily, as an accountant I have cultivated both of those qualities!”

Read More: 3 Authentic Ways to Answer “What Are You Passionate About?” in a Job Interview

33. What motivates you?

Before you panic about answering what feels like a probing existential question, consider that the interviewer wants to make sure you’re excited about this role at this company, and that you’ll be motivated to succeed if they pick you. So think back to what has energized you in previous roles and pinpoint what made your eyes light up when you read this job description. Pick one thing, make sure it’s relevant to the role and company you’re interviewing for, and try to weave in a story to help illustrate your point. If you’re honest, which you should be, your enthusiasm will be palpable.

Possible answer to “What motivates you?”

“I’m driven primarily by my desire to learn new things—big or small—and take on new responsibilities so that I’m constantly growing as an employee and contributing more to my team and organization. I spent several summers working as a camp counselor and felt most fulfilled when I volunteered to lead planning for a talent show, jumped in to help with scheduling logistics, and learned how to run pickups efficiently. All of that experience helped immensely when I took a step up to become the lead counselor last year focused on operations, and that’s what excites me so much about the opportunity to take on this managerial role for the after-school program.”

Read More: 5 Easy Steps to Answer “What Motivates You?” in an Interview

34. What are your pet peeves?

Here’s another one that feels like a minefield. But it’ll be easier to navigate if you know why an interviewer is asking it. Most likely, they want to make sure you’ll thrive at their company—and get a glimpse of how you deal with conflict. So be certain you pick something that doesn’t contradict the culture and environment at this organization while still being honest. Then explain why and what you’ve done to address it in the past, doing your best to stay calm and composed. Since there’s no need to dwell on something that annoys you, you can keep this response short and sweet.

Possible answer to “What are your pet peeves?”

“It bothers me when an office’s schedule is really disorganized, because in my experience, disorganization can cause confusion, which can hurt the motivation of the team. As a person who likes things to be orderly, I try to help keep my team on task while also allowing for flexibility.”

Read More: 6 Tips for Answering “What Are Your Pet Peeves?” in an Interview

35. How do you like to be managed?

This is another one of those questions that’s about finding the right fit—both from the company’s perspective and your own. Think back on what worked well for you in the past and what didn’t. What did previous bosses do that motivated you and helped you succeed and grow? Pick one or two things to focus on and always articulate them with a positive framing (even if your preference comes from an experience where your manager behaved in the opposite way, phrase it as what you would want a manager to do). If you can give a positive example from a great boss, it’ll make your answer even stronger.

Possible answer to “How do you like to be managed?”

“I enjoy having my hands in a lot of different projects, so I like working with managers who allow their employees to experiment, be independent, and work cross-functionally with other teams. At the same time, I really welcome it when a boss provides me with support, guidance, and coaching. No one can do anything alone, and I believe when managers and employees collaborate together and learn from one another everyone comes out on top.”

Read More: 3 Easy Steps to Answer “How Do You Like to Be Managed?” in an Interview

36. Do you consider yourself successful?

This question might make you uncomfortable. But you can think of it as an opportunity to allow the interviewer to get to know you better and to position yourself as an excellent choice for this job. First off, make sure you say yes! Then pick one specific professional achievement you’re proud of that can be tied back to the role you’re interviewing for—one that demonstrates a quality, skill, or experience that would help you excel in this position. You’ll want to explain why you consider it a success, talk about the process in addition to the outcome, and highlight your own accomplishment without forgetting your team. Zooming in on one story will help if you feel awkward tooting your own horn!

Possible answer to “Do you consider yourself successful?”

“I do consider myself successful, even though I’m early in my professional career. I took a full load of classes in my junior year of college because I wanted to take that summer to volunteer for a human rights organization overseas. I knew that I needed to make sure I was on track with my major, minor, and graduation requirements. It was difficult to juggle it all with my part-time job, which I kept to help account for the fact that I wouldn’t be earning money over the summer, and there were a few sleepless nights. But it was worth the hard work: I ended the year with a 3.9 GPA and the opportunity to volunteer for the agency in Ghana without falling behind my graduation timeline. For me success is about setting a goal and sticking with it, no matter how hard it is, and this experience was proof that I could be successful even when there’s a lot to balance, which I know there always is at a nonprofit like this one.”

Read More: How to Answer “Do You Consider Yourself Successful?” Without Feeling Like a Show-Off

37. Where do you see yourself in five years?

If asked this question, be honest and specific about your future goals, but consider this: A hiring manager wants to know a) if you've set realistic expectations for your career, b) if you have ambition (a.k.a., this interview isn't the first time you’re considering the question), and c) if the position aligns with your goals and growth. Your best bet is to think realistically about where this position could take you and answer along those lines. And if the position isn’t necessarily a one-way ticket to your aspirations? It’s OK to say that you’re not quite sure what the future holds, but that you see this experience playing an important role in helping you make that decision.

Possible answer to “Where do you see yourself in five years?”

“In five years, I’d like to be in a position where I know more about my longer-term career aspirations as a designer. I will have gotten experience working for a design agency and know more about the industry overall. I’ll have grown my technical skills and learned how to take feedback from clients and incorporate it. And the way your agency is set up, I’ll also have gotten the opportunity to design different kinds of deliverables—including websites, branding, and ad campaigns—for different kinds of clients to see where I really feel at home before settling on a focus.”

Read More: How to Answer “Where Do You See Yourself in 5 Years?”

38. How do you plan to achieve your career goals?

Having goals shows interviewers you care, are ambitious, and can think ahead. Having a plan for how you’ll achieve your goals demonstrates your self-motivation as well as organizational and time management skills. Finally, the fact that you’ve accomplished past goals you’ve set for yourself is proof of your ability to follow through. All together, these are indications that you can not only set and achieve goals of your own, but also help your prospective boss, team, and company do the same. To craft your answer, make sure you focus on one or two goals in detail, explain why the goals are meaningful, communicate what milestones are coming up, highlight past successes, and connect back to this job. 

Possible answer to “How do you plan to achieve your career goals?”

“My current goal is to earn the CPA license so that I’m fully certified and prepared to contribute in a junior staff accounting job. My undergraduate degree is in finance and I completed an accounting internship with XYZ Company last summer. While I was there, I decided that each week I’d ask one person from a different team to coffee to learn about their job and career path. Not only did those conversations impress upon me the importance of getting my CPA as soon as possible, they also helped me realize I was eager to pursue forensic accounting, which is why I’m so excited about the opportunity to join this team. In order to ensure I earn my CPA this year, I enrolled in NASBA workshops, created a study schedule to keep myself on track, and will be taking my first trial test in three weeks. I plan on taking the actual test within the next three to six months.”

Read More: How to Answer “How Do You Plan to Achieve Your Career Goals?” in an Interview

39. What are your career aspirations?

Career aspirations are bigger and loftier than career goals. With this question, interviewers are asking: What kind of career would make you happiest (while also being realistic)? Your aspirations might revolve around what kind of company you’d like to work for, what tasks you’d like to do, who you’d like to help, or how you’d like to be seen by your colleagues. So to answer this question, talk about what would energize and fulfill you and connect it to the position you’re interviewing for. Be specific about how this job will help you achieve your career aspirations.

Possible answer to “What are your career aspirations?”

“After growing up in a food desert, my biggest professional aspiration is to help make healthy food more widely available and accessible regardless of where you live. I also love solving complex problems. Currently, as a project manager, I specialize in strategic planning and combine it with a natural ability to engage critical stakeholders—resulting in on-time and under-budget delivery. This role would help me use those skills to work on a mission I’m passionate about. I am determined to use these skills to help your organization guarantee our community has access to affordable, nutritious food and information to make healthy decisions. In the next five or so years, I would love to take on additional responsibility and be in a decision-making role to drive the mission beyond our community and support even more families in gaining access to nutritious food options.”

Read More: How to Answer “What Are Your Career Aspirations?” in an Interview

40. What’s your dream job?

Along similar lines, the interviewer wants to uncover whether this position is really in line with your ultimate career goals. While “an NBA star” might get you a few laughs, a better bet is to talk about your goals and ambitions—and why this job will get you closer to them.

Read More: The Secret Formula to Answering “What's Your Dream Job?” in an Interview

41. What other companies are you interviewing with?

Companies might ask you who else you’re interviewing with for a few reasons. Maybe they want to see how serious you are about this role and team (or even this field) or they’re trying to find out who they’re competing with to hire you. On one hand, you want to express your enthusiasm for this job, but at the same time, you don’t want to give the company any more leverage than it already has by telling them there’s no one else in the running. Depending on where you are in your search, you can talk about applying to or interviewing for a few roles that have XYZ in common—then mention how and why this role seems like a particularly good fit.

Possible answer to “What other companies are you interviewing with?”

“I’m interviewing with a few companies for a range of positions, but they all come down to delivering an excellent customer experience. I wanted to keep an open mind about how to best achieve that goal, but so far it seems that this role will really allow me to focus all of my energy on customer experience and retention, which I find very appealing.”

Read More: How to Answer “What Other Companies Are You Interviewing With?”

42. What makes you unique?

“They genuinely want to know the answer,” Dea promises. Give them a reason to pick you over other similar candidates. The key is to keep your answer relevant to the role you’re applying to. So the fact that you can run a six-minute mile or crush a trivia challenge might not help you get the job (but hey, it depends on the job!). Use this opportunity to tell them something that would give you an edge over your competition for this position. To figure out what that is, you can ask some former colleagues, think back to patterns you’ve seen in feedback you get, or try to distill why people tend to turn to you. Focus on one or two things and don’t forget to back up whatever you say with evidence.

Possible answer to “What makes you unique?”

“I basically taught myself animation from scratch. I was immediately drawn to it in college, and with the limited resources available to me, I decided to take matters into my own hands—and that’s the approach I take in all aspects of my work as a video editor. I don’t just wait around for things to happen, and when I can, I’m always eager to step in and take on new projects, pick up new skills, or brainstorm new ideas.”

Read More: A Simple Way to Answer “What Makes You Unique?” in Your Job Search (Plus, Examples!)

43. What should I know that’s not on your resume?

It’s a good sign if a recruiter or hiring manager is interested in more than just what’s on your resume. It probably means they looked at your resume, think you might be a good fit for the role, and want to know more about you. To make this wide-open question a little more manageable, try talking about a positive trait, a story or detail that reveals a little more about you and your experience, or a mission or goal that makes you excited about this role or company.

Possible answer to “What should I know that’s not on your resume?”

“Well, one thing you won’t find on my resume: the time I had to administer emergency CPR. Last year, I was at the lake when I saw a young girl who looked like she was drowning. I was a lifeguard in high school, so I swam out, brought her to shore, and gave her CPR. Although this was—hopefully—a one-time event, I’ve always been able to stay calm during stressful situations, figure out a solution, and then act. As your account manager, I’d use this trait to quickly and effectively resolve issues both within the team and externally. After all, obstacles are inevitable, especially in a startup environment. And if anyone needs CPR at the office beach party, well, I’m your woman.”

Read More: The Right Way to Answer “What Should I Know That’s Not on Your Resume?”

44. What would your first few months look like in this role?

Your potential future boss (or whoever else has asked you this question) wants to know that you’ve done your research, given some thought to how you’d get started, and would be able to take initiative if hired. (In some interviews, you might even get the more specific, “What would your first 30, 60, or 90 days look like in this role?”) So think about what information and aspects of the company and team you’d need to familiarize yourself with and which colleagues you’d want to sit down and talk to. You can also suggest one possible starter project to show you’d be ready to hit the ground running and contribute early on. This won’t necessarily be the thing you do first if you do get the job, but a good answer shows that you’re thoughtful and that you care.

Possible answer to “What would your first few months look like in this role?”

“It’s been exciting to hear about some of the new initiatives the company has started in our previous conversations—like the database project and the company-wide sync, but I know there’s still a lot for me to learn. The first thing I’d do is line up meetings with the stakeholders involved in the projects I’d be tackling to help me figure out what I don’t know and then go from there. Hopping into a database project halfway through can be tricky, but I’m confident that once I know what all the stakeholders are looking for, I’ll be able to efficiently plot out our next steps and set appropriate deadlines. From there, I’ll be focused on hitting the milestones that I’ve set for the team.”

Read More: The 30-60-90 Day Plan: Your Secret Weapon for New Job Success

45. What are your salary expectations?

The number one rule of answering this question is: Figure out your salary requirements ahead of time. Do your research on what similar roles pay by using sites like PayScale and reaching out to your network. Be sure to take your experience, education, skills, and personal needs into account, too! From there, Muse career coach Jennifer Fink suggests choosing from one of three strategies:

• Give a salary range: But keep the bottom of your stated range toward the mid-to-high point of what you’re actually hoping for, Fink says.
• Flip the question: Try something like “That's a great question—it would be helpful if you could share what the range is for this role,” Fink says.
• Delay answering: Tell your interviewer that you’d like to learn more about the role or the rest of the compensation package before discussing pay.

(And here’s some more info on responding to a question about your salary requirements on an application form .)

Possible answer to “What are your salary expectations?”

“Taking into account my experience and Excel certifications, which you mentioned earlier would be very helpful to the team, I’m looking for somewhere between $42,000 and $46,000 annually for this role. But for me, benefits definitely matter as well. Your free on-site gym, the commuter benefits, and other perks could definitely allow me to be a bit flexible with salary.”

Read More:  3 Strategies for Answering “What Are Your Salary Expectations?” in an Interview

46. What do you think we could do better or differently?

This question can really do a number on you. How do you give a meaty answer without insulting the company or, worse, the person you’re speaking with? Well first, take a deep breath. Then start your response with something positive about the company or specific product you’ve been asked to discuss. When you’re ready to give your constructive feedback, give some background on the perspective you’re bringing to the table and explain why you’d make the change you’re suggesting (ideally based on some past experience or other evidence). And if you end with a question, you can show them you’re curious about the company or product and open to other points of view. Try: “Did you consider that approach here? I’d love to know more about your process.”

Read More: How to Answer the “How Would You Improve Our Company?” Interview Question Without Bashing Anyone

47. When can you start?

Your goal here should be to set realistic expectations that will work for both you and the company. What exactly that sounds like will depend on your specific situation. If you’re ready to start immediately—if you’re unemployed, for example—you could offer to start within the week. But if you need to give notice to your current employer, don’t be afraid to say so; people will understand and respect that you plan to wrap things up right. It’s also legitimate to want to take a break between jobs, though you might want to say you have “previously scheduled commitments to attend to” and try to be flexible if they really need someone to start a bit sooner.

Possible answer to “When can you start?”

“I am excited for the opportunity to join your team. I have several projects to wrap up in my current role at [Company]. I plan to give them two weeks’ notice to make a smooth transition for my coworkers and will be happy to come onboard with the team here after that time.”

Read More: 4 Ways to Answer the Interview Question “When Can You Start?”

48. Are you willing to relocate?

While this may sound like a simple yes-or-no question, it’s often a little bit more complicated than that. The simplest scenario is one where you’re totally open to moving and would be willing to do so for this opportunity. But if the answer is no, or at least not right now, you can reiterate your enthusiasm for the role, briefly explain why you can’t move at this time, and offer an alternative, like working remotely or out of a local office. Sometimes it’s not as clear-cut, and that’s OK. You can say you prefer to stay put for xyz reasons, but would be willing to consider relocating for the right opportunity.

