case study method of child study

Early Childhood Education: How to do a Child Case Study-Best Practice

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Description of Assignment

During your time at Manor, you will need to conduct a child case study. To do well, you will need to plan ahead and keep a schedule for observing the child. A case study at Manor typically includes the following components: 

• Three observations of the child: one qualitative, one quantitative, and one of your choice. 
• Three artifact collections and review: one qualitative, one quantitative, and one of your choice. 
• A Narrative

Within this tab, we will discuss how to complete all portions of the case study.  A copy of the rubric for the assignment is attached. 

• Case Study Rubric (Online)
• Case Study Rubric (Hybrid/F2F)

Qualitative and Quantitative Observation Tips

Remember your observation notes should provide the following detailed information about the child:

• child’s age,
• physical appearance,
• the setting, and
• any other important background information.

You should observe the child a minimum of 5 hours. Make sure you DO NOT use the child's real name in your observations. Always use a pseudo name for course assignments. 

You will use your observations to help write your narrative. When submitting your observations for the course please make sure they are typed so that they are legible for your instructor. This will help them provide feedback to you. 

Qualitative Observations

A qualitative observation is one in which you simply write down what you see using the anecdotal note format listed below. 

Quantitative Observations

A quantitative observation is one in which you will use some type of checklist to assess a child's skills. This can be a checklist that you create and/or one that you find on the web. A great choice of a checklist would be an Ounce Assessment and/or work sampling assessment depending on the age of the child. Below you will find some resources on finding checklists for this portion of the case study. If you are interested in using Ounce or Work Sampling, please see your program director for a copy. 

Remaining Objective 

For both qualitative and quantitative observations, you will only write down what your see and hear. Do not interpret your observation notes. Remain objective versus being subjective.

An example of an objective statement would be the following: "Johnny stacked three blocks vertically on top of a classroom table." or "When prompted by his teacher Johnny wrote his name but omitted the two N's in his name." 

An example of a subjective statement would be the following: "Johnny is happy because he was able to play with the block." or "Johnny omitted the two N's in his name on purpose." 

• Anecdotal Notes Form Form to use to record your observations.
• Guidelines for Writing Your Observations
• Tips for Writing Objective Observations
• Objective vs. Subjective

Qualitative and Quantitative Artifact Collection and Review Tips

For this section, you will collect artifacts from and/or on the child during the time you observe the child. Here is a list of the different types of artifacts you might collect: 

Potential Qualitative Artifacts 

• Photos of a child completing a task, during free play, and/or outdoors. 
• Samples of Artwork 
• Samples of writing 
• Products of child-led activities 

Potential Quantitative Artifacts 

• Checklist 
• Rating Scales
• Product Teacher-led activities 

Examples of Components of the Case Study

Here you will find a number of examples of components of the Case Study. Please use them as a guide as best practice for completing your Case Study assignment. 

• Qualitatitive Example 1
• Qualitatitive Example 2
• Quantitative Photo 1
• Qualitatitive Photo 1
• Quantitative Observation Example 1
• Artifact Photo 1
• Artifact Photo 2
• Artifact Photo 3
• Artifact Photo 4
• Artifact Sample Write-Up
• Case Study Narrative Example Although we do not expect you to have this many pages for your case study, pay close attention to how this case study is organized and written. The is an example of best practice.

Narrative Tips

The Narrative portion of your case study assignment should be written in APA style, double-spaced, and follow the format below:

• Introduction : Background information about the child (if any is known), setting, age, physical appearance, and other relevant details. There should be an overall feel for what this child and his/her family is like. Remember that the child’s neighborhood, school, community, etc all play a role in development, so make sure you accurately and fully describe this setting! --- 1 page
• Observations of Development :   The main body of your observations coupled with course material supporting whether or not the observed behavior was typical of the child’s age or not. Report behaviors and statements from both the child observation and from the parent/guardian interview— 1.5  pages
• Comment on Development: This is the portion of the paper where your professional analysis of your observations are shared. Based on your evidence, what can you generally state regarding the cognitive, social and emotional, and physical development of this child? Include both information from your observations and from your interview— 1.5 pages
• Conclusion: What are the relative strengths and weaknesses of the family, the child? What could this child benefit from? Make any final remarks regarding the child’s overall development in this section.— 1page
• Your Case Study Narrative should be a minimum of 5 pages.

Make sure to NOT to use the child’s real name in the Narrative Report. You should make reference to course material, information from your textbook, and class supplemental materials throughout the paper . 

Same rules apply in terms of writing in objective language and only using subjective minimally. REMEMBER to CHECK your grammar, spelling, and APA formatting before submitting to your instructor. It is imperative that you review the rubric of this assignment as well before completing it. 