Possible answer to “Are you willing to relocate?”

“I do love living in Raleigh and would prefer to stay here. However, for the right opportunity I’d be willing to consider relocating if necessary.”

Read More: The Best Responses to “Are You Willing to Relocate?” Depending on Your Situation

49. How many tennis balls can you fit into a limousine?

1,000? 10,000? 100,000? Seriously? Well, seriously, you might get asked brain-teaser questions like these, especially in quantitative jobs. But remember that the interviewer doesn’t necessarily want an exact number—they want to make sure that you understand what’s being asked of you, and that you can set into motion a systematic and logical way to respond. So take a deep breath and start thinking through the math. (Yes, it’s OK to ask for a pen and paper!)

Read More: 9 Steps to Solving an Impossible Brain Teaser in a Tech Interview (Without Breaking a Sweat)

50. If you were an animal, which one would you want to be?

Seemingly random personality-test type questions like these come up in interviews because hiring managers want to see how you can think on your feet. There’s no wrong answer here, but you’ll immediately gain bonus points if your answer helps you share your strengths or personality or connect with the hiring manager. Pro tip: Come up with a stalling tactic to buy yourself some thinking time, such as saying, “Now, that is a great question. I think I would have to say…”

Read More: 4 Steps for Answering Off-the-Wall Interview Questions

51. Sell me this pen.

If you’re interviewing for a sales job, your interviewer might put you on the spot to sell them a pen sitting on the table, or a legal pad, or a water bottle, or just something . The main thing they’re testing you for? How you handle a high-pressure situation. So try to stay calm and confident and use your body language—making eye contact, sitting up straight, and more—to convey that you can handle this. Make sure you listen, understand your “customer’s” needs, get specific about the item’s features and benefits, and end strong—as though you were truly closing a deal.

Read More: 4 Tips for Responding to "Sell Me This Pen" in an Interview

52. Is there anything else you’d like us to know?

Just when you thought you were done, your interviewer asks you this open-ended doozy. Don’t panic—it’s not a trick question! You can use this as an opportunity to close out the meeting on a high note in one of two ways, Zhang says. First, if there really is something relevant that you haven’t had a chance to mention, do it now. Otherwise, you can briefly summarize your qualifications. For example, Zhang says, you could say: “I think we’ve covered most of it, but just to summarize, it sounds like you’re looking for someone who can really hit the ground running. And with my previous experience [enumerate experience here], I think I’d be a great fit.”

Read More: How to Answer “Is There Anything Else You’d Like Us to Know?”

53. Do you have any questions for us?

You probably already know that an interview isn’t just a chance for a hiring manager to grill you—it’s an opportunity to sniff out whether a job is the right fit from your perspective. What do you want to know about the position? The company? The department? The team? You’ll cover a lot of this in the actual interview, so have a few less-common questions ready to go. We especially like questions targeted to the interviewer (“What's your favorite part about working here?”) or the company’s growth (“What can you tell me about your new products or plans for growth?”) If you’re interviewing for a remote role, there are some specific questions you might want to ask related to that.

Read More: 57 Smart Questions to Ask in a Job Interview in 2022

Bonus questions

Looking for more common interview questions and answers examples? Check out these lists of inquiries for different types of jobs.

• Behavioral interview questions
• Phone interview questions
• Remote interview questions
• Second interview questions
• COVID-related interview questions
• Diversity and inclusion interview questions
• Emotional intelligence interview questions
• Internship interview questions
• Manager interview questions
• Account management interview questions
• Accounting interview questions
• Administrative assistant interview questions
• Brand management interview questions
• Customer service interview questions
• Data science interview questions
• Digital marketing interview questions
• Financial analyst interview questions
• IT interview questions
• Nursing interview questions
• Product marketing interview questions
• Project management interview questions
• Retail interview questions
• Sales interview questions
• Software engineering interview questions
• Teaching interview questions

Want even more advice for answering common interview questions?

If you are looking for more in depth advice about these 53 interview questions and how to answer them, here's a list of articles with detailed guides to teach you how to approach your responses.

• Tell me about yourself.
• Walk me through your resume.
• How did you hear about this position?
• Why do you want to work at this company?
• Why do you want this job?
• Why should we hire you?
• What can you bring to the company?
• What are your greatest strengths?
• What do you consider to be your weaknesses?
• What is your greatest professional achievement?
• Tell me about a challenge or conflict you’ve faced at work, and how you dealt with it.
• Tell me about a time you demonstrated leadership skills.
• What’s a time you disagreed with a decision that was made at work?
• Tell me about a time you made a mistake.
• Tell me about a time you failed.
• Why are you leaving your current job?
• Why were you fired?
• Why was there a gap in your employment?
• Can you explain why you changed career paths?
• What’s your current salary?
• What do you like least about your job?
• What are you looking for in a new position?
• What type of work environment do you prefer?
• What’s your work style?
• What’s your management style?
• How would your boss and coworkers describe you?
• How do you deal with pressure or stressful situations?
• What do you like to do outside of work?
• Are you planning on having children?
• How do you stay organized?
• How do you prioritize your work?
• What are you passionate about?
• What motivates you?
• What are your pet peeves?
• How do you like to be managed?
• Do you consider yourself successful?
• Where do you see yourself in five years?
• How do you plan to achieve your career goals?
• What are your career aspirations?
• What’s your dream job?
• What other companies are you interviewing with?
• What makes you unique?
• What should I know that’s not on your resume?
• What would your first few months look like in this role?
• What are your salary expectations?
• What do you think we could do better or differently?
• When can you start?
• Are you willing to relocate?
• How many tennis balls can you fit into a limousine?
• If you were an animal, which one would you want to be?
• Sell me this pen.
• Is there anything else you’d like us to know.
• Do you have any questions for us?

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25 final interview questions and sample answers

Jump to section

What is a final interview?

How to prepare for a final interview .

Final-round interview questions about experience

Final interview questions about work style

Final interview questions about expectations and goals

Final interview questions about interest and fit

5 final interview questions to ask the interviewer, ace your final interview questions with ease.

Final interview questions are critical for assessing your readiness to align with an organization’s team and values. They provide a platform for you to showcase your skills, experiences, and potential for growth. They also allow you to make a lasting final impression that could make or break your candidacy.

Although final interviews can be nerve-wracking, practicing for them can help calm anxiety and make you feel more comfortable and confident. This article contains common interview questions and answers to help you prepare for your final interview round.

A final interview is just what it sounds like. It’s the last or final stage in the hiring process before an organization decides whether to offer you the role. Some positions often require multiple interviews with different people before you can negotiate a job offer .

You may start with a basic phone interview conducted by a recruiter. If they think you’re a good fit, they’ll probably follow up and move on to a virtual interview with the hiring manager. You might also interview with potential new team members. Though it might sound extreme, some companies are known to exceed five rounds of interviews.

But making it to the final round of interviews means you’re considered one of the best candidates for the role. On average, only two to four candidates make it to the final interview round , often with similar experience levels. This is your last chance to show the hiring team what differentiates you from other candidates.

Interview preparation can feel all-encompassing. Let’s be honest: a job search can feel like a second job. But regardless, you need to be prepared for everything. This includes prepping for behavioral interview questions and clearly and concisely discussing the biggest challenges you’ve encountered in the past and what you did to overcome them.

One of the best ways to prepare for an interview is to practice your interview skills through a mock interview . This is a practice session that simulates a real interview. 

You can partner with a mentor , career coach , or friend and have them ask you questions as if they were your interviewer. This way, you can get used to thinking on your feet when answering questions.

After the mock interview, ask your “interviewer” for feedback on what was and wasn’t presented well. If you work with a coach or mentor , they can also provide you with interview tips that go beyond your verbal answers, such as how to introduce yourself in an interview , the importance of eye contact and body language , and what to wear to your job interview . This can be great information to build on, especially if you think you’re bad at job interviews .

Other situations you may want to prepare for include a panel interview, giving a presentation , and discussing any assignments the employer asked you to complete. Regardless of the role, you should also prepare by doing the following:

• Review the job posting
• Research the company and your interviewer(s)
• Think of questions to ask the interviewer
• Reach out to people you know on LinkedIn who work at the company for advice

Final-round interview questions and answers about experience

One of the most obvious things you’ll be asked about during the interview process is your professional experience. Final interviewers want to know your unique skills , technical skills, and how well they align with the role. In short, they want to know if it’s worth taking a chance on you as a new hire .

These questions may also test how you’d handle certain situations in the workplace based on your experience. These often come as “tell me about a time…” interview questions .

Use these final-round interview questions and answers to gather your thoughts about your skills and professional background.

1. Discuss a time you made a mistake at work and how you handled it

Employers can tell a lot about you by how you handle mistakes. The key to answering this question is to turn a negative into a positive. It can often highlight whether or not you excel at certain soft skills . 

It’s important to take accountability and ownership of your mistakes but also share what you’ve done since to ensure it doesn’t happen again.

Sample answer: Pretend you’re an account executive who forgot to get internal approval on pricing in your latest proposal before sending it to the client. As a result, you had to rescind the proposal to correct it. You could explain this error to an interviewer, acknowledge exactly where you went wrong, and discuss your solution. 

2. What is your greatest weakness?

It’s common for employers to ask about your perceived strengths and weaknesses . However, many interviewees have difficulty answering the question, “ What are your weaknesses ?” Interviewers are likely seeking an answer that shows honesty, humility , and self-awareness . In your response, it’s important to acknowledge something you’re not good at and how you’re working to improve.

Sample answer: Let’s say you work in project management. An example of a weakness you could share is that you have difficulty asking for help, which makes task delegation a challenge. You could acknowledge that scrambling to do everything yourself is a recipe for disaster, mistakes, and burnout at work . Then, you could explain your process for how you now ask for help , manage stress , and handle multiple projects.

3. What is your greatest achievement?

Interviewers may ask this question to learn more about your impact in previous roles. It can also help them understand what work you value and consider most important. Always choose an accomplishment that’s relevant to the position.

Sample answer: Maybe your most significant achievement was being named “top salesperson” by your previous company. You can explain that you value this recognition because you constantly work to improve your customer service skills and tailor your strategy to each customer. Showcase your passion for customer satisfaction and how you thrive under pressure with measurable goals .

4. Describe a time a customer was disappointed with your service. What did you do?

Good customer service is central to a business’s success in many industries. This question allows you to highlight how you’ve gone above and beyond to achieve customer happiness.

Sample answer: If you work in consulting, you could describe a time when you made a recommendation to a client only to have it fail. Explain how you made it right to restore the relationship. Maybe you offered free consulting hours to help fix the problem or developed a detailed mitigation plan at no extra cost.

5. Why did you take a gap year?

Sometimes, hiring managers might notice a career gap on your resume. They may ask about it to learn what you did during that time and ensure you’re ready to return to work. 

Sample answer: Explain truthfully why you took time off, why you’re ready to reenter the workforce , and what you did to help keep your skills fresh during your time away. It’s also OK to say it was due to personal reasons and leave it at that.

Ensuring you’re a good fit isn’t only the hiring manager’s job. Employers want to make sure the position matches your professional needs and work style. Here are some final-round interview questions to gauge whether the organization’s workplace environment can help you thrive.

6. How do you like to be managed?

Not everyone jibes with certain management styles . A hiring manager might ask how you like to be managed to ensure their leadership style matches your needs. Draw from past experiences and answer in a way that aligns with the company’s core values .

Sample answer: If you are interviewing for a company that values independence, you could say you prefer to be proactive and own your work with little direction. 

7. How do you stay motivated?

Work motivation is key to productivity . Hiring managers want to know you’ll take your role seriously and can remain productive throughout each shift with little oversight.

Sample answer: If you’re applying for a position on a management track, you could discuss your motivation for learning new skills or becoming a better people manager . You can explain how you’d achieve this in your new role to show your enthusiasm.

8. How do you handle workplace conflict?

Conflict is inevitable. Interviewers want to ensure you’re a team player and have the emotional intelligence to resolve problems as they arise. 

Sample answer: Describe a time when there was tension between you and a colleague. Maybe you both wanted to lead a project and kept trying to take control. Instead of engaging in workplace conflict , explain how you worked with your coworker to share responsibilities.

9. In what kind of environment do you work best?

This question gauges whether you’ll be set up for success with how the role operates within the company.

Sample answer: If you know the company is fully remote, explain how working from home has increased your productivity and led to a better work-life balance . If the role requires collaboration and teamwork , explain why you like working with others to set team goals .

10. How do you handle change at work?

Some people need a work environment that remains relatively stable, while others love the thrill of startup environments. Employers may ask this to see if you’re a culture fit .

Sample answer: Explain a time when you experienced change at work and what you did to adapt. For example, maybe you had a new manager who wanted to change your existing role and responsibilities . Share how you handled that communication and how you adapted.

Final interview questions about expectations and career goals

To ensure a fit, employers want to know that you’re aligned on expectations and where you see your career heading. Here are a few final interview questions to ensure you’re on the same page.

11. What about this company interests you most?

This is an excellent opportunity to show off your knowledge of the company’s values and its mission. It also gives hiring managers a sense of what you’re looking for in your next role. The goal is to see whether your goals align with theirs.

Sample answer: Share what prompted you to seek work with this organization. You can say you were drawn to its niche market, innovation focus, or people-first mentality. Then, explain why these traits are essential to your career growth or what excites you about them.

12. Are you applying for other positions?

If an employer is interested in you, they might ask whether you’re interviewing elsewhere. If you are, it may give them a sense of urgency to make an offer sooner so they don’t lose you to a different company.

Sample answer: If you are applying for other roles, explain why you’re excited about possibly joining this company to show your interest is still there. If they’re your top choice, say so. It’s also OK to say you’d prefer not to answer this question.

13. Where do you see yourself in 5, 10, and 15 years?

Hiring is expensive, so employers want to know you’re in it for the long haul and won’t quit after two weeks . Make sure you answer with possible goals within the role and organization.

Sample answer: Let’s say you’re joining a marketing agency to work on website development. Your goals should be relevant to the role. You can say you want to take on more responsibilities and move into a management role where you oversee all website-related projects. 

14. What are your salary expectations?

A question about salary expectations can be tricky but necessary. It’s often asked in the final interview because the organization prepares to make an offer. If you give too high a number, it might cut you out of the running.

Sample answer: Always give a salary range so they know you’re flexible and there is wiggle room at the end of the process for negotiation . This can be especially helpful if you don’t yet have details about other forms of compensation, such as a benefits package.

It’s also a good idea to research market value salary ranges beforehand. However, it’s best to ask the hiring manager for their budgeted salary range first so you don’t sell yourself short. 

15. Why do you want this position?

Interviewers may ask this question to learn more about your motivation and what you hope to bring to the table. Your answer should balance what you stand to gain and how your employment would benefit the company. 

Sample answer: If you’re a recent graduate and applied for an office assistant role at a law firm, you could explain that you want to gain industry knowledge from the company’s experts before you apply to law school. Discuss how your level of interest can benefit the firm, such as the fresh perspective and passion you can bring to the role.

Employers want to know you’re excited about the opportunity and passionate about your work. An interviewer might ask questions like the following to gauge your interest level and fit for the role.

16. Talk about your process

Depending on your line of work, interviewers might want to know how you take an assignment and run with it. They might ask what pieces of a project you tackle first, what organizational skills you use to meet deadlines, and what you do when things don’t go according to plan. They’re looking to get a sense of your problem-solving skills .

Sample answer: Let’s say you’re a marketing manager tasked with creating a multichannel campaign. You could discuss how you conduct audience research, who you’d involve on your team, and how you’d measure performance once a campaign is live.

17. Why are you a good fit for this position?

This is one of the most important questions you’ll answer. This question allows you to give your “ elevator pitch ” for what makes you unique compared to other candidates. Explain any differentiators that you believe will set you apart from the crowd.

Sample answer: Depending on your situation, some possible differentiators could include familiarity with the company as a customer or former employee, previous work experience in the industry, or a similar previous role.

18. How do you handle stress?

Everyone gets stressed, but how you react to different types of stress can say a lot about you as a candidate. Employers want to know your techniques to stay calm, such as taking deep breaths instead of losing your temper.

Sample answer: Use the STAR method to communicate the following:

• Situation: Explain a circumstance where you experienced stress
• Task: Discuss your role in addressing the stress
• Action: Share specific steps you took to overcome your stress
• Results: Discuss the outcome and what you learned

19. What's your impression of our company's culture and mission?

Employers might ask these questions to determine whether your assumptions are accurate. If they aren’t, the interviewer might explain the discrepancies. This helps them ensure you have realistic expectations for what it’s like to work at the company.

Sample answer: Share what you know about the company and what you’ve observed during previous interviews. You can discuss how everyone you’ve met is friendly and passionate about their work or how you love that they offer dedicated volunteer days.

20. How would you approach this role if you were hired?

Now that you know more about the role from previous interviews, companies might ask how you would handle some of the challenges that come with it. This can help them see your strategic foresight and how you’d approach the position.

Sample answer: Explain one thing you know about the role and how you’d improve it. For example, let’s say you’re joining as a public relations specialist. You could mention that they should add a “press room” page and contact information for media requests onto their website so the media can reach them more easily.

Interviews should always go both ways. Employers often allow you to ask them questions at the end of an interview . This is your chance to better understand the company’s culture and what it’s like to work there. If you don’t ask questions, interviewers may think you are unprepared or simply not that interested.

Try to ask questions that are unique and insightful and can’t be answered with a Google search. Here are five examples of questions to ask in a final interview:

• Describe the company culture in your own words.
• What are your biggest daily challenges at work?
• What are some things your organization has done lately to show employee appreciation ?
• What are your organization’s strengths and weaknesses compared to competitors?
• How would my performance be measured?

Preparing for final interview questions is critical to standing out as one of the best candidates. Final interviews are a chance to leave a lasting impression that keeps you top of mind until the final decision. 

If you find yourself anxious about an upcoming interview, seek career advice from a professional to help nail down your answers. Conquer your final interviews with confidence with a BetterUp Career Coach .

Understand Yourself Better:

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Chris Helvajian

Chris Helvajian is a talent acquisition leader with more than a decade of experience in talent acquisition. He's passionate about creating scalable solutions to resolve recruiting problems at their root. His golden thread is "connecting people to opportunity." Chris is currently a recruiter at BetterUp and received his MBA at Chapman University.

How to ace situational interview question every time

How to answer “tell me about a time” questions with confidence, 33 questions to ask a hiring manager in an interview, 10 unique and creative interview questions to ask candidates, breathe in, breathe out: 15 tips to prepare for an interview, how to ace your second interview questions, 15 questions to ask at the end of an interview to impress recruiters, 7 collaboration interview questions and how to answer them correctly, 6 tips on how to answer promotion interview questions, 15 teacher interview questions and how to answer them, 110 unique interview questions to ask employers and stand out, why do you want this job - finding your most impactful answer, why are you interested in this position how to answer with examples, 35 behavioral interview questions to ask in your next interview, it’s time to stop asking culture fit questions — think culture add, land a promotion: prepare for these internal interview questions, how to answer 8 phone interview questions to ace your interview, 30 interview questions for managers and how to answer them, stay connected with betterup, get our newsletter, event invites, plus product insights and research..

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Home » Blog » Semi-structured interviews: Everything you need to know

Semi-structured interviews: Everything you need to know

• Ryan Inglethorpe
• August 28, 2024

Semi-structured interviews have become an essential tool across various fields, from recruitment to research, due to their unique blend of structure and flexibility. Unlike rigidly structured interviews that follow a strict set of questions, or unstructured interviews that offer little to no guidance, semi-structured interviews strike a balance. They provide a framework of predetermined open-ended questions while allowing the interviewer the freedom to explore responses in greater depth. 

This method enables interviewers to cover key topics consistently across interviews while also adapting to the flow of conversation, making room for unexpected insights and deeper understanding. The semi-structured format helps foster a more natural dialogue, encouraging interviewees to share more freely and providing richer, more nuanced data. 

Whether you’re conducting job interviews, academic research, or user experience studies, semi-structured interviews offer a versatile approach that can be tailored to suit a wide range of contexts. 

What is a semi-structured interview?

A semi-structured interview is a type of interview technique that combines both open-ended and closed questions, allowing for a balance between consistency across interviews and flexibility to explore certain areas in more depth.

The key characteristics of a semi-structured interview are:

Predetermined questions:

The interviewer has a set list of open-ended questions to ask all candidates. This ensures certain topics and areas are covered consistently.

Follow-up questions:

However, the interviewer also has the flexibility to ask follow-up questions based on the interviewee’s responses to explore interesting points further.

Question order flexibility:

While there is a question guide, the interviewer can change the order of questions depending on how the conversation flows.

Room for open discussion:

Semi-structured interviews allow for open-ended back-and-forth dialogue between the interviewer and interviewee, rather than just straightforward question/answer format.

The benefits of using a semi-structured approach include:

• Consistency in core areas explored with each candidate
• Flexibility to dig deeper into relevant areas for that particular candidate
• More natural conversational flow
• Opportunities to uncover details an interviewer may have missed with fully structured questions

Semi-structured interviews strike a balance by having a degree of predetermined structure and consistency while still allowing for spontaneity and the interview to be tailored to each individual.

This technique is commonly used for job interviews, research interviews, and other situations where the interviewer wants some level of standardised questioning combined with the freedom to further probe based on the responses given.

What are the benefits of semi-structured interviews?

There are several key benefits to conducting semi-structured interviews:

Allows for probing and follow-up questions

One of the biggest advantages of semi-structured interviews is the ability for the interviewer to ask follow-up questions and probe deeper on interesting points raised by the interviewee. This flexibility allows the interviewer to gather richer, more detailed information than what highly structured interviews permit.

Builds rapport

The more conversational nature of semi-structured interviews can help build rapport between the interviewer and interviewee. This often puts the interviewee more at ease compared to rigid, inflexible interviews.

Uncovers motivations and attitudes

The open-ended portions of semi-structured interviews enable interviewers to better understand the motivations, opinions, and attitudes behind an interviewee’s responses through further questioning.

Provides comparable data While allowing for flexibility, the predetermined questions in semi-structured interviews provide a baseline level of data that is comparable across multiple interviews for that same target role or research topic.

Manages interview time effectively By having a foundational interview structure, semi-structured interviews help the interviewer manage time effectively while still allowing for open-ended exploration.

The versatility of combining structure and freedom in semi-structured interviews makes this approach valuable for many types of hiring, research, journalistic, and other interview contexts where maximising information-gathering is important.

How does a semi-structured interview differ from other types of interview?

A semi-structured interview differs from a normal/unstructured interview and a fully structured interview in a few key ways:

Compared to an Unstructured/Normal Interview:

• Semi-structured has predetermined questions to cover core topics, while unstructured has no set questions
• The semi-structured approach provides more consistency across interviews by asking the same baseline questions
• However, it still allows for follow-ups and open-ended responses like an unstructured interview

Compared to a Fully Structured Interview:

• Fully structured interviews rigidly follow a standardised set of closed-ended questions
• Semi-structured has open-ended questions that enable more dialogue and probing
• The interviewer can reorder, skip, or provide transition questions in a semi-structured format
• Responses in fully structured interviews are very restricted, while semi-structured allows for elaboration

So in essence, a semi-structured interview falls in the middle of the continuum between the two other formats:

Unstructured ———> Semi-Structured ———> Fully Structured

It combines the consistency and focus of a structured approach with the depth and flexibility of an unstructured approach.

The key differentiators of semi-structured interviews are:

• Having a guide of predetermined open-ended questions
• Allowing space for unplanned follow-up questions
• More give-and-take dialogue between interviewer and interviewee
• More ability to explore interesting topics relevantly as they arise

This provides the “semi” structured nature – having an overall framework while maintaining conversational flexibility.

When should a semi-structured interview be used?

Semi-structured interviews should be used when you want to combine some level of consistency across interviews while also allowing flexibility to explore topics in more depth. Some ideal use cases for semi-structured interviews include:

Job Interviews

For hiring, semi-structured interviews allow you to cover core job requirements through set questions, but also dig deeper into a candidate’s specific experiences, motivations, and qualifications through unplanned follow-ups. This provides richer data for evaluation.

User Research

When conducting user research, semi-structured interviews enable you to understand users’ needs, pain points, and behaviours through planned questions, while leaving room to spontaneously probe interesting insights that arise.

Subject Matter

Expert Interviews If interviewing subject matter experts, you’ll want a set of questions to cover key areas, but the ability to dynamically discuss emergent topics for deeper knowledge gathering.

Case Studies

Case study interviews benefit from a semi-structured approach, where you cover foundational background through structured questions, but leave flexibility to explore unique details and perspectives from different stakeholders.

Academic/Marketing Research

Much academic, consumer, and marketing research relies on semi-structured interviews to balance consistency in data collected with opportunities to uncover unanticipated findings.

Generally, semi-structured interviews work well anytime you need to understand not just straightforward facts, but the reasoning, attitudes, and contexts surrounding those facts. The open-ended nature facilitates a deeper understanding.

Semi-structured interviews in recruitment

In recruitment semi-structured interviews can be effectively used for a variety of roles, particularly those that require in-depth evaluation of a candidate’s skills, experiences, and fit beyond just verifying basic qualifications. Here are some examples of roles where semi-structured interviews are well-suited:

Management and Leadership Roles

When hiring for managerial or executive positions, semi-structured interviews allow you to assess leadership competencies, management style, problem-solving abilities, and cultural fit through open-ended questioning. The flexibility enables probing the candidate’s approach to real-world scenarios.

Client-Facing Roles

For roles that involve significant client interaction like sales, account management, or consulting roles, semi-structured interviews help evaluate client service skills, communication abilities, and understanding of client needs through open dialogue.

Creative Roles

Semi-structured interviews are great for assessing creative professionals or innovation roles where you want to understand the candidate’s creative process, idea generation abilities, and innovative thinking beyond just reviewing portfolios.

Technical Roles

While technical skills may be vetted through other means, semi-structured interviews allow you to dive deeper into a candidate’s technical problem-solving approach, ability to communicate complex concepts, and collaboration style.

Senior Individual Contributor Roles

For senior individual contributor roles with high expertise requirements, the open-ended nature enables thoroughly assessing depth of knowledge and specialised experience through exploratory questions.

Cultural Fit Evaluation

Any role where assessing organisational culture fit is critical can benefit from the two-way dialogue and follow-up questioning that semi-structured interviews facilitate.

In general, semi-structured interviews are most valuable for roles that require evaluating more complex competencies, behaviours, thought processes and fit beyond just straightforward skills and experience. The flexible format provides richer data to make well-rounded hiring decisions.

The bottom line

In conclusion, semi-structured interviews offer a powerful method for gathering comprehensive and nuanced information, making them indispensable in various settings, from hiring to research. Their unique combination of predetermined questions and conversational flexibility allows interviewers to maintain consistency across multiple interviews while also delving deeper into areas of particular interest. This approach not only ensures that key topics are covered but also opens the door to discovering unexpected insights that might otherwise go unnoticed in more rigidly structured formats.

The ability to adapt questions based on an interviewee’s responses fosters a more engaging and dynamic dialogue, building rapport and encouraging more candid and detailed answers. This makes semi-structured interviews especially valuable when exploring complex issues, understanding motivations, or evaluating candidates for roles that require more than just a checklist of qualifications. By balancing structure with spontaneity, semi-structured interviews provide a richer, more holistic view of the subject matter, enabling more informed decision-making.

Whether you’re a recruiter seeking the right fit for a role or a researcher aiming to uncover deeper truths, the semi-structured interview offers a versatile and effective tool for extracting meaningful insights, making it a preferred choice in many professional and academic fields.

If you regularly run interviews with candidates then why not check out our How to Interview someone guide.

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Key Questions to Ask When Interviewing Someone

• August 26, 2024

Home » Recruitment Blog » Key Questions to Ask When Interviewing Someone

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Finding the right candidate for a job is essential to building a successful team. Asking the right questions during an interview can help you assess a candidate’s skills, experience, and cultural fit for your organization. Here, we provide a comprehensive guide to key questions to ask when interviewing someone, ensuring you find the best fit for your team.

1. Can you tell me about yourself and your professional background?

This open-ended question helps you understand the candidate’s career trajectory and personal motivations. It provides insight into their qualifications and experiences that are most relevant to the position you are hiring for.

2. Why are you interested in this position?

Understanding the candidate’s interest in the role can give you an idea of their career goals and how they align with the company’s mission and values. This question helps assess whether the candidate has done their homework about your organization and its culture.

3. Can you describe a challenging situation you’ve faced in a previous job and how you handled it?

This question evaluates the candidate’s problem-solving and critical thinking abilities. It reveals how they approach and resolve conflicts or difficult situations, which is crucial for any role.

4. How do you prioritize your work when you have multiple deadlines to meet?

Time management and organizational skills are essential for most jobs. This question assesses how the candidate manages their workload and stays productive under pressure. Look for answers that demonstrate effective planning and prioritization.

5. Can you give an example of a project you successfully completed and the steps you took to achieve it?

This question provides insight into the candidate’s project management and execution skills. It highlights their ability to set goals, create plans, and follow through to completion, showcasing their initiative and reliability.

6. How do you stay updated with industry trends and advancements?

Keeping up with industry developments is crucial for continuous growth and relevance. This question evaluates the candidate’s commitment to professional development and their proactive approach to learning and adapting to new trends and technologies.

7. What are your strengths and areas for improvement?

Self-awareness is a valuable trait in any employee. This question helps you gauge the candidate’s ability to reflect on their skills and identify areas for growth. It also shows their level of honesty and willingness to improve.

8. How do you handle feedback and criticism?

Receiving and responding to feedback is essential for personal and professional growth. This question assesses the candidate’s openness to feedback and their ability to use it constructively to improve their performance.

9. Do you have any questions for us?

A candidate’s questions can reveal a lot about their priorities and interest in the role. It also provides an opportunity to address any concerns they may have and clarify aspects of the job or company culture.