Biggest Mistakes Students Make on this Assignment

Here is a list of the biggest mistakes that students make on this assignment: 

• Failing to start early . The case study assignment is one that you will submit in parts throughout the semester. It is important that you begin your observations on the case study before the first assignment is due. Waiting to the last minute will lead to a poor grade on this assignment, which historically has been the case for students who have completed this assignment. 
• Failing to utilize the rubrics. The rubrics provide students with guidelines on what components are necessary for the assignment. Often students will lose points because they simply read the descriptions of the assignment but did not pay attention to rubric portions of the assignment. 
• Failing to use APA formatting and proper grammar and spelling. It is imperative that you use spell check and/or other grammar checking software to ensure that your narrative is written well. Remember it must be in APA formatting so make sure that you review the tutorials available for you on our Lib Guide that will assess you in this area. 
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2 Research Methods

Learning objectives.

After reading Chapter 2, you should be better equipped to

• Describe the scientific method and explain how it is used to study development.
• Explain the differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches to research methods.
• Explain the differences between descriptive and experimental designs.
• Understand when and how to use different research methodologies and the strengths and limitations of each methodology.
• Explain the types of research methodologies that are specific to conducting research in developmental psychology.
• Describe when and how to use preferential looking designs and the different habituations designs.
• Understand the protections used when conducting research with vulnerable populations like infants and children.

Knowing What We Know

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims.  For example, even today, some individuals believe that newborn infants can only see the colors black and white.  However, Bower (1966) [1] demonstrated that while limited, newborn infants do have the ability to see color.

The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is  empirical : It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we can see behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior.

Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method . Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations, and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on.

The basic steps in the scientific method are:

• Observe a natural phenomenon and define a question about it
• Make a hypothesis, or potential solution to the question
• Test the hypothesis
• If the hypothesis is true, find more evidence or find counter-evidence
• If the hypothesis is false, create a new hypothesis or try again
• Draw conclusions and repeat–the scientific method is never-ending, and no result is ever considered perfect

In order to ask an important question that may improve our understanding of the world, a researcher must first observe natural phenomena. By making observations, a researcher can define a useful question. After finding a question to answer, the researcher can then make a prediction in the form of a hypothesis about what he or she thinks the answer will be. This prediction is usually a statement about the relationship between two or more variables. After making a hypothesis, the researcher will then design an experiment to test his or her hypothesis and evaluate the data gathered. These data will either support or refute the hypothesis. Based on the conclusions drawn from the data, the researcher will then find more evidence to support the hypothesis, look for counterevidence to further strengthen the hypothesis, revise the hypothesis and create a new experiment, or continue to incorporate the information gathered to answer the research question.

Flowchart Outlining the Steps of the Scientific Method

The Basic Principles of the Scientific Method

Two key concepts in the scientific approach are theory and hypothesis . A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena that can be used to make predictions about future observations. A hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from a theory. It is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests.

The Relationship Between Observation, Theory, Hypothesis and Research

Applying the Scientific Method

To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. The James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach would churn. According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake elicits will not feel fear.

Remember that a good scientific hypothesis is falsifiable , or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from Chapter 1 that Sigmund Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors. However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three elements of personality described in Freud’s theories. Despite this, Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

Why the Scientific Method Is Important for Psychology

The use of the scientific method is one of the main features that separates modern psychology from earlier philosophical inquiries about the mind. Compared to chemistry, physics, and other “natural sciences,” psychology has long been considered one of the “social sciences” because of the subjective nature of the things it seeks to study. Many of the concepts that psychologists are interested in—such as aspects of the human mind, behavior, and emotions—are subjective and cannot be directly measured. Psychologists often rely instead on behavioral observations and self-reported data, which are considered by some to be illegitimate or lacking in methodological rigor. Applying the scientific method to psychology, therefore, helps to standardize the approach to understanding its very different types of information.

The scientific method allows psychological data to be replicated and confirmed in many instances, under different circumstances, and by a variety of researchers. Through replication of experiments, new generations of psychologists can reduce errors and broaden the applicability of theories. It also allows theories to be tested and validated instead of simply being conjectures that could never be verified or falsified. All of this allows psychologists to gain a stronger understanding of how the human mind works.

Scientific articles published in journals and psychology papers written in the style of the American Psychological Association (i.e., in “APA style”) are structured around the scientific method. These papers include an Introduction, which introduces the background information and outlines the hypotheses; a Methods section, which outlines the specifics of how the experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis; a Results section, which includes the statistics that tested the hypothesis and state whether it was supported or not supported, and a Discussion and Conclusion, which state the implications of finding support for, or no support for, the hypothesis. Writing articles and papers that adhere to the scientific method makes it easy for future researchers to repeat the study and attempt to replicate the results. [2]

General Research Methodologies: Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods

Qualitative methods of research involve using a more open, evolving approach to finding out about the world. There is less emphasis on quantifying what is known and more emphasis on tapping into the experiences, assumptions, and meanings subjects give to their situations. Qualitative methods can be used to explore an area about which little is known or to get a fresh look at a situation that has been studied before. The use of narratives in which the researcher tries to find out what is going on by using the subjects’ own words is one approach. Qualitative methods are used in anthropology, education, nursing, and other areas where the researcher wishes to be led by the participants into seeing what they deem as important.