Asking the right questions during an interview is critical to finding the best candidate for your team. By incorporating these key questions into your interview process, you can gain valuable insights into a candidate’s skills, experiences, and fit for your organization. Good luck in your search for the perfect addition to your team.

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Good questions to ask in an interview: a candidate guide

Saffron Wildbore

~ 3min read

Questions about the role

Questions about the team, questions about growth and development opportunities, questions about the culture and the company, questions about evaluation.

Going into a job interview can be a nerve-wracking experience, but remember it is an opportunity for you to assess if the opportunity and organisation is a right fit for you.

One of the best ways to make a good impression and understand if it’s a good match is to ask insightful questions. Asking questions is your way of showing that you are prepared and interested in the role.

It goes without saying that you don’t need to ask all of these questions in the job interview. Instead, decide which are important to you and come up with a list of questions to ask the hiring manager. There are two rules when thinking of questions:

Make sure they are research based or specific to the opportunity & company.

Care about the answer.

Read below for some good questions to ask an interviewer as an interviewee.

Can you describe the day to day responsibilities of this role? Understanding the daily tasks will give you a clearer picture of what a typical day will look like.

What are the most immediate projects that need to be focused on? This question shows that you’re eager to jump right into the role and be productive from day one.

• What are your expectations for this role 3/6/12 months in? This will show you the priorities of the company and your role should you be successful and choose to take the opportunity.

Can you tell me about the team that I’d be working with? Knowing who you’d be working with helps you to understand the dynamics and whether you will mesh with them.

Who would I be directly reporting to? Understanding the team hierarchy will ensure you know who you will be collaborating with closely on a day to day basis.

How are projects/tasks distributed within the team? Understanding distribution will provide a good insight into team and company dynamics.

Interested in learning more about work-life balance? Read our blog on achieving work-life balance in the tech industry .

What opportunities are there for professional development? Showing interest in growth opportunities shows that you’re looking to build a long-term career with the company.

How does the company support employees in achieving their career goals? Understanding the company’s commitment to your career progression can help you to decide if it’s the right place for you.

• Can you provide examples of career paths that began in this role? This can illustrate potential career trajectories and success stories within the company, giving you an idea of your future prospects.

Can you describe the company culture? Understanding the culture helps you find out if you’ll be happy and productive in the work environment. For more tips on finding out which company culture is right for you, discover our blog post .

What do you enjoy most about working there? Hearing a personal perspective on the company’s strength can be helpful.

• What are the core values of the company and how do they influence the workplace? Ensuring that the company’s values align with your own can be a significant factor in job satisfaction and overall fit.

How often are performance reviews conducted? Regular feedback is essential for your growth and knowing the review process can help you understand how your performance will be evaluated.

What are the key metrics for success in this role? This helps you understand what is expected of you and how you can excel in the position.

Asking thoughtful questions not only shows your interest and enthusiasm about the role and company, but it equips you with valuable information to make an informed decision.

Remember: an interview is a two-way street! It’s just as much about you finding the right fit as it is the employer finding the right candidate.

Looking to kickstart your career in tech, business or banking? Discover our current roles today.

Saffron Wildbore is a Senior Marketing Executive at mthree. She has worked in marketing, specialising in creating content for over 4 years. Saffron focuses on writing tips for graduates, Alumni interviews and more!

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20 Most Common Research Analyst Interview Questions and Answers

Common Research Analyst interview questions, how to answer them, and sample answers from a certified career coach.

Have you been called in for an interview as a research analyst? Congratulations! Research analysts are highly sought-after professionals who can use their skills to make data-driven decisions, find insights, and create solutions.

But before you can get the job, you’ll have to pass the interview. To help you prepare, we’ve rounded up some of the most common research analyst interview questions—with tips on how to answer them so that you can land your dream role.

• What experience do you have with data analysis and interpretation?
• Describe a research project that you have completed from start to finish.
• How do you ensure the accuracy of your research findings?
• Explain how you would go about designing an experiment or survey to answer a specific research question.
• Are you familiar with any statistical software programs?
• What strategies do you use to stay organized when managing multiple research projects at once?
• How do you handle conflicting opinions between team members during the research process?
• What methods do you use to identify potential sources of bias in your research?
• Describe a time when you had to present complex research results to a non-technical audience.
• How do you approach researching topics that are unfamiliar to you?
• What techniques do you use to analyze large datasets?
• Do you have experience working with qualitative data such as interviews or focus groups?
• How do you determine which research method is most appropriate for a given situation?
• What challenges have you faced while conducting research, and how did you overcome them?
• How do you keep up with the latest developments in your field?
• What strategies do you use to ensure the validity of your research results?
• How do you prioritize tasks when there are competing deadlines?
• Have you ever encountered ethical issues while conducting research? If so, how did you address them?
• What steps do you take to protect confidential information collected during the research process?
• Describe a time when you had to adjust your research methodology due to unexpected circumstances.

1. What experience do you have with data analysis and interpretation?

Research analysts must be comfortable with interpreting data and making inferences from the results. They must be able to create meaningful reports from their findings, and they must have the skills to analyze and explain the data they have gathered. Interviewers want to know that you have the skills to do all of these things and that you have a solid understanding of data analysis and interpretation.

How to Answer:

To answer this question, you should explain your experience with data analysis and interpretation. Talk about any courses or training programs you have completed related to data analysis and interpretation. You should also mention any projects that you have worked on where you had to analyze and interpret data. Finally, you should discuss any software or tools you have used for data analysis and interpretation. Be sure to emphasize the skills that make you a great fit for the role.

Example: “I have several years of experience in data analysis and interpretation. I have taken courses related to data science, statistics, and analytics. I also have completed multiple projects where I had to analyze and interpret data. I am comfortable working with a variety of software and tools such as Excel, Tableau, and SPSS for data analysis and visualization. My background has given me the skills to quickly understand complex datasets and draw meaningful insights from them.”

2. Describe a research project that you have completed from start to finish.

Research analysts typically conduct and oversee research projects from beginning to end. This question is asked to determine how well you understand and can apply the research process. It also allows the interviewer to gauge your project management skills and ability to work with a team. The interviewer wants to know that you can plan the project, source and analyze data, and present findings in a clear and concise manner.

Describe your experience with data analysis and interpretation. Explain the methods you used to gather, analyze, and interpret data for previous projects. Be sure to mention any software programs or tools that you have experience working with. If you don’t have a lot of experience in this area, talk about how you would approach a project and what steps you would take to ensure accuracy.

Example: “I recently completed a research project for my current employer, XYZ Corporation. The goal of the project was to analyze customer feedback survey data and identify areas where we could improve our products and services. I started by creating an Excel spreadsheet with all the relevant data points and then used statistical analysis software to create graphs and charts that visually represented the results. After interpreting the data, I wrote up a comprehensive report outlining my findings and recommendations. Finally, I presented my findings to the executive team and discussed potential next steps. Throughout the process, I worked closely with other members of the research team to ensure accuracy and consistency in our approach.”

3. How do you ensure the accuracy of your research findings?

Research analysts need to be able to trust their findings and present them with confidence. This question allows the interviewer to get an understanding of your research methods, and whether you take the necessary steps to ensure the accuracy of your results. It also allows you to showcase your attention to detail and your commitment to accuracy, which is essential for a successful analyst.

To answer this question, you should walk the interviewer through your research process. Explain how you gather data and sources, what methods of analysis you use, and any other steps you take to ensure accuracy. You should also highlight any tools or techniques you use to double-check your results. If you have ever presented findings that were later proven wrong, explain what you learned from that experience and how it has helped you improve your research processes.

Example: “I always strive to ensure the accuracy of my research findings. To do this, I use a variety of methods and tools. First, I make sure that I am using reliable sources for my data. Whenever possible, I consult primary sources such as reports from government agencies or interviews with experts in the field. I also double-check my results by running them through statistical analysis software and other tools to ensure their accuracy. If necessary, I will also contact external sources to confirm my findings. Finally, before presenting any findings I have reviewed them multiple times to make sure they are accurate.”

4. Explain how you would go about designing an experiment or survey to answer a specific research question.

This question is designed to assess your knowledge and experience in designing and executing research studies. Interviewers will want to know that you understand the process of designing a research project, from formulating the research question to determining the best method of data collection. They will also want to know that you have the skills to evaluate the data you have collected and draw meaningful conclusions.

To answer this question, you should provide a step-by-step explanation of the process you would take to design an experiment or survey. Start by explaining how you would develop the research question and determine what data needs to be collected. Then explain how you would decide on the best method for collecting that data – such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, experiments, etc. Finally, discuss how you would analyze the data and draw meaningful conclusions from it. Be sure to emphasize any experience you have with designing and executing research studies in your answer.

Example: “When designing a research study, the first step is to develop a clear and focused research question. Once that’s established, I would then determine what type of data needs to be collected in order to answer that question. Depending on the nature of the research, I may utilize surveys, interviews, focus groups, or experiments. After collecting the data, I would analyze it using statistical methods such as regression analysis or cluster analysis. Finally, I would draw meaningful conclusions from the data and present my findings in an organized and understandable manner.”

5. Are you familiar with any statistical software programs?

Research analysts are expected to have a working knowledge of the software they use to conduct and analyze their work. This question is designed to get a sense of how comfortable you are with different software and how quickly you can learn new programs. It also provides an opportunity for you to demonstrate any specific software proficiency you might have related to the job.

The best way to answer this question is to list the software programs you are familiar with and explain how you have used them in your research. Be sure to mention any specialized or industry-specific software that you may have experience with, as well as any certifications or training you might have received related to specific software. Finally, be prepared to discuss any challenges you’ve faced while using these programs and how you overcame them.

Example: “I’m familiar with a range of statistical software programs, including SPSS, STATA, SAS, and R. I have experience using these programs to perform data analysis for my research projects, such as running regressions, conducting t-tests, creating visualizations, and summarizing results. I am also certified in the use of SPSS, which has been particularly helpful when working with large datasets. In addition, I recently completed a course on Python programming specifically related to data science, so I’m comfortable using that language to manipulate data.”

6. What strategies do you use to stay organized when managing multiple research projects at once?

Research analysts are expected to juggle a variety of tasks and research projects at once. It’s important to show that you have a system in place to keep track of your progress and stay organized, especially when you’re working on several projects at once. This question will also show the interviewer that you understand the importance of time management and can be trusted to stay on task and meet deadlines.

To answer this question, you should explain any strategies or tools that you use to stay organized. This could include using task management software such as Asana or Trello, creating a timeline for each project, setting reminders in your calendar, or breaking down tasks into smaller, more manageable chunks. You can also mention how you prioritize tasks and projects based on their importance or urgency. Finally, don’t forget to mention how you communicate with team members and stakeholders throughout the process to ensure everyone is up-to-date on progress.

Example: “I use a combination of organizational tools, such as Asana and Trello, to stay on top of multiple research projects at once. I also break down tasks into smaller chunks and create timelines for each project so that I can track progress throughout the process. I prioritize tasks based on their importance or urgency and make sure to communicate with team members regularly to ensure everyone is up-to-date on progress. Additionally, I set reminders in my calendar to keep myself accountable and motivated.”

7. How do you handle conflicting opinions between team members during the research process?

Research analysts often need to work as part of a team, and as such, it’s important for them to understand how to handle disagreements that arise. This question allows the interviewer to get a better sense of how you handle difficult conversations and situations, as well as how you prioritize the project’s goals. It’s also a good opportunity for you to demonstrate how you balance the needs of the team with the outcomes of the research.

To answer this question, you should focus on your ability to listen and respond to different perspectives. You can talk about how you like to hear out all sides of the argument before making a decision, or how you try to create an environment where everyone feels comfortable voicing their opinion without fear of judgement or criticism. Additionally, you could mention how you prioritize the project’s goals and objectives when resolving conflicts, and how you strive to make sure that everyone is on the same page so that the research process runs smoothly.

Example: “When I’m faced with conflicting opinions between team members during the research process, my first step is to listen carefully and try to understand both sides. From there, I like to ask questions to get more context about why each person might be feeling that way, so that I can better assess which opinion is best for the project. Then, I’ll explain my decision-making process in detail and make sure everyone understands why we chose a certain direction. At the same time, I also keep an eye on our project goals and objectives, so that any disagreements don’t lead us off track. That way, we can move forward with the research as quickly and efficiently as possible.”

8. What methods do you use to identify potential sources of bias in your research?

Good research relies on accurate and unbiased data, and a research analyst must be able to identify potential sources of bias and take steps to minimize or eliminate them. This question allows the interviewer to get a sense of the applicant’s understanding of the research process and the techniques they use to ensure accuracy.

Start by explaining the importance of accurate data in research and how bias can lead to inaccurate results. Then, discuss the methods you use to identify potential sources of bias in your research. Common techniques include triangulation (using multiple sources of data), conducting a sensitivity analysis (testing different assumptions about the data), and using an independent review process. Finally, explain how you take steps to minimize or eliminate any identified biases. This could involve changes to the design of the study, additional data collection, or other measures.

Example: “I understand that accurate research relies on accurate and unbiased data, so I always take steps to identify potential sources of bias in my research. To do this, I use a combination of techniques, including triangulation, conducting a sensitivity analysis, and using an independent review process. If I identify any potential sources of bias, I make sure to take steps to minimize or eliminate them. This could involve changes to the design of the study, additional data collection, or other measures. This ensures that the research I conduct is reliable and accurate.”

9. Describe a time when you had to present complex research results to a non-technical audience.

Research analysts often need to deliver complex data in an understandable format to people who are not experts in the field. This question allows the interviewer to assess your ability to translate complex research into plain language and present it in a way that is easily understood by a wide audience. It also gives the interviewer an insight into how you handle pressure and difficult situations.

Your answer should focus on how you were able to take complex research and make it accessible for a non-technical audience. Talk about the steps you took to simplify the information and what strategies you used to ensure that your message was clear and concise. If possible, provide an example of a project where you successfully presented complex data to a non-technical audience. Be sure to emphasize any positive feedback or results that came out of this presentation.

Example: “In my current role as a research analyst, I’m often tasked with presenting complex research results to non-technical audiences. One example was a project where I had to present a detailed analysis of consumer spending habits in a particular region. To make sure that the presentation was accessible to everyone, I broke the data down into smaller chunks and used visuals such as graphs and charts to illustrate my points. I also made sure to explain the key findings in simple language and use analogies to make the information easier to understand. The presentation was a success and the audience was able to gain a good understanding of the data.”

10. How do you approach researching topics that are unfamiliar to you?

Research analysts are expected to be able to independently investigate topics that are new to them. Interviewers want to make sure that you have the skills and knowledge necessary to do this effectively. They may also be curious to know how you approach the process of researching unfamiliar topics, such as how you find and organize relevant information, how you assess the accuracy and reliability of sources, etc.

This question is designed to assess your research skills, as well as how you approach unfamiliar topics. You should answer this by talking about the steps you take when researching a new topic. This could include breaking down the problem or task into manageable pieces, using online resources and databases, consulting with experts in the field, or leveraging other sources of information such as books or journals. Additionally, emphasize any strategies you use to stay organized while researching so that you can effectively synthesize the data and draw meaningful conclusions from it.