The researcher begins with a broad interest and gains entrance into a setting in which to explore. Information is gathered using a variety of techniques such as observation, documenting the physical space and surroundings of that setting, recording interviews, etc. After gathering general information, the researcher may decide to focus more closely on specific research questions. Patterns may become apparent as the researcher revisits their field notes and spends more time in a setting. These prompt the researcher to explore new ideas until they feel they reach a point of saturation, or a feeling that they’ve thoroughly explored the situation. Patterns and answers to research questions are noted in a report of the findings.

Researchers who use qualitative methods might take the following steps when conducting research:

• Begin with a broad area of interest
• Gain entrance into a group to be researched
• Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest
• Ask open ended, broad “grand tour” types of questions when interviewing subjects
• Modify research questions as study continues
• Note patterns or consistencies
• Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed
• Report findings

In this type of research, theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the participants. The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer & Strauss, 1967). Researchers are to be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.

Quantitative methods involve beginning with a research question, reviewing the literature to see what others have found in their research of the topic, determining specifically what aspect of the topic to explore in your research and determining the most appropriate method to use for your purposes, conducting the study, which means finding your sample, administering your survey or conducting your experiments, interpreting the results by analyzing your data, drawing conclusions about what you have found, and finally sharing your findings with others in the scientific community by publishing your research.

Researchers using quantitative methods typically take the following steps when conducting research:

• Determining a research question
• Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)
• Determining a method of gathering information
• Conducting the study
• Interpreting results
• Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research
• Making your findings available to others (both to share information and to have your work scrutinized by others)

This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question or hypothesis, and it typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied. Many academic journals publish reports on studies conducted in this manner and a good way to become more familiar with these steps is to look at journal articles which will be written in sections that follow these 7 steps. [3]

Specific Research Methodologies

A research design is the specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data. Psychologists use three major types of research designs in their research, and each provides an essential avenue for scientific investigation. Descriptive or qualitative research is research that describes what is occurring at a point in time. Correlational research is research designed to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge. Experimental research is research in which a researcher manipulates one or more variables to see their effects. Each of the three research designs varies according to its strengths and limitations. [3]

Each of these research methods has unique strengths and weaknesses, and each method may only be appropriate for certain types of research questions. For example, studies that rely primarily on observation produce incredible amounts of information, but the ability to apply this information to the larger population is somewhat limited because of small sample sizes. Survey research, on the other hand, allows researchers to easily collect data from relatively large samples. While this allows for results to be generalized to the larger population more easily, the information that can be collected on any given survey is somewhat limited and subject to problems associated with any type of self-reported data. Some researchers conduct archival research by using existing records. While this can be a fairly inexpensive way to collect data that can provide insight into a number of research questions, researchers using this approach have no control on how or what kind of data was collected.

Correlational research can find a relationship between two variables, but the only way a researcher can claim that the relationship between the variables is cause and effect is to perform an experiment. In experimental research, which will be discussed later in the text, there is a tremendous amount of control over variables of interest. While this is a powerful approach, experiments are often conducted in very artificial settings. This calls into question the validity of experimental findings with regard to how they would apply in real-world settings. In addition, many of the questions that psychologists would like to answer cannot be pursued through experimental research because of ethical concerns.

Descriptive or Qualitative Research

Descriptive or qualitative research methods include the case study , naturalistic observation/observational research , surveys , interviews , psychophysiological assessments , and secondary/ content analysis or archival research .

Case Study Methodology

In 2011, the  New York Times  published a feature story on Krista and Tatiana Hogan, Canadian twin girls. These particular twins are unique because Krista and Tatiana are conjoined twins, connected at the head. There is evidence that the two girls are connected in a part of the brain called the thalamus, which is a major sensory relay center. Most incoming sensory information is sent through the thalamus before reaching higher regions of the cerebral cortex for processing.

The implications of this potential connection mean that it might be possible for one twin to experience the sensations of the other twin. For instance, if Krista is watching a particularly funny television program, Tatiana might smile or laugh even if she is not watching the program. This particular possibility has piqued the interest of many neuroscientists who seek to understand how the brain uses sensory information.

These twins represent an enormous resource in the study of the brain, and since their condition is very rare, it is likely that as long as their family agrees, scientists will follow these girls very closely throughout their lives to gain as much information as possible (Dominus, 2011).

In observational research, scientists are conducting a clinical or   case study  when they focus on one person or just a few individuals. Indeed, some scientists spend their entire careers studying just 10–20 individuals. Why would they do this? Obviously, when they focus their attention on a very small number of people, they can gain a tremendous amount of insight into those cases. The richness of information that is collected in clinical or case studies is unmatched by any other single research method. This allows the researcher to have a very deep understanding of the individuals and the particular phenomenon being studied.

If clinical or case studies provide so much information, why are they not more frequent among researchers? As it turns out, the major benefit of this particular approach is also a weakness. As mentioned earlier, this approach is often used when studying individuals who are interesting to researchers because they have a rare characteristic. Therefore, the individuals who serve as the focus of case studies are not like most other people. If scientists ultimately want to explain all behavior, focusing attention on such a special group of people can make it difficult to generalize any observations to the larger population as a whole. Generalizing refers to the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society. Again, case studies provide enormous amounts of information, but since the cases are so specific, the potential to apply what’s learned to the average person may be very limited. [5]

How is the Case Study Conducted?

The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher provides a description of the behavior. This comes from interviews and other sources, such as observation.

The client also reports detail of events from his or her point of view. The researcher then writes up the information from both sources above as the case study and interprets the information.  The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen.

Amongst the sources of data the psychologist is likely to turn to when carrying out a case study are observations of a person’s daily routine, unstructured interviews with the participant herself (and with people who know her), diaries, personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs, notes) or official document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports).

The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing the case history of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach.

The interview is also an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.

Most of this information is likely to be qualitative (i.e. verbal description rather than measurement) but the psychologist might collect numerical data as well.

Strengths of Case Studies

• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research which only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension to experience which is so important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is therefore important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e. humanistic psychologists).

Limitations of Case Studies

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e. descriptive) data a lot depends on the interpretation the psychologist places on the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for observer bias and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit the particular theories about behavior (e.g. Little Hans).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory. [4]

Naturalistic Observations/ Observational Research Methodology

Observational studies involve watching and recording the actions of participants. This may take place in the natural setting, such as observing children at play at a park, or behind a one-way glass while children are at play in a laboratory playroom. The researcher may follow a checklist and record the frequency and duration of events (perhaps how many conflicts occur among 2- year-olds) or may observe and record as much as possible about an event (such as observing children in a classroom and capturing the details about the room design and what the children and teachers are doing and saying). [5]

We want our researcher to be inconspicuous—perhaps, as mentioned above standing behind one-way glass. This type of observational study is called  naturalistic observation : observing behavior in its natural setting. To better understand peer exclusion, Suzanne Fanger collaborated with colleagues at the University of Texas to observe the behavior of preschool children on a playground. How did the observers remain inconspicuous over the duration of the study? They equipped a few of the children with wireless microphones (which the children quickly forgot about) and observed while taking notes from a distance. Also, the children in that particular preschool (a “laboratory preschool”) were accustomed to having observers on the playground (Fanger, Frankel, & Hazen, 2012).

It is critical that the observer be as unobtrusive and as inconspicuous as possible: when people know they are being watched, they are less likely to behave naturally. If you have any doubt about this, ask yourself how your driving behavior might differ in two situations: In the first situation, you are driving down a deserted highway during the middle of the day; in the second situation, you are being followed by a police car down the same deserted highway (Figure 1).

It should be pointed out that naturalistic observation is not limited to research involving humans. Indeed, some of the best-known examples of naturalistic observation involve researchers going into the field to observe various kinds of animals in their own environments. As with human studies, the researchers maintain their distance and avoid interfering with the animal subjects so as not to influence their natural behaviors. Scientists have used this technique to study social hierarchies and interactions among animals ranging from ground squirrels to gorillas. The information provided by these studies is invaluable in understanding how those animals organize socially and communicate with one another. The anthropologist Jane Goodall,(image below) for example, spent nearly five decades observing the behavior of chimpanzees in Africa. As an illustration of the types of concerns that a researcher might encounter in naturalistic observation, some scientists criticized Goodall for giving the chimps names instead of referring to them by numbers—using names was thought to undermine the emotional detachment required for the objectivity of the study (McKie, 2010).

The greatest benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity, or accuracy, of information collected unobtrusively in a natural setting. Having individuals behave as they normally would in a given situation means that we have a higher degree of ecological validity, or realism, than we might achieve with other research approaches. Therefore, our ability to  generalize  the findings of the research to real-world situations is enhanced. If done correctly, we need not worry about people or animals modifying their behavior simply because they are being observed. Sometimes, people may assume that reality programs give us a glimpse into authentic human behavior. However, the principle of inconspicuous observation is violated as reality stars are followed by camera crews and are interviewed on camera for personal confessionals. Given that environment, we must doubt how natural and realistic their behaviors are.

The major downside of naturalistic observation is that they are often difficult to set up and control. In our restroom study, what if you stood in the restroom all day prepared to record people’s hand washing behavior and no one came in? Or, what if you have been closely observing a troop of gorillas for weeks only to find that they migrated to a new place while you were sleeping in your tent? The benefit of realistic data comes at a cost. As a researcher you have no control of when (or if) you have behavior to observe. In addition, this type of observational research often requires significant investments of time, money, and a good dose of luck.

Sometimes studies involve structured observation . In these cases, people are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks. An excellent example of structured observation comes from the Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth (you will read more about this later). The Strange Situation is a procedure used to evaluate attachment styles that exist between an infant and caregiver. In this scenario, caregivers bring their infants into a room filled with toys. The Strange Situation involves a number of phases, including a stranger coming into the room, the caregiver leaving the room, and the caregiver’s return to the room. The infant’s behavior is closely monitored at each phase, but it is the behavior of the infant upon being reunited with the caregiver that is most telling in terms of characterizing the infant’s attachment style with the caregiver.