Example: “When researching topics that are unfamiliar to me, I like to start by breaking the task down into smaller components. This helps me understand the overall problem and determine which areas I need to focus on. Then, I use a combination of online resources, such as databases and websites, and traditional sources, such as books and journals, to gather relevant information. I also consult with experts in the field to better understand the topic and ensure that the data I’m collecting is accurate and reliable. Finally, I use an organized system to store and track my notes and research findings so that I can easily access them when I need to.”

11. What techniques do you use to analyze large datasets?

Research analysts often have to analyze large datasets to uncover patterns and trends that could be used to inform decisions and inform the direction of their research. Interviewers want to know that you have the technical skills to be able to do this effectively, as well as the ability to communicate your results in a meaningful way.

Start by talking about the techniques you’ve used in the past to analyze large datasets. These could include things like data mining, regression analysis, and forecasting models. You should also mention any software programs or tools that you have experience using to help with your analysis. Finally, be sure to explain how you communicate your findings to decision-makers and other stakeholders. This could involve presenting your results in a visual format such as graphs or charts, writing up reports, or giving presentations.

Example: “I have experience using a variety of techniques to analyze large datasets. I’m familiar with data mining, regression analysis, and forecasting models, and I’ve used software programs like SPSS, SAS, and R to help with my analysis. I also have experience creating visual representations of my findings, such as graphs and charts, to help decision-makers and other stakeholders understand the results. I’m also comfortable writing up reports and giving presentations to explain my findings in more detail.”

12. Do you have experience working with qualitative data such as interviews or focus groups?

Research analysts often need to be able to extract meaningful information from both quantitative and qualitative data. This question allows the interviewer to understand how familiar you are with different types of data, and if you have the skills required to analyze both. It also gives you a chance to demonstrate your knowledge of different research methods and how you can use them to draw meaningful conclusions.

Be sure to discuss any experience you have with qualitative data such as interviews, focus groups, surveys, or other methods. You should be able to explain the process of collecting and analyzing this type of data, and how you can use it to draw meaningful conclusions. Additionally, talk about any software programs or techniques you are familiar with that help with organizing and analyzing qualitative data.

Example: “Yes, I have extensive experience working with qualitative data. I have experience conducting interviews and focus groups, and I have a strong understanding of the different research methods used to collect this type of data. I’m also familiar with software programs such as NVivo, which I have used to organize and analyze qualitative data. I have experience creating detailed reports based on qualitative data and am confident in my ability to draw meaningful conclusions from it.”

13. How do you determine which research method is most appropriate for a given situation?

Research analysts must be able to select the right approach for a given research project. This question is designed to determine if you have a system for evaluating different research methods and selecting the one that is best suited for the job. It also allows recruiters to gauge your level of experience with a variety of research methods, as well as your ability to adapt to new methods when necessary.

The best way to answer this question is to provide a step-by-step explanation of your process for selecting the right research method. Explain that you start by assessing the project’s objectives, timeline, and budget, then evaluate different methods based on those criteria. You should also mention any experience you have in using various research methods, as well as your willingness to learn new approaches when needed.

Example: “When determining which research method is most appropriate for a given situation, I start by assessing the project objectives, timeline, and budget. Then, I evaluate different research methods based on those criteria. For example, if I’m working on a project with a tight timeline, I may opt for a qualitative approach such as a focus group or survey. On the other hand, if I have more time, I may choose a quantitative approach like regression analysis. I also have experience in using a variety of research methods and am always willing to learn new techniques when needed.”

14. What challenges have you faced while conducting research, and how did you overcome them?

Research analysts are expected to be able to generate meaningful insights from data, but that’s not always easy. Whether it’s gathering the right data, finding a way to make sense of it, or even simply having the resources to do the work, research analysts can face all sorts of challenges. This question is a chance for you to demonstrate that you’re not one to give up when the going gets tough.

Talk about a specific challenge you faced and how you overcame it. It should be something that showcases your resourcefulness, problem-solving skills, and creativity. For example, maybe you had to find a way to collect data without the resources of a full research team. Or perhaps you needed to make sense of complex data sets but didn’t have access to sophisticated software or tools. Whatever the case, explain what you did to solve the problem and the results you achieved.

Example: “In my previous role as a research analyst, I was tasked with creating a report on a specific industry. The challenge was that I had limited access to data, and the data I did have wasn’t organized in a way that made it easy to analyze. I was able to find a way to organize the data by creating a custom spreadsheet and sorting the data into categories. I then used the spreadsheet to generate more meaningful insights, and ultimately, I was able to present a comprehensive report on the industry.”

15. How do you keep up with the latest developments in your field?

Research analysts need to stay up-to-date on the latest research and data to ensure their work is accurate and relevant. They need to be able to identify trends and make accurate predictions. By asking this question, the interviewer wants to get an idea of how you stay on top of the latest developments and how you use that knowledge to inform your work.

You can answer this question by talking about the specific methods you use to stay informed. For example, do you read industry publications or attend conferences? Do you connect with other professionals in your field on social media? Do you have a network of colleagues who keep you up-to-date on the latest research and trends? You should also mention any additional steps you take to ensure you are well-informed, such as taking online courses or attending webinars.

Example: “I make it a priority to stay up-to-date on the latest developments in my field. I read industry publications, attend conferences, and regularly connect with other professionals in my field on social media. I also take advantage of online courses and webinars to stay abreast of emerging trends and to ensure that I am well-informed. Additionally, I have a network of colleagues who I can rely on for the latest information and insights. I use this information to inform my research and to ensure that the data I’m working with is accurate and relevant.”

16. What strategies do you use to ensure the validity of your research results?

Research analysts are hired to provide reliable and accurate data that can help inform decision-making processes. To do this, they need to be able to conduct research that is methodologically sound and produces reliable results. The interviewer wants to make sure you understand the importance of validity and reliability in research and know how to conduct research that will produce valid results.

To answer this question, you should explain the strategies you use to ensure the validity of your research results. Some common strategies include using multiple sources of data, triangulation (using multiple methods to collect data), and conducting pilot studies to test the methodology before collecting full-scale data. You should also discuss any specific techniques or tools you have used in the past to ensure the reliability of your results.

Example: “I understand how important it is to ensure the validity and reliability of my research results. To do this, I use a variety of strategies. I always use multiple sources of data when possible, such as surveys, interviews, and secondary sources. I also use triangulation, which involves using multiple methods to collect data. In addition, I always conduct pilot studies before collecting full-scale data to test the methodology and make sure it produces reliable results. I also make use of specific tools such as reliability metrics and statistical tests to ensure the accuracy of my results.”

17. How do you prioritize tasks when there are competing deadlines?

Research analysts often juggle multiple projects at once, and it’s important to be able to prioritize tasks in order to meet deadlines. This question is meant to gauge your problem solving skills and your ability to stay organized in a fast-paced environment. It’s also a good way to assess your ability to think on your feet and switch back and forth between tasks quickly.

Talk about your experience with prioritizing tasks in the past. If you have a specific example of how you juggled multiple projects at once, this is a great place to talk about it. You can also mention any strategies you use to prioritize tasks and stay organized, such as using checklists or setting daily goals. Finally, be sure to emphasize that you understand the importance of meeting deadlines and will always strive to complete tasks on time.

Example: “When I’m faced with competing deadlines, I prioritize tasks based on urgency and importance. I use a checklist to ensure that I’m not forgetting any important tasks, and I set daily goals for myself to make sure I’m staying on track. I also make sure to communicate with my team to ensure everyone is up-to-date on deadlines and expectations. In the past, I’ve successfully juggled multiple projects at once while meeting all deadlines. I understand the importance of meeting deadlines, and I’m confident that I can handle the pressure of competing deadlines in this role.”

18. Have you ever encountered ethical issues while conducting research? If so, how did you address them?

Research analysts are expected to abide by ethical standards when conducting research. This question is designed to test how well you understand those standards and how you might go about addressing any ethical issues that may arise. It’s also a way of gauging how well you can think on your feet and how you handle situations that require sound judgment.

If you have encountered ethical issues in the past, explain how you addressed them. Talk about any steps you took to ensure that the research was conducted ethically and responsibly. If you haven’t had such an experience, talk about what you would do if presented with a similar situation. Mention any ethical guidelines or protocols you’re familiar with and how you would use them to address the issue.

Example: “I understand the importance of conducting research ethically and the potential consequences of not doing so. In the past, I’ve encountered situations where the research I was conducting posed potential ethical issues. In response, I took steps to ensure that the research was conducted in accordance with the necessary ethical guidelines. This included thoroughly reviewing the data collection methods, double-checking any potential conflicts of interest, and actively engaging with stakeholders to ensure that everyone was aware of the potential ethical implications. If presented with a similar situation in the future, I would take the same approach and ensure that the research is conducted responsibly and ethically.”

19. What steps do you take to protect confidential information collected during the research process?

Research analysts are responsible for gathering and analyzing data that is often confidential or sensitive. It’s important for potential employers to know that you understand and take the necessary steps to ensure that the data is kept secure. Your answer to this question will show that you understand the importance of protecting confidential information and that you have the skills to do so.

To answer this question, you should first explain the steps you take to protect confidential information. This could include things like encrypting data, using secure servers and networks, or setting up access controls. You may also want to mention any specific protocols or procedures that your previous employers had in place for protecting sensitive data. Finally, emphasize your commitment to following industry regulations and standards when it comes to data protection.

Example: “When collecting and analyzing confidential information, I always make sure to follow the industry’s best practices and regulations. I ensure that all data is encrypted and stored on secure servers and networks, and I set up access controls to limit who can access the data. In my previous research analyst role, I was responsible for setting up protocols for collecting and storing confidential information, and I always made sure that these protocols were followed. I understand the importance of protecting confidential information and I take the necessary steps to ensure that it is kept secure.”

20. Describe a time when you had to adjust your research methodology due to unexpected circumstances.

Research analysts are expected to have a certain level of adaptability to changing conditions. Unexpected circumstances can throw a wrench in any research project, and a good analyst will be able to adjust their methodology to accommodate the changes and still produce quality results. Showing that you can think on your feet and adjust your approach to the situation is an important skill for any analyst.

Think of a specific example from your past experience where you had to adjust your research methodology due to unexpected circumstances. Explain the situation and how you adjusted your approach in order to still produce quality results. Be sure to emphasize the importance of being able to think on your feet and adjust when needed, as well as any positive outcomes that resulted from your changes.

Example: “When I was working as a research analyst for XYZ Corporation, I was assigned to a project that required me to analyze customer data from a variety of sources. During the project, I encountered unexpected delays in the data being provided, which caused me to have to adjust my research methodology in order to still meet the deadline. I was able to adjust my approach by utilizing a different set of data sources, which allowed me to still complete the project on time. This experience taught me the importance of being able to think on my feet and adjust my research methodology when needed in order to still produce quality results.”

20 Marketing Project Manager Interview Questions and Answers

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Discourses of Distrust: How Lack of Trust in the U.S. Health-Care System Shaped COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy

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This article explores the relationships between the American health-care system, trust in institutions, and decision-making processes that have affected COVID-19 vaccine uptake. Findings are based on an analysis of a nationally representative sample of 137 individuals who participated in semi-structured qualitative interviews during the rollout of the first publicly available vaccine in the first quarter of 2021. The vast majority of respondents reported negative experiences with American health care that predated the pandemic, which generated distrust in medical institutions, including hospitals, private health insurance corporations, the pharmaceutical industry, and related government institutions. The article considers the impact of institutional distrust on attitudes about vaccine uptake. Responses fell along a spectrum from vaccine refusal to vaccine acceptance. Sentiment across categories revealed a high degree of hesitancy framed in terms of institutional distrust. The data reveal a complex landscape of beliefs and perceptions, illustrating widespread hesitancy and ambivalence among participants.

• vaccine hesitancy
• public health
• health care
• health insurance
• institutions
• medical-industrial complex

The COVID-19 pandemic raises serious questions about how a health-care system that has historically left many uninsured and underinsured can manage a public health crisis. Interviews with participants in the American Voices Project (AVP), a nationally representative qualitative interview survey of Americans, revealed persistently high barriers to accessing high-quality affordable health care in the United States. Such barriers have engendered a sense of distrust in the U.S. health-care system and its associated institutions, including hospitals, private health insurance corporations, the pharmaceutical industry, and government institutions charged with regulating and delivering care. COVID-19 vaccination efforts in the United States and the responses to those efforts have demonstrated the lethal consequences of institutional distrust at a time when individuals are explicitly asked to place their confidence in public health guidance and medical interventions.

Even though much has been written about the formidable barriers to high-quality affordable health care in the United States, less is known about the relationship between these barriers and the decision-making processes surrounding COVID-19 vaccine uptake. Data from our sample reveal a long history of negative experiences with the American health-care system that predate the onset of the pandemic and are strongly correlated with institutional distrust and widespread skepticism of the COVID-19 vaccine. Such a correlation helps explain the high degree of hesitancy in our data, including among participants who stated that they would likely receive the vaccine. Further, our data show that pre-existing distrust in a wide range of health-care institutions was nearly universal and therefore pervasive across race, gender, class, and political affiliation. Thus, rather than lending evidence to a polarizing discourse that hinges on a pro- and anti-vax binary, the data reveal a complex landscape of beliefs and perceptions, illustrating widespread hesitancy and ambivalence among participants across various dispositions.

This article draws a through line between distrust in American institutions and COVID-19 vaccination beliefs and intentions. We present and discuss our findings in two phases. First, we explore participant interactions with the American health-care system, highlighting the sources and contours of distrust in the medical-industrial complex. The data indicate that negative experiences with American health-care institutions were well entrenched before the pandemic. Thus, we purposefully use the term distrust rather than mistrust because the former indicates a settled belief rather than generalized doubt (Jennings et al. 2021 ). Second, having mapped the pervasive sense of distrust in the very institutions that play the most critical roles in vaccine development and delivery, we then discuss our participants’ decision-making processes as they weighed the risks and benefits of vaccination. In their interviews, each of the 137 participants in our sample described their feelings about the newly developed COVID-19 vaccine as well as their intentions regarding vaccination. Combining attitudinal and behavioral data led us to develop a vaccine disposition typology onto which each participant was mapped (see table 1 ). This typology ranges from pro- to anti-COVID-19 vaccine uptake dispositions and features several degrees of hesitancy between the two extremes.

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Vaccination Typology with Definitions and Examples

To operationalize vaccine hesitancy for our typology we borrowed from the work of Bipin Adhikari, Phaik Yeong Cheah, and Lorenz von Seidlein ( 2022 , 2), who define vaccine hesitancy as “a state of uncertainty in decision-making due to doubts about the benefits of vaccines, their safety and necessity; and is a transient stage where a candidate may weigh the risks versus benefits of more emotional aspects associated with vaccinations.” Unlike other descriptions that portray hesitancy in static terms, this definition captures the processual and transient nature of vaccine decision-making that we observed in participants as they described negotiating a barrage of institutional messaging while feeling heightened social pressure.