Another potential problem in observational research is  observer bias . Generally, people who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations. To protect against this type of bias, researchers should have clear criteria established for the types of behaviors recorded and how those behaviors should be classified. In addition, researchers often compare observations of the same event by multiple observers, in order to test  inter-rater reliability : a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers. [6]

Survey Methodology

Surveys are familiar to most people because they are so widely used. Surveys enhance accessibility to subjects because they can be conducted in person, over the phone, through the mail, or online. A survey involves asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects. In a highly structured survey, subjects are forced to choose from a response set such as “strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree”; or “0, 1-5, 6-10, etc.” Surveys are commonly used by sociologists, marketing researchers, political scientists, therapists, and others to gather information on several variables in a relatively short period of time. Surveys typically yield surface information on a wide variety of factors but may not allow for in-depth understanding of human behavior. Of course, surveys can be designed in a number of ways. They may include forced choice questions and semi-structured questions in which the researcher allows the respondent to describe or give details about certain events. One of the most difficult aspects of designing a good survey is wording questions in an unbiased way and asking the right questions so that respondents can give a clear response rather that choosing “undecided” each time. Knowing that 30% of respondents are undecided is of little use! So, a lot of time and effort should be placed on the construction of survey items. One of the benefits of having forced choice items is that each response is coded so that the results can be quickly entered and analyzed using statistical software. Analysis takes much longer when respondents give lengthy responses that must be analyzed in a different way. Surveys are useful in examining stated values, attitudes, opinions, and reporting on practices. However, they are based on self-report or what people say they do rather than on observation and this can limit accuracy. [7]

The Survey Below Asks Questions Regarding School Reform [8]

Rather than surveying participants, they can be interviewed which means they are directly questioned by a researcher. Interviewing participants on their behaviors or beliefs can solve the problem of misinterpreting the questions posed on surveys. The examiner can explain the questions and further probe responses for greater clarity and understanding. Although this can yield more accurate results, interviews take longer and are more expensive to administer than surveys. Participants can also demonstrate social desirability, which will affect the accuracy of the responses.

Psychophysiological Assessment

Researchers may also record psychophysiological data , such as measures of heart rate, hormone levels, or brain activity to help explain development. These measures may be recorded by themselves or in combination with behavioral data to better understand the bidirectional relations between biology and behavior. Special equipment has been developed to allow researchers to record the brain activity of infants and children. One manner of understanding associations between brain development and behavioral advances is through the recording of event-related potentials (ERPs). ERPs are recorded by fitting a research participant with a stretchy cap that contains many small sensors or electrodes . These electrodes record tiny electrical currents on the scalp of the participant in response to the presentation of stimuli, such as a picture or a sound.

The use of ERPs has provided important insight as to how infants and children understand the world around them. Webb, Dawson, Bernier, and Panagiotides (2006) examined face and object processing in children with autism spectrum disorders, those with developmental delays, and those who were typically developing. The children wore electrode caps and had their brain activity recorded as they watched still photographs of faces of their mother or of a stranger, and objects, including those that were familiar or unfamiliar to them. The researchers examined differences in face and object processing by group by observing a component of the brainwaves. Findings suggest that children with autism are in some way processing faces differently than typically developing children and those with more general developmental delays.

An infant wearing a skull-cap that contains electrodes during an event-related potential (ERP) recording

Secondary/Content Analysis or Archival Research

Secondary/content analysis or archival research involves analyzing information that has already been collected or examining documents or media to uncover attitudes, practices or preferences. There are many data sets available to those who wish to conduct this type of research. For example, the U. S. Census Data is available and widely used to look at trends and changes taking place in the United States. The researcher conducting secondary analysis does not have to recruit subjects but does need to know the quality of the information collected in the original study.

Correlational Research

In contrast to descriptive research, which is designed primarily to provide static pictures, correlational research involves the measurement of two or more variables (a variable is anything that can change in value) and an assessment of the relationship between or among those variables. For instance, the variables of height and weight are systematically related (correlated) because taller people generally weigh more than shorter people.

The Pearson Correlation Coefficient, symbolized by the letter r, is the most common statistical measure of the strength of linear relationships among variables. The value of the correlation coefficient ranges from r= –1.00 to r = 1.00. The strength of the linear relationship is indexed by the distance of the correlation coefficient from zero (its absolute value). For instance, r = –.54 is a stronger relationship than r= .30, and r = .72 is a stronger relationship than r = –.57. The direction of the linear relationship is indicated by the sign of the correlation coefficient . Positive values of r (such as r = .54 or r = .67) indicate that the relationship is positive (i.e., the pattern of the dots on the scatter plot runs from the lower left to the upper right), whereas negative values of r (such as r = –.30 or r = –.72) indicate negative relationships (i.e., the dots run from the upper left to the lower right).

Examples of positive and negative correlational data presented as scatterplots

When the straight line indicates that individuals who have high values for one variable also tend to have high values for the other variable, as in part (a) above, the relationship is said to be a positive correlation . Examples of positive correlations include those between education and income, and between age and mathematical abilities in children. In each case people who score higher on one of the variables also tend to score higher on the other variable. Negative correlations , in contrast, as shown in part (b) above, occur when high values for one variable tend to be associated with low values for the other variable. Examples of negative correlations include those between the age of a child and the number of diapers the child uses, and between practice and errors made on a learning task. In these cases, people who score higher on one of the variables tend to score lower on the other variable. [9]

An example of how a scatterplot might look in the case where a study finds that kindergarten and elementary school children who were better at rhymes and hearing the sounds of individual letters before they started to read later learn to read words more quickly than children who were not as good with making an distinguishing elementary sounds of language can be found below.