By considering respondent attitudes in the context of vaccine intentions, we were able to conduct a nuanced appraisal of decision-making that captured widespread ambivalence that might have otherwise been obscured. In categorizing participants into our vaccination disposition typology, we also tracked the reasons participants gave for their hesitancy. The most frequently cited reasons included a nonspecific general lack of trust, feeling that the development of the vaccine was rushed, concern over unforeseen side effects, too little information about the vaccine, and lack of concern about contracting COVID-19. With the exception of being unconcerned about contracting COVID-19, all reflect matters of institutional trust. Further, because many participants discussed multiple reasons, even those who claimed they were not concerned about contracting the virus also cited trust-related reasons (such as “I don’t really trust the vaccine and because I don’t think I’ll get COVID anyway it’s not worth the risk”). Thus, we find that institutional trust is salient to understanding COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy.

• LITERATURE REVIEW

Our analysis builds on research on trust and vaccines that has explored the dynamics that might have influenced respondents’ dispositions during the rollout of the first publicly available COVID-19 vaccine. Trust in individuals and institutions is central to the vaccine decision-making processes. Trust as a social phenomenon can be conceptualized as “a relationship that exists between individuals, as well as between individuals and a system, in which one party accepts a vulnerable position, assuming the best interests and competence of the other, in exchange for a reduction in decision complexity” (Verger and Dubé 2020 , 991). This definition demonstrates that trust can be both interpersonal and institutional and typically involves a level of risk which must be negotiated by a trusting party. Interpersonal trust is said to exist between individuals when one or more parties becomes vulnerable by placing their faith in another in order to gain a possible advantage (Spadaro et al. 2020 ). For our purposes, we might consider a layperson who does not have the medical training needed to empirically evaluate the risks and benefits of a particular vaccine. By placing their trust in a medical professional’s endorsement of a vaccine, a layperson benefits from reduced decision complexity but also risks falling victim to bad medical advice.

Institutional trust, defined as “the extent to which individuals accept and perceive institutions as benevolent, competent, reliable and responsible toward citizens,” offers similar risks and rewards (Spadaro et al. 2020 , 3). The American health-care system, in its capacity to provide lifesaving care, is a powerful locus where one might develop institutional trust. Yet such institutions may also deny or create barriers to access to care, provide care at an exorbitant cost to patients, or provide substandard care, all of which may undermine institutional trust. Therefore, determining the extent to which health-care institutions can be trusted as “benevolent, competent, reliable and responsible” may be fraught as individuals weigh the benefits and risks of their vulnerability to institutional power.

Despite the distinctions between the two forms, institutional trust is frequently enmeshed with interpersonal trust. Because institutions are ultimately composed of individuals, institutional trust is necessarily structured by the trustworthiness of individual actors (Blendon 2006 ). For example, Robert Blendon and John Benson ( 2022 ) cite a study indicating that the United States, when compared with peer nations, ranked near the bottom in trust in health-care institutions, with only 14 percent of Americans surveyed reporting that they trusted hospitals completely. Yet, in the same study, 84 percent of Americans reported that they trust their individual doctors completely. Here, high levels of interpersonal trust are constrained by what is ultimately an institutional project, illustrating the complex dynamics of trust as a multifaceted sociological phenomenon.

We also emphasize a temporal dimension of both interpersonal and institutional trust. In explicating trust within the interpersonal, dyadic context, Dmitry Khodyakov ( 2007 , 126) writes that “the decision to trust another person is made in the present and is affected by the partner’s reputation, which represents the past, and by the expectation of possible tangible and/or non-material rewards, which represents the future.” Thus we expand our definition of trust to conceptualize it as a process of “constant imaginative anticipation of the reliability of the other party’s actions” based on “the reputation of the partner and the actor, … the evaluation of current circumstances of action, … assumptions about the partner’s actions, and … the belief in the honesty and morality of the other side” (Khodyakov 2007 , 126). Such a conceptualization suggests that past experiences are instrumental in undermining or bolstering trust in both interpersonal and institutional contexts.

Similarly, Khodyakov ( 2007 ) distinguishes “thick” and “thin” as two variations of interpersonal trust. Thick interpersonal trust is defined as “the first type of trust people develop in their lives,” which is necessary for both “developing an optimistic attitude towards others” and making social interactions possible (120). By contrast, thin interpersonal trust involves “trusting members of out-groups” and is “riskier” than thick interpersonal trust because it hinges on forming “relationships with people whose real intentions may not be clear” (121). Accordingly, trustworthiness in the absence of previous relationships depends on two factors: “the image of intermediaries that the trustor relies on for obtaining information about trustees … and/or the trustworthiness of institutions that back up trustees” (122). To understand this point, one need only think about recommendations sought and given by trustworthy intermediaries for various service providers (legal counsel, mechanics, doctors, and so on). Thin interpersonal trust, then, depends significantly on the reputation of the trustee as well as that of the intermediary of trust (see Zucker 1986 ).

Beyond the interpersonal domain, scholarly inquiry into institutional trust should benefit contemporary society precisely because we heavily rely on the state and its institutions in our everyday lives. Further, as Geraint Parry ( 1976 ) explicates, the institutional trust held by an individual corresponds to the presumed efficacy of state institutions. Like the significance of the parties’ reputations in building thin interpersonal trust, institutional trust “depends on [institutions’] perceived legitimacy, technical competence, and ability to perform assigned duties efficiently” (Khodyakov 2007 , 123). As Khodyakov ( 2007 , 123) argues, “it is the impersonal nature of institutions that makes creation of institutional trust so difficult, because it is more problematic to trust some abstract principles or anonymous others who do not express any feelings and emotions.” One of the central goals of institutional trust, then, is to cultivate “voluntary deference to the decisions made by institutions and increase public compliance with existing [and we might add new] rules and regulations.”

Researchers have shown that trust plays a crucial role in gaining public support for vaccines, but no consensus has been reached regarding how trust should be assessed, the specific components of trust that should be considered, and the relationships that warrant investigation (Jamison, Quinn, and Freimuth 2019 ; Larson et al. 2014 ). This lack of consensus is not exclusive to vaccine-related studies but instead mirrors the inherent complexities associated with understanding the concept of trust. Clearly, though, trust in vaccines depends on both confidence in the vaccines themselves as products and trust in the system that is responsible for their production and distribution (De Freitas, Damion, and Han-I 2021 ; Jamison, Quinn, and Freimuth 2019 ).

To better understand the relationship between trust and vaccines, scholars have constructed models that capture factors that influence vaccine beliefs and behaviors (see, for example, Wiysonge et al. 2022 ; Verger and Dubé 2020 ; Dubé and MacDonald 2016 ). For example, the 3C model—which identifies three critical factors in vaccine hesitancy—parses vaccine attitudes, intentions, and dispositions into the following categories: complacency, the degree to which the disease is perceived as low-risk or the vaccine is perceived as having low efficacy; convenience, when behavior may be affected by logistical barriers; and confidence, when decision-making is based on perceived efficacy and trustworthiness (see Verger and Dubé 2020 ; Dubé and MacDonald 2016 ; MacDonald 2015 ). The 3C model is sometimes expanded to the 5C model, adding calculation (when decision-making rests on weighing the risks and benefits of a given vaccine) and collective responsibility (when behavior is influenced by one’s desire to contribute to the overall health of one’s community) as important factors that influence vaccine beliefs and behaviors (Wiysonge et al. 2022 ; Betsch et al. 2018 ).

The 5C framework includes factors such as individual beliefs, social dynamics, and institutional constraints, which together demonstrate that vaccine dispositions, including vaccine hesitancy, are “complex and context specific, varying across time [and] place” (World Health Organization quoted in Betsch et al. 2018 ). In line with Khodyakov’s notion of “trust as a process,” Ed Pertwee, Clarissa Simas, and Heidi Larson ( 2022 , 458) argue that vaccine hesitancy is “better conceived of as a decision-making process rather than a fixed set of beliefs.” An individual’s vaccine disposition may change over time and shift in various contexts, so scholars emphasize that expressing concern about a vaccine is not the same as assuming an anti-vaccination stance (Pertwee, Simas, and Larson 2022 ; Betsch et al. 2018 ; Dubé et al. 2013 ). Moreover, focusing on the processual nature of vaccine dispositions allows researchers to better understand how “cultural, temporal, and spatial” factors influence vaccine hesitancy (MacDonald 2015 ).

General vaccine-hesitancy literature offers practical tools such as the 3C and 5C models as well as theoretical frameworks that have significantly enhanced our understanding of COVID-19–specific phenomena. Theories of interpersonal trust in vaccine uptake are of particular interest, given that data show that trust between a patient and an individual care provider (such as a personal physician) is highly correlated with COVID-19 vaccine uptake (Karpman et al. 2021 ). Further, data show that COVID-19 vaccine intentions are affected by institutional trust in American health-care systems where a lack of trust in any or all components of this system can result in hesitancy and diminished compliance with recommended health practices (Blendon and Benson 2022 ; Bagasra, Doan, and Allen 2021 ).

• DATA AND METHODS

The data for this article are derived from the American Voices Project (AVP), which conducts in-depth interviews to offer a rich and comprehensive landscape of life across the United States. The AVP reflects a nationally representative sample of hundreds of American communities as well as a representative sample within each of the selected sites. The AVP used three-stage cluster sampling in which census tracts were selected by stratified sampling and captured key geographic areas as single-block groups were sampled within tracts to focus on well-defined communities. Tracts and block groups were then selected with a probability proportional to the poverty population to explore the everyday lives of low-income populations. Additionally, select middle- and high-income populations were sampled for comparison purposes and to capture an overview of American life.

Interviews reveal critical dimensions of everyday life, including aspects of family life, living situations, community, health, emotional well-being, cost of living, and income as well as political perceptions. The AVP includes a database of 1,613 transcribed interviews. The data used in this article stem from a subsample of respondents ( N = 198) interviewed between January 2021 and March 2021 during the health wave of interviews in which the AVP adjusted its protocol to better capture health-related issues. These health wave months marked a critical moment in which COVID-19 vaccines were becoming available to the American public for the first time. 1

To best capture participants’ decision-making processes, we excluded participants from the health wave interviews ( N = 198) when we were unable to discern their vaccine dispositions. Although some participants declined to answer questions about their vaccine dispositions, the majority of those excluded were interviewed using a protocol that did not include a specific question about vaccine attitudes or intentions. In some cases, we were able to include participants from this group if other areas of their interviews indicated clear dispositions. A total of sixty-one participants were excluded, leaving a vaccine subsample ( N = 137) on which our analysis is based. Respondents were assigned pseudonyms and, to protect their identities, inconsequential details from interview excerpts have been omitted or changed.

The vaccine subsample yielded a representative participant pool with diversity across race, gender, income, age, and political affiliations (see table 2 ). The subsample mirrored critical health-related demographics. For example, respondents reported that they had either received at least one dose of the COVID-19 vaccine or planned to receive it when it became available at rates comparable to the national rate of 47 percent. 2 Likewise, our respondents relied on public health insurance programs at rates on par with national data; 18.25 percent of AVP respondents in our sample were Medicare recipients compared with 18.4 percent of the U.S. population as a whole (see table 3 ; Keisler-Starkey and Bunch 2021 ). The only substantive difference between our sample and national statistics was the percentage of respondents who relied on private employer-based health insurance, 29.2 percent relative to 54.3 percent on the national level (U.S. Census Bureau 2021a ). Parity in public coverage rates indicate that the discrepancy in private coverage reflects classification rather than demographic differences. For confidentiality reasons, table cells containing fewer than eleven participants were collapsed into the Insured–Other category (see table 3 ). Doing so obscured subsets of participants whose insurance likely flowed from employer-based coverage. For example, young adults in our sample who stated that they were covered by a parent’s health insurance plan were classified as Insured–Other even though such coverage almost always flows from a parent’s employer-based private health insurance plan.

Demographics ( N = 137)

Health Insurance Coverage ( N = 137)

Data are drawn from participant interviews that were conducted by a diverse team of advanced degree holders as well as graduate students, college graduates, and undergraduates; all team members were selected through a highly competitive process and received additional intensive training in qualitative methods. Members of the team were also tasked with applying a basic codebook to the interviews using NVivo qualitative coding software. This codebook was generated by AVP leadership to flag broad themes related to health, including participant experiences with the health-care system, perceptions of the COVID-19 pandemic, and attitudes toward the newly developed COVID-19 vaccine.

We reviewed the transcribed interviews and previously coded data, analyzing the content inductively while developing a unique codebook to identify and categorize emerging themes. In addition to providing insight into how respondents perceived and interacted with American health-care institutions broadly, qualitative coding led us to develop a vaccine typology that categorized participants into one of five vaccine dispositions. We were frequently able to determine a respondent’s disposition based on the following interview question: “Some people are excited about the new COVID-19 vaccine, and others not so much. How about for you?” The open-ended nature of this question, crafted to avoid social desirability bias, frequently elicited statements of intent and captured hesitancy when it existed (for example, “I’m not really excited about it. I’ll probably get it, but I’m worried about the side effects”). That said, we did not assume that a participant’s answer to this question was dispositive. Because many participants discussed COVID-19 when responding to multiple questions, we relied on a holistic evaluation of a participant’s entire interview to classify their disposition. To ensure intercoder reliability, we developed a vaccination typology with definitions and examples (see table 1 ). Although our data are rich and support a nuanced analysis, this article is limited to the extent that it relies on interviews that we did not conduct using an interview protocol that we did not create. As a result, we were unable to tease out additional complexity, clarify ambiguous points, or explore the details of participants’ experiences more fully. Future or follow-up research should be conducted to corroborate our findings.

• SETTING THE STAGE OF DISTRUST

We can better understand the dynamics that influenced and continue to animate COVID-19 vaccination hesitancy by situating such discourses against the backdrop of individuals’ experiences and perceptions of the U.S. health-care system. In this section, we demonstrate how negative experiences with the system generated distrust in the very institutions that individuals were asked to entrust with their lives and the lives of their families.

At the time of their interviews, almost all of our study participants were enrolled in some form of institutional health-care coverage that generally fell into one of three categories: private employer-based coverage or public coverage through either Medicaid or Medicare (see table 3 ). Despite the diversity of health-care needs, access points, and types of insurance coverage, the vast majority of our participants expressed dissatisfaction with their experiences accessing health care. With the exception of respondents who enjoyed generous coverage through union benefits or who were covered by multiple policies, most individuals expressed frustration with various aspects of the health-care system. Respondents were exasperated by high co-pays and coinsurance, hidden costs and surprise billing, and lack of coverage for vision and dental care. Further, many were underinsured and found it difficult to pay both monthly premiums and medical bills that were generally not covered due to high deductibles. Many of these frustrations were directed at private insurance companies; however, participants also expressed dissatisfaction with other institutions such as hospitals and pharmaceutical corporations. Respondents also directed their frustrations at the government more broadly, both as a provider of health coverage in the form of Medicare and Medicaid and as the entity responsible for regulating private health insurers and the pharmaceutical industry.