Scatterplot Between Speed of Learning to Read and Ability to Make and Hear Language-Related Sounds

The above scatter plots shows that the relationship between “Speed of Learning to Read” and the “Ability to Make and Hear Language-Related Sounds is “positive” and “strong. “ [10]

An important limitation of correlational research designs is that they cannot be used to draw conclusions about the causal relationships among the measured variables. In other words, CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION .  Consider, for instance, a researcher who has hypothesized that viewing violent behavior will cause increased aggressive play in children. He has collected, from a sample of fourth-grade children, a measure of how much violent television each child views during the week, as well as a measure of how aggressively each child plays. The researcher discovers a positive correlation between the two measured variables. Although this positive correlation appears to support the hypothesis, it cannot be taken to indicate that viewing violent television causes aggressive behavior or aggressive behavior causes one to view violent television.  Another possible explanation for the observed correlation is that it has been produced by the presence of a third variable.

A third or extraneous variable is a variable that is not part of the research hypothesis but produces the observed correlation between them. In our example a potential third variable is the discipline style of the children’s parents. Parents who use a harsh and punitive discipline style may produce children who both like to watch violent television and who behave aggressively in comparison to children whose parents use less harsh discipline.

For this reason, we are left with the basic limitation of correlational research: Correlation does not demonstrate causation! It is important that when you read about correlational research projects, you keep in mind the possibility of third variables.

Strengths and limitations of Correlational Research

Correlational research can be used when experimental research is not possible because the variables either cannot be manipulated, or it would be unethical to use an experiment. Correlational designs also have the advantage of allowing the researcher to study behavior as it occurs in everyday life. We can also use correlational designs to make predictions. For instance, we can predict from the scores on a battery of tests the success of job trainees during a training session. However, we cannot use such correlational information to determine whether one variable caused another variable. For that, researchers rely on an experiment.

Experimental Research

In order to conduct an experiment, a researcher must have a specific hypothesis to be tested. As you’ve learned, hypotheses can be formulated either through direct observation of the real world or after careful review of previous research. For example, if you think that children should not be allowed to watch violent programming on television because doing so would cause them to behave more violently, then you have basically formulated a hypothesis—namely, that watching violent television programs causes children to behave more violently. How might you have arrived at this particular hypothesis? You may have younger relatives who watch cartoons featuring characters using martial arts to save the world from evildoers, with an impressive array of punching, kicking, and defensive postures. You notice that after watching these programs for a while, your young relatives mimic the fighting behavior of the characters portrayed in the cartoon.

These sorts of personal observations are what often lead us to formulate a specific hypothesis, but we cannot use limited personal observations and anecdotal evidence to rigorously test our hypothesis. Instead, to find out if real-world data supports our hypothesis, we have to conduct an experiment. [11]

Three conditions must be met to establish cause and effect. Experimental designs are useful in meeting these conditions.

• The independent variable and the dependent variable must be related. In other words, when one is altered, the other changes in response. (The independent variable is something altered or introduced by the researcher. The dependent variable is the outcome that is measured, or the factor affected by the introduction of the independent variable. For example, if we are looking at the impact of different levels of intervention on reading scores, the independent variable would be the level of intervention and the dependent variable would be the reading scores.)
• The cause must come before the effect. Experiments involve measuring subjects on the dependent variable before exposing them to the independent variable (establishing a baseline). So, we would measure the subjects’ level of reading before introducing the intervention program and then again after the intervention program to see if there has been a change in reading scores. (Observational and survey research does not always allow us to look at the timing of these events, which makes understanding causality problematic with these designs.)
• The cause must be isolated. The researcher must ensure that no outside, perhaps unknown or confounding variables are causing the effect we see. The experimental design helps make this possible. In an experiment, we would make sure that our subjects did not receive any intervention at home or at an after-school program. Otherwise these additional interventions might influence reading scores. [12]

Designing an Experiment

The most basic experimental design involves two groups: the experimental group and the control group . The two groups are designed to be the same except for one difference— experimental manipulation. The experimental group gets the experimental manipulation—that is, the treatment or variable being tested (in this case, violent TV images)—and the control group does not. Since experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, we can be sure that any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance.

In our example of how violent television programming might affect violent behavior in children, we have the experimental group view violent television programming for a specified time and then measure their violent behavior. We measure the violent behavior in our control group after they watch nonviolent television programming for the same amount of time. It is important for the control group to be treated similarly to the experimental group, with the exception that the control group does not receive the experimental manipulation. Therefore, we have the control group watch non-violent television programming for the same amount of time as the experimental group.