Although most participants were covered by health insurance, many were still forced to forgo, delay, or ration care. Underinsured participants were covered by policies with both high premiums and high deductibles where they made large monthly payments for services that they still could not afford. Jennifer, a young, low-income white woman, said this of her mother:

She has not been to the doctor in a long time, because insurance is just too crazy. She has health insurance, so it’s kind of for emergencies. So, she won’t go to the doctor because it’s just too expensive. It’s just too expensive to go get a physical and do a [wellness] check. … But I know my mom was paying like $500 a month. And that was just for emergencies. … And it was kind of, it was more than our house payment. So, it’s kind of ridiculous.

Similarly, Susan, a low-income black woman in her sixties, explained, “it’s like we have insurance, but then I go to a doctor I have to pay a $400 deductible; $400, that’s a whole week’s pay. So it’s hard to stay healthy. So you let a lot of things slide, probably that you shouldn’t.” Despite paying for services that exceed the cost of a house payment or a week’s wages, Jennifer’s mother and Susan forwent the services that would help them “stay healthy.”

In the face of such challenges, participants made strategic calculations that included rationing care. For example, Jeff, a white man in his fifties, said:

My disability check does not go very far, and so I have had times that I ran out of [medication] and had to make our rations, make what I had last until payday or until I get the check. With my current [care provider], who also [treats] my [condition], it’s $300, but I can’t afford $300. So, I had to stop taking that medication. [There’s one specialty medication that I need to take or else I’ll die]. Everything else is icing on the cake.

Jeff’s remarks illustrate how negative experiences navigating health-care institutions, such as the Social Security Disability Insurance system, can generate feelings of distrust as individuals are forced to make difficult and life-compromising decisions about their health and well-being.

Although participants described positive interactions with individual medical professionals such as doctors and nurses, the hospitals and other facilities where they received care were often regarded as prioritizing profits over people. For example, when Tomás, a middle-income Hispanic man in his twenties, went to the emergency room for a serious injury, the institution’s priorities felt clear: “I’m bleeding, and they’re worried about me filling out some papers. I just took a deep breath, and I’m like, ‘Man, they’re more worried about money than my health.’” In addition to frustration with bureaucratic protocols, another thought loomed over him: “As I’m walking into the door, honest to God, I’m thinking, ‘And I might have to pay this big bill.’”

Echoing Tomás, Bill, a white man in his sixties, clearly indicated his disdain for and distrust in health-care institutions:

They’re all on quotas for how many minutes they’re going to spend with a patient. And really, it’s the bean counters running the system now; it’s really appalling. It seems that the first thing they do is a walletectomy, of course; they want to see your medical insurance card and your charge cards and whatnot. It seems like the system is geared towards extracting the maximum amount of money for the minimum amount of service, and really efficiently, so I’m not especially pleased with it. It’s all about hiding the cost so you don’t know how much you’re paying or who’s paying it. The whole insurance system is really very destructive in that regard: you don’t know what things cost, you don’t know what you’re really going to pay.

Here, Bill frames health-care institutions as being intentionally exploitative (“extracting the maximum amount of money for the minimum amount of service”) and opaque (“It’s all about hiding the cost”). His comments also indicate that he sees both service institutions and insurance corporations as enmeshed where the provider “hid[es] the cost” as part of an “insurance system that is really very destructive.”

Building on his earlier comments, Bill discussed his attitudes toward pharmaceutical companies, whom he viewed as “rip[ping] off” consumers. To illustrate his point, he discussed a lifesaving medication that was affordable until the patent was purchased by a pharmaceutical company: “The company bought the patents on them and jacked up the price that should not have been permitted; those executives should have been marched down to a parking lot and dealt with.” This comment exemplifies the distrust in the pharmaceutical industry that punctuates our data, and, when read with his earlier comments, reveals how some respondents regard the American health-care system as an industrial complex in which myriad institutions work together to confuse, exploit, and swindle citizens.

When discussing their general health-care experiences and the COVID-19 pandemic, many individuals directed their frustrations at politicians and the government. The majority of respondents did not reference specific people or point to particular laws when discussing their frustrations but instead expressed a general distrust in politicians and the U.S. government more broadly. As Lisa, a young white woman, noted, “I personally just find it incredibly horrible that we are in the middle of a global pandemic, and there’s still people who are—and by people I mean politicians who find it appropriate to say, ‘Yeah, well, I mean, health care is a privilege, not a right,’ … that’s just more of a societal America [that] does an atrocious job with our health care.”

Similarly, Barbara, a middle-aged white woman encountering difficulty enrolling in a public health-care program, felt that the government did not care about her or others: “You’re on your own, like too bad, even if you are applying for like disability, they don’t care, they do not care.” Barbara’s and Lisa’s testimonies illustrate some ways in which participants attribute barriers to accessing health care to the lack of competency (“an atrocious job with our health care”) and lack of concern (“they don’t care”) from the U.S. health-care system and the government more broadly.

Although participant dissatisfaction with health care was persistent and predated COVID-19, the general sense of institutional distrust became increasingly pronounced as respondents began discussing their experiences during the pandemic. A number of participants specifically linked their pre-existing institutional distrust with their assessment of the COVID-19 vaccine. The pharmaceutical companies, in their roles as manufacturers and distributors of the vaccine, and the government, in its roles of overseeing vaccine development and responding to the pandemic more broadly, were the two most frequently cited institutions by participants. For example, when asked about his vaccine intentions, Kyle, a white man in his forties, remarked, “I’m always skeptical of the companies that developed it and what they put out, because they’re in the process of trying to make money typically. So, anyone that’s doing something with a financial interest I’m like more skeptical of.”

Here, Kyle links his pre-existing distrust in corporations (“anyone that’s doing something with a financial interest”) to his specific distrust in the pharmaceutical companies responsible for producing the COVID-19 vaccine. Like Kyle, George, a white man in his sixties, considered his general distrust in the pharmaceutical industry as he contemplated receiving the COVID-19 vaccine: “Well, I would say in the light of the circumstance I’ll take it when I get a chance, but I’m not hugely excited about drug companies. I don’t, I don’t trust them. I don’t trust them, but in light of what’s going on, I don’t know what, what is the—what else should we do?”

In his interview, George later assessed the federal government’s competence at managing the pandemic: “I mean right now obviously the United States is the worst country in the world when it comes to handling this thing.” When we read these comments together, we can see how distrust in one institution (the pharmaceutical industry) can sometimes spill over to lack of trust in related institutions (the U.S. government). Further, George’s statements highlight how vaccine dispositions are more nuanced and less predictable than one might assume. Indeed, even though George states a clear intention to receive the vaccine (“I’ll take it when I get a chance”), his declaration is couched within comments that express his dissatisfaction, hesitancy, and lack of trust. Ultimately, his decision to be vaccinated does not depend on a positive assessment of the vaccine or the health-care institutions in charge of creating and disseminating it. Instead, it is informed by an overall sense of resignation (“What else should we do?”). Given George’s apathy for and distrust in multiple health-care institutions, one could easily imagine a scenario in which he instead chose to refuse the vaccine. His decision-making process illustrates the phenomenon that we discuss in the following section. Like many of his peers in this study, participants who either received or planned to receive the COVID-19 vaccine often expressed hesitancy. Further, the data show that discourse across the hesitant spectrum was remarkably similar.

• VACCINE DISCOURSE AND DECISION-MAKING IN THE AGE OF COVID-19

This section builds on the preceding discussion to further explore the impact of existing institutional distrust on COVID-19 dispositions using a novel vaccination typology (see table 1 ). Based on interview data that revealed their vaccine attitudes and behaviors, we assigned respondents to one of the following categories:

Pro-vax: Respondent had received the COVID-19 vaccine or planned to and did not express hesitancy.

Pro-vax hesitant: Respondent leaned toward receiving the COVID-19 vaccine but expressed hesitancy.

Undecided hesitant: Respondent was undecided about receiving the COVID-19 vaccine and expressed hesitancy.

Anti-vax hesitant: Respondent leaned away from receiving the COVID-19 vaccine and expressed hesitancy.

Anti-vax: Respondent had not and will not receive the COVID-19 vaccine and did not express hesitancy.

By mapping each participant onto this typology, we find that participant decision-making processes are nuanced and that attitudes overlap even between respondents with oppositional dispositions (see tables 1 and 4 ). Indeed, individuals of all vaccine dispositions expressed varying degrees of distrust in health-related institutions. First, we begin with a brief discussion of individuals who did not express hesitancy about receiving the vaccine ( N = 86). We then contrast these dispositions with a large cohort of respondents ( N = 51) who were vaccine hesitant. We end the section by outlining the tipping points that nudge hesitant respondents to adopt a pro-vax stance.

Vaccination Disposition ( N = 137)

As noted, pro-vax respondents had either received or planned to receive the COVID-19 vaccine and did not express hesitancy. Despite a lack of hesitation, many participants in the pro-vax sample ( N = 66) still considered the role of trust when discussing health-care institutions. This frequently came in the form of considering why others might opt out of vaccination. For example, Kayla, a middle-income white woman in her twenties, explained: “I’m excited about it. I’m like, give me a call, I’ll take it. I am not going to be someone to refuse this. I trust science, like, yeah, it hasn’t been researched that much yet, I don’t know, I trust the scientists who are working on it like 100 percent.” Here, Kayla acknowledged a lack of information about the vaccine (“it hasn’t been researched that much yet”), which could be cause for concern. However, Kayla’s personal trust in science as an institution eclipsed this potential risk. Notably, Kayla discussed institutional trust (“I trust science”) as well as trust in individuals (“I trust the scientists”). Although she does not mention specific individuals, such as a scientist whom she knows personally, her trust in scientists as individuals evinces the role of trusted intermediaries who facilitate institutional trust.

Unsurprisingly, on the other end of the spectrum, anti-vax individuals expressed starkly different views of the COVID-19 vaccine. Of the five dispositional categories, anti-vax participants ( N = 20) were the most likely to claim that COVID-19 is fake, overblown, or used to intentionally frighten Americans. Such attitudes rest on a fundamental distrust in the U.S. health-care system, signaling a strong relationship between trust in government institutions and vaccine disposition. For example, Gina, a low-income black woman in her sixties, said:

I don’t trust it. They came up with it too quick. … We don’t even know enough about what COVID is and then you’re going to take a vaccine for something you don’t even know. They ain’t explained it enough to me. First, I didn’t believe that it was actually real. Some people died of it. You know that they say people died. I don’t trust the COVID vaccine. I don’t think they researched it enough. They come up with it too quick.

Gina’s response illustrates how a lack of knowledge about the COVID-19 virus and the vaccine is linked to perceived inadequacies (“They came up with it too quick”), communication failures (“They ain’t explained it enough to me”), and general untrustworthiness in the U.S. health-care system (“You know that they say people died of it. I don’t trust the COVID vaccine”).

Finally, although rare in our sample, the racialized nature of anti-vax sentiments among some participants is noteworthy. Unlike demonstrably false conspiracy theories, the history in the United States of state-sponsored and state-sanctioned medical abuse of women, poor people, and people of color is documented (Wilson et al. 2023 ; Delgado 2020 ; INCITE! 2016 ; Washington 2006 ). Several anti-vax participants linked their historically informed, pre-existing distrust in the U.S. health-care system to their present-day vaccination dispositions. As Lydia, a low-income black woman in her sixties, explained: “Because of my history, African American history. Vaccines in America and just health care, being used as experimental pretty much. I can’t think of the word I want to say. But you know what I mean? I think about that, and they are very suspicious. … So, because we have a bad history in America, we still have a long way to go. I’m not interested in the vaccine.”

Several participants specifically referred to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study—when the federal government purposely withheld treatment for syphilis to study its progression in a sample of four hundred black men (Emanuel et al. 2008 ). James, a middle-income, multiracial man in his seventies, said this: “What really got to me though is that the [COVID-19 vaccine] experiment was after the syphilis experiment. So my whole thing is that this is the government. My whole thing is, well, shoot, they did this syphilis [experiment], and it was back again, they did it again to the same people, the group of people in Tuskegee.”

Like other respondents, James gave additional reasons for his anti-vax stance, including feeling that the development of the vaccine was rushed and that it would be impossible to anticipate its long-term effects: “Here, they [developed and manufactured the vaccine] in eight damn months, and that bothers me. Not to say it can’t be right, but the whole thing is you really don’t know what the side effects are. … But like I said, they have no idea what the outcome is going to be down the line.”

Not only does James attribute his anti-vax disposition to distrust in the U.S. government, he also expresses concern over hasty manufacturing and side effects that might emerge in time. Here, James articulates two of the most common refrains expressed by anti-vax participants and hesitant participants across the typological spectrum: that the vaccine was produced too quickly, and citizens lack the knowledge needed to make informed decisions.

Even though pro-vax and anti-vax respondents are diametrically opposed, both cohorts’ decision-making processes hinged on the presence or absence of trust in the U.S. health-care system. Similarly, in the subsample of hesitant respondents ( N = 51), pro-vax hesitant, undecided hesitant, and anti-vax hesitant individuals share similar trust-related reasons, or core beliefs, for their hesitancy. For these participants, the leading causes of hesitancy were not knowing enough about the vaccine to trust it and observing the seemingly rushed development of the vaccine. 3 That many COVID-19 vaccine-hesitant participants did not express concern over well-established vaccines (such as for influenza) highlights the value that respondents place on the additional data points that are available for products with established track records.

Hesitant individuals developed several strategies to manage their concerns about the COVID-19 vaccine, the most common being the wait-and-see approach articulated by participants in all three hesitant subgroups. This approach leaves open the possibility of being vaccinated at some future point after one is able to gather additional data about the vaccine’s safety and efficacy. Wendy, a low-income black woman in her forties whom we classified as pro-vax hesitant, stated, “I mean, I’m glad we have something that’s going to, that’s trying to clear this up. I’m just kind of waiting to see the outcome.” When the interviewer asked whether she would get the vaccine, she answered, “Debatable. It’s in the air. Like I said, I just want to see the outcome.” 4

Similarly, Ken, a white man in his sixties classified as anti-vax hesitant, questioned the efficacy of the vaccine and explained that he and his family would forgo getting the vaccine “until there’s more data”:

You still have to do the social distancing. You still have to keep wearing the mask. You can still pass it to somebody else. You can actually still get it because at least one person in the news has gotten it after being vaccinated. So, at this point in time, I don’t see the pluses of getting it. And my whole family feels the same way. None of us are going to get it until there’s more data out there to show that it’s actually doing something.

Notably, Wendy and Ken fall on opposite sides of the hesitancy spectrum (classified as pro-vax hesitant and anti-vax hesitant, respectively), yet use the same wait-and-see strategy in their vaccine decision-making process. That participants across the hesitancy spectrum frequently navigate uncertainty in similar ways makes clear that vaccine behaviors (that is, uptake and refusal) are mutable and subject to change.