We also need to precisely define, or operationalize, what is considered violent and nonviolent. An  operational definition  is a description of how we will measure our variables, and it is important in allowing others understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment. In operationalizing violent behavior, we might choose to count only physical acts like kicking or punching as instances of this behavior, or we also may choose to include angry verbal exchanges. Whatever we determine, it is important that we operationalize violent behavior in such a way that anyone who hears about our study for the first time knows exactly what we mean by violence. This aids peoples’ ability to interpret our data as well as their capacity to repeat our experiment should they choose to do so.

Test Your Knowledge of a Good Operational Definition:  Below you will find 5 suggested operational definitions.  For each statement, determine whether or not the statement either provides a good example of an operational definition (True), or does not provide a good example of an operational definition (False).

Once we have operationalized what is considered violent television programming and what is considered violent behavior from our experiment participants, we need to establish how we will run our experiment. In this case, we might have participants watch a 30-minute television program (either violent or nonviolent, depending on their group membership) before sending them out to a playground for an hour where their behavior is observed and the number and type of violent acts is recorded.

Ideally, the people who observe and record the children’s behavior are unaware of who was assigned to the experimental or control group, in order to control for experimenter bias.  Experimenter bias  refers to the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study. Remember, conducting an experiment requires a lot of planning, and the people involved in the research project have a vested interest in supporting their hypotheses. If the observers knew which child was in which group, it might influence how much attention they paid to each child’s behavior as well as how they interpreted that behavior. By being blind to which child is in which group, we protect against those biases. This situation is a  single-blind study , meaning that one of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group.

In a  double-blind study , both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments. Why would a researcher want to run a study where no one knows who is in which group? Because by doing so, we can control for both experimenter and participant expectations. If you are familiar with the phrase placebo effect, you already have some idea as to why this is an important consideration. The  placebo effect  occurs when people’s expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation. In other words, simply expecting something to happen can actually make it happen.

The placebo effect is commonly described in terms of testing the effectiveness of a new medication. Imagine that you work in a pharmaceutical company, and you think you have a new drug that is effective in treating depression. To demonstrate that your medication is effective, you run an experiment with two groups: The experimental group receives the medication, and the control group does not. But you don’t want participants to know whether they received the drug or not.

Why is that? Imagine that you are a participant in this study, and you have just taken a pill that you think will improve your mood. Because you expect the pill to have an effect, you might feel better simply because you took the pill and not because of any drug actually contained in the pill—this is the placebo effect.

To make sure that any effects on mood are due to the drug and not due to expectations, the control group receives a placebo (in this case a sugar pill). Now everyone gets a pill, and once again neither the researcher nor the experimental participants know who got the drug and who got the sugar pill. Any differences in mood between the experimental and control groups can now be attributed to the drug itself rather than to experimenter bias or participant expectations. [13]

Independent and Dependent Variables

In a research experiment, we strive to study whether changes in one thing cause changes in another. To achieve this, we must pay attention to two important variables, or things that can be changed, in any experimental study: the independent variable and the dependent variable . An independent variable is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter. In a well-designed experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control groups. In our example of how violent television programs affect children’s display of violent behavior, the independent variable is the type of program—violent or nonviolent—viewed by participants in the study (Figure 3). A dependent variable is what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had. In our example, the dependent variable is the number of violent acts displayed by the experimental participants.

The Influence of the Independent Variable on the Dependent Variable

In an experiment, manipulations of the independent variable are expected to result in changes in the dependent variable . (credit “automatic weapon”: modifications of work by Daniel Oines: credit “toy gun”: modifications of work by Emran Kassim)

We expect that the dependent variable will change as a function of the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable  depends  on the independent variable. A good way to think about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is with this question: What effect does the independent variable have on the dependent variable? Returning to our example, what effect does watching a half hour of violent television programming or nonviolent television programming have on the number of incidents of physical aggression displayed on the playground?

Selecting and Assigning Experimental Participants

Now that our study is designed, we need to obtain a sample of individuals to include in our experiment. Our study involves human participants so we need to determine who to include.  Participants  are the subjects of psychological research, and as the name implies, individuals who are involved in psychological research actively participate in the process. Often, psychological research projects rely on college students to serve as participants. In fact, the vast majority of research in psychology subfields has historically involved students as research participants (Sears, 1986; Arnett, 2008). But are college students truly representative of the general population? College students tend to be younger, more educated, more liberal, and less diverse than the general population. Although using students as test subjects is an accepted practice, relying on such a limited pool of research participants can be problematic because it is difficult to generalize findings to the larger population.

Our hypothetical experiment involves children, and we must first generate a sample of child participants. Samples are used because populations are usually too large to reasonably involve every member in our particular experiment. If possible, we should use a  random sample  (there are other types of samples, but for the purposes of this section, we will focus on random samples). A random sample is a subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Random samples are preferred because if the sample is large enough, we can be reasonably sure that the participating individuals are representative of the larger population. This means that the percentages of characteristics in the sample—sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic level, and any other characteristics that might affect the results—are close to those percentages in the larger population.

In our example, let’s say we decide our population of interest is fourth graders. But all fourth graders is a very large population, so we need to be more specific; instead we might say our population of interest is all fourth graders in a particular city. We should include students from various income brackets, family situations, races, ethnicities, religions, and geographic areas of town. With this more manageable population, we can work with the local schools to randomly select around 200 fourth graders who we want to participate in our experiment.