As noted, we conceptualize vaccine hesitancy as a state of uncertainty in which an individual is actively engaged in weighing the risks and benefits of vaccination (Adhikari, Cheah, and Seidlein 2022 ). Thus, hesitancy is volatile and subject to outside influence. Our analysis reveals a number of factors that can nudge participants toward or against vaccine acceptance, creating pro-vax tipping points among hesitant respondents. As the extant literature would suggest, our data confirm that such tipping points emerge where trusted intermediaries have the opportunity to facilitate institutional trust. For example, Carmen, a Hispanic woman in her thirties, did not plan to receive the COVID-19 vaccine until an outreach worker visited her community to promote vaccination. Although Carmen remained uncommitted at the time of her interview, community outreach in the form of an intermediary shifted her disposition from anti-vax to undecided hesitant. She also indicated that, if the vaccine were easily accessible, she would be even more inclined to receive it. Thus, we should consider how the efficacy of trusted intermediaries is boosted when barriers to entry are lowered. Our data show that local clinics, pharmacies, and community centers acted as tipping point hubs for many respondents who would otherwise be more vaccine averse. Such micro-institutions appear to be effective because they offer easy vaccine access administered by trusted intermediaries (such as a local pharmacist) in familiar settings.

Frequently, individuals who attributed their hesitancy to lack of information about the vaccine noted that they wanted to do their own research before deciding. Although the concept of doing one’s own research is often derided by those who assume that the vaccine hesitant will find information from dubious sources, participants often used a variety of credible sources, including seeking out media representing diverse and balanced perspectives and consulting medical professionals to whom they have access. As Melissa, a middle-income Asian American woman, noted:

I’m feeling mostly optimistic about it. And yeah, I mean, at first, I was pessimistic but that was my misinformation, my misunderstanding. And I was until I came across in a news article about an MD PhD in Texas that was developing a low-cost vaccine, that got my attention because I realized that “Oh, wow. Okay, this vaccine is not really the product of operation warp speed as former President Trump tried to claim, or he did claim.” This vaccine is seventeen, eighteen years in the making.

Many participants were concerned about the apparent speed at which the COVID-19 vaccine was developed, but Melissa used news media featuring a credentialed expert to educate herself on the development of the vaccine. In doing so, her pessimism shifted toward optimism as she began to lean toward receiving the vaccine.

This article demonstrates how negative valuations steeped in past experiences with, and perceptions of, the U.S. health-care system generated distrust in institutions that seek to control public health crises. Regardless of insurance status, the vast majority of participants in this study were dissatisfied with the American health-care system. Because they had experienced this dissatisfaction for much of their lives, their trust in the system was compromised well before COVID-19 reached the United States. In the early days of the pandemic, most individuals watched an already overburdened health-care system strain under the weight of an unanticipated and unprecedented public health crisis. Despite their diverse backgrounds and experiences, as the first wave of COVID-19 vaccines became publicly available, all of our respondents were faced with the same question. Would they place their trust in the U.S. health-care system and its medical interventions to protect themselves and their loved ones from the COVID-19 virus? Here, like virtually all other Americans, our participants engaged their everyday life circumstances, social networks, past experiences, and available information to decide whether they would opt to receive the vaccine.

During the rollout of the first vaccine, institutional pressure to be vaccinated was high. Although many of our respondents expressed a clear desire to receive the vaccination ( N = 66) the majority were more reserved, with most expressing hesitancy or outright refusal ( N = 71). We found that participants’ vaccine dispositions resulted from a decision-making process that was social, cultural, and temporal. From a temporal standpoint, respondents drew on their pre-pandemic experiences with the American health-care system to evaluate potential future outcomes. Their dispositions at the time of the interview also reflected an appraisal of cultural messages communicated through media as well as the social influence of people in their immediate and extended social networks.

Even though medical professionals may feel frustrated by anti-vax or vaccine-hesitant attitudes and beliefs, our data underscore the importance of considering how information flows, and scientific knowledge in particular, are experienced by a variety of communities. Although the data are clear that COVID-19 vaccines are safe, effective, and necessary to protect the health of communities, we should be mindful of the context in which vaccine hesitancy arises and acknowledge the pervasiveness of vaccine hesitancy. Whereas a handful of individuals’ vaccine dispositions hinged on anecdotal information or dubious sources, these findings did not characterize the majority of participants’ core beliefs that led to vaccine hesitancy or refusal. In our review of 137 respondents, we found that vaccine opposition and hesitancy were rarely capricious but rather the outcome of agentic behavior amid various institutional constraints, including lack of institutional trust.

Our research makes both methodological and theoretical contributions to the extant COVID-19 literature. Methodologically, much of what we know about vaccine hesitancy relies on a large body of quantitative and survey data about general vaccine hesitancy as well as COVID-19-vaccine–specific hesitancy. We recognize that these datasets are rich sources of information but contend that qualitative data allow for more nuanced analyses that better capture decision-making processes. Frequently, quantitative projects rely on binary choices (such as “Have you taken the COVID-19 vaccine?” Yes/No), whereas surveys typically require a respondent to choose from a predetermined list of options (for example, “Which of the following options best describes your attitude toward the vaccine?”). In both cases, a respondent’s ability to give a full accounting of their perspective is limited. In contrast, qualitative projects allow respondents to express their experiences on their own terms, facilitating the detection of novel patterns that are otherwise obscured by quantitative methodology. This study moves beyond statistical trends to capture the discrete narratives and personal stories that shape worldviews.

Further, qualitative research on COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy typically relies on small sample sizes that are not generalizable. In contrast, our dataset is large and nationally representative and thus offers thorough insights into the American public’s attitudes and perspectives related to the COVID-19 pandemic. As we detail in the data and methods section, respondent demographics in our sample tracked closely with national data. Demographic similarities allow for greater generalizability in service of scaling our research in ways that exceed the scope of most qualitative projects. Having a high-quality, scalable qualitative dataset is especially valuable for inferences to national phenomena. Because participants were interviewed in the months surrounding the rollout of the first publicly available COVID-19 vaccine, their experiences speak to a wide audience because all Americans were undergoing similar processes in which they were evaluating existing information and forming vaccine intentions.

On a theoretical level, our findings further complicate discourses of polarization that place a wedge between pro-vax and anti-vax individuals. Although we were unsurprised that our data revealed a diversity of opinions related to the COVID-19 vaccine, we did not expect to find heightened levels of hesitancy among individuals on both sides of pro- and anti-vax equation. We found that participants who said that they would likely receive the vaccine expressed trust-related concerns that were remarkably similar to those expressed by respondents who said they would refuse or would likely refuse it. Indeed, pro-vax participants who were not hesitant about being vaccinated themselves validated the trust-related concerns their hesitant counterparts expressed. Hence, despite dominant media discourse that has framed vaccine dispositions as a fiercely pro- and anti-vax dichotomy, we found that most participants across all categories experienced similar decision-making processes. Relatedly, we found that participants in every category engaged in active, agentic decision-making processes rather than passively accepting institutional messaging. Thus, contrary to a simplistic narrative of a deeply divided nation, this study reveals the synergies and convergences in beliefs that point to widespread institutional distrust.

By drawing attention to vaccine hesitancy, we show that people’s stances are often more complicated than the pro- and anti-vax dichotomy suggests. The empirical richness of our data helped us explore the reasons, doubts, and fears that undergird these attitudes, offering a nuanced understanding of the factors influencing vaccine decisions. By unpacking and adding complexity to these narratives, we shed light on the salience of trust in the American public’s decision-making processes, including the relationship between pervasive barriers to high-quality affordable health care and vaccine hesitancy. Although we abjured making causal claims, our research documents the correlation between pre-existing distrust in American medical institutions and COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy that has both scholarly and real-world applications.

In examining the relationship between institutional trust and COVID-19 vaccine disposition, we were struck by the distribution of participants along demographic lines. We were surprised to find that each dispositional category was quite diverse. Although privacy constraints prevent us from disclosing the precise composition of each category within our vaccine typology, we find that all classifications include members of each racial, gender, income, and age demographic. This finding led us to conduct preliminary research on an additional variable—political affiliation—that was not part of our original research design. The scope of our research intentionally focuses on pre-pandemic distrust in health-care institutions rather than political affiliation as a corollary to COVID-19 vaccine disposition. Indeed, we find the former to be undertheorized relative to robust scholarly and media discourse centered on the relationship between political affiliation and vaccine disposition. Research on political affiliation generally concludes a negative correlation between Conservative or Republican identity and COVID-19 vaccine uptake (see, for example, Dolman et al. 2023 ; Albrecht 2022 ). Our observations about race, gender, class, and age diversity within vaccine typologies led us to question whether respondent data on political affiliation might differ from extant research that primarily relies on larger quantitative datasets.

A cursory analysis of the political affiliation of the participants in our sample produces findings that one might expect. 5 For example, the majority of those categorized as pro-vax are Democrats. Similarly, Democrats are less likely to be anti-vax than their Republican counterparts. Despite these findings, our data indicate that pre-existing distrust in medical institutions was nearly universal and thus transcends political affiliation. Although we do not refute studies that show that Democrats may be more trusting than Republicans in a variety of settings, our data document a shared experience that, by definition, crosses party lines. We also find it noteworthy that a substantive number of participants did not identify with a major party, signaling another form of ambivalence. Even though we find that the majority of Democrats were typed pro-vax, more than one-third were either vaccine hesitant or anti-vax. In contrast, more than one-third of Republicans were firmly pro-vax and fewer than one-third established themselves as anti-vax, figures that are respectively higher and lower than one might expect. Further—and perhaps most surprising—we find that anti-vax respondents are balanced across political affiliations. These findings point to the fact that hesitancy is widespread across the political spectrum in ways that may be paradoxical or unexpected. It is possible that this is due to sampling bias or a small sample size relative to most quantitative datasets. Nevertheless, we contend that these findings are intriguing and could prove to be fertile ground for additional research.

These conclusions make novel contributions to the relevant literature in that they demonstrate a through line between areas of study that remain balkanized in contemporary scholarly literature—namely the chronic, well-documented decades-long phenomenon of distrust in the U.S. health-care system and the onset of an unexpected and unprecedented pandemic. Finally, although COVID-19 vaccine literature discusses institutional trust, we find that it fails to adequately consider institutional distrust to be a condition already well entrenched at the onset of the pandemic. As a result, the relationship between the American health-care system, trust in American institutions, and decision-making processes vis-à-vis COVID-19 vaccine uptake remains undertheorized.

As health-care administrators and governmental institutions grapple with vaccine hesitancy, they should consider how their efforts either undermine or build trust. For example, top-down messaging from public health institutions often present complex and sometimes contradictory information that may confuse and overwhelm their audience and further undermine trust. When this happens, it is all too easy to link overwhelming feelings of confusion to extant feelings of distrust in the health-care system. If we accept the premise that trust in novel solutions is paramount to addressing public health crises, our data indicate that state actors and institutions must operate on a variety of levels to rebuild trust in a system that has failed and continues to fail the majority of Americans. This includes reconciling past medical injustices, removing barriers to accessing quality care, and restructuring institutions to make health care more affordable. Further, because many of our respondents described being influenced by social networks rather than institutional messaging, efforts toward rebuilding institutional trust must be prioritized.

↵ 1. Between December 2020 and March 2021, COVID-19 vaccines were becoming available to health-care workers, first responders, individuals in congregate settings, and the elderly in the United States (Mayo Clinic 2022 ).

↵ 2. In our sample, 47.45 percent of participants (surveyed between January 6 and March 24, 2021) reported they had received at least one dose of the COVID-19 vaccine or planned to receive their first dose when it became available. In March 2021, the U.S. Census reported that 47 percent of Americans had received at least one dose of the vaccine (U.S. Census Bureau 2021b ).

↵ 3. The COVID-19 vaccine is part of a class of mRNA vaccines that have been the subject of scientific research for three decades (Verbeke et al. 2021 ).

↵ 4. Although these statements seem to position Wendy in the undecided hesitant category, statements made elsewhere in her interview led us to classify her as pro-vax hesitant.

↵ 5. To protect respondent confidentiality, we excluded the number of participants of each political affiliation as it relates to their vaccine disposition. We did not include a table that illustrates our findings for the same reason.

• © 2024 Russell Sage Foundation. Casselman-Hontalas, Amy, Dominique Adams-Santos, and Celeste Watkins-Hayes. 2024. “Discourses of Distrust: How Lack of Trust in the U.S. Health-Care System Shaped COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(4): 154–72. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.4.07 . Direct correspondence to: Amy Casselman-Hontalas, at amylcass{at}stanford.edu , Stanford University, 450 Jane Stanford Way, Building 120, Room 160, Stanford, CA, 94305-2047, United States.

Open Access Policy: RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences is an open access journal. This article is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.

• Adhikari , Bipin ,
• Phaik Yeong Cheah , and
• Lorenz von Seidlein
• Albrecht , Don
• Bagasra , Anisah B .,
• Sara Doan , and
• Christopher T . Allen
• Betsch , Cornelia ,
• Philipp Schmid ,
• Dorothee Heinemeier ,
• Lars Korn ,
• Cindy Holtmann , and
• Robert Böhm
• Blendon , Robert J ., and
• John M . Benson
• David A . Shore
• Blendon , Robert J
• De Freitas , Loren ,
• Basdeo Damion , and
• Delgado , Melvin
• Dolman , Andrew J .,
• Timothy Fraser ,
• Costas Panagopoulos ,
• Daniel P . Aldrich , and
• Dubé , Eve ,
• Caroline Laberge ,
• Maryse Guay ,
• Paul Bramadat ,
• Réal Roy , and
• Julie A . Bettinger
• Barry R . Bloom and
• Paul-Henri Lambert
• Dubé , Eve , and
• Noni E . MacDonald
• Emanuel , Ezekiel J .,
• Christine C . Grady ,
• Robert A . Crouch ,
• Reidar K . Lie ,
• Franklin G . Miller , and
• David D . Wendler
• INCITE! Women of Color Against Violence
• Jamison , Amelia M .,
• Sandra Crouse Quinn , and
• Vicki S . Freimuth
• Jennings , Will ,
• Gerry Stoker ,
• Viktor Valgarðsson ,
• Daniel Devine , and
• Jennifer Gaskell
• Karpman , Michael ,
• Genevieve M . Kenney ,
• Stephen Zuckerman ,
• Dulce Gonzalez , and
• Brigette Courtot
• Keisler-Starkey , Katherine , and
• Lisa N . Bunch
• Khodyakov , Dmitry
• Larson , Heidi J .,
• Caitlin Jarrett ,
• Elizabeth Eckersberger ,
• David M . Smith , and
• Pauline Paterson
• MacDonald , Noni E
• Mayo Clinic
• Parry , Geraint
• Pertwee , Ed ,
• Clarissa Simas , and
• Heidi J . Larson
• Spadaro , Giuliana ,
• Katharina Gangl ,
• Jan-Willem Van Prooijen ,
• Paul A. M . Van Lange , and
• Cristina O . Mosso
• U.S. Census Bureau
• Verbeke , Rein ,
• Ine Lentacker ,
• Stefaan C. De Smedt , and
• Heleen Dewitte
• Verger Pierre , and
• Washington , Harriet. A
• Wilson , Betty L .,
• Julisa Tindall ,
• Denetra Walker , and
• Angela M . Smith
• Wiysonge , Charles Shey ,
• Duduzile Ndwandwe ,
• Jill Ryan ,
• Anelisa Jaca ,
• Oumarou Batouré ,
• Blanche-Philomene Melanga Anya , and
• Sara Cooper
• Zucker , Lynne

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