In summary, because we cannot test all of the fourth graders in a city, we want to find a group of about 200 that reflects the composition of that city. With a representative group, we can generalize our findings to the larger population without fear of our sample being biased in some way.

Now that we have a sample, the next step of the experimental process is to split the participants into experimental and control groups through random assignment. With  random assignment , all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group. There is statistical software that will randomly assign each of the fourth graders in the sample to either the experimental or the control group.

Random assignment is critical for sound experimental design. With sufficiently large samples, random assignment makes it unlikely that there are systematic differences between the groups. So, for instance, it would be very unlikely that we would get one group composed entirely of males, a given ethnic identity, or a given religious ideology. This is important because if the groups were systematically different before the experiment began, we would not know the origin of any differences we find between the groups: Were the differences preexisting, or were they caused by manipulation of the independent variable? Random assignment allows us to assume that any differences observed between experimental and control groups result from the manipulation of the independent variable. [14]

Despite the advantage of determining causation, experiments do have limitations. One is that they are often conducted in laboratory situations rather than in the everyday lives of people. Therefore, we do not know whether results that we find in a laboratory setting will necessarily hold up in everyday life. Second, and more important, is that some of the most interesting and key social variables cannot be experimentally manipulated because of ethical concerns. If we want to study the influence of abuse on children’s development of depression, these relationships must be assessed using correlational designs because it is simply not ethical to experimentally manipulate these variables. Characteristics of descriptive, correlational, and experimental research designs can be found in the following table. [15] , [16]

Table describing the type of research design with corresponding Goal, Advantages, and Disadvantages.

Developmental Research Designs

While research methods are tools that are used to collect information, research design is the strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information. Research design dictates which research methods are used and how. When we are trying to describe development and change, the research designs become especially important because we are interested in what changes and what stays the same with age. [19]   Developmental researchers typically use one of three types of developmental research design, either cross-sectional , longitudinal , or cross-sequential/sequential .

Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal and Cross Sequential/Sequential Research Designs

Cross sectional research designs.

Cross-sectional research compares samples that represent a cross-section of the population who vary in age. Participants might be asked to complete a survey or take a test of some physical or cognitive skill. The attitudes or skill levels based on age are compared. In cross-sectional research, respondents are measured only once, and consequently this method is not expensive or time consuming. In addition, because participants are only tested at one point in time, practice effects are not an issue as children do not have the opportunity to become better at the task over time. There is also no need to keep in contact with, or follow-up with, participants over time.  The table [17] below shows that the study included a group of 2-year-olds, a group of 6-year-olds and a group of 8-year-olds.

Cohort Group Participants of a Cross-Sectional Design

However, cross-sectional research does not allow the researcher to look at the impact of having been born in a certain time-period, which is known as the cohort effect . For example, those born during the depression have very different views about and experiences with the internet than those born in the last twenty years. Different attitudes about the Internet, for example, might not be due to a person’s biological age as much as their life experiences as members of a cohort. [18]

Longitudinal Research Designs

Longitudinal research involves studying a group of people who are the same age and measuring them repeatedly over a period-of-time. This type of design allows researchers to study individual differences in development. Longitudinal studies may be conducted over the short term, such as a span of months, or over much longer durations including years or decades. For these reasons, longitudinal research designs are optimal for studying stability and change over time.

Cohort Group Participants of a Longitudinal Design

Problems with longitudinal research include being very time consuming and expensive. Researchers must maintain continued contact with participants over time, and these studies necessitate that scientists have funding to conduct their work over extended durations. An additional risk is attrition. Attrition occurs when participants fail to complete all portions of a study. Participants may move, change their phone numbers, or simply become disinterested in participating over time. Researchers should account for the possibility of attrition by enrolling a larger sample into their study initially, as some participants will likely drop out over time. Even with a large sample size, the experimenter never knows if there was something different about the individuals who dropped out versus those that remained in the study.

The results from longitudinal studies may also be impacted by repeated assessments. Consider how well you would do on a math test if you were given the exact same exam every day for a week. Your performance would likely improve over time not necessarily because you developed better math abilities, but because you were continuously practicing the same math problems. This phenomenon is known as a practice effect. Practice effects occur when participants become better at a task over time because they have done it again and again; not due to natural psychological development. [19]

Cross-Sequential/Sequential Designs

Cross-sequential research includes elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional research designs. Like longitudinal designs, sequential research features participants who are followed over time; like cross-sectional designs, sequential work includes participants of different ages. This research design is also distinct from those that have been discussed previously in that individuals of different ages are enrolled into a study at various points in time to examine age-related changes, development within the same individuals as they age, and account for the possibility of cohort effects. [20]

Cohort Group Participants of a Cross-Sequential Design

For example, in a study with a sequential design, a researcher might enroll three separate groups of children (Groups A, B, and C). Children in Group A would be enrolled when they are 2 years old and would be tested again when they are 4 and 6 years old. This is similar in design to the longitudinal study described previously. Children in Group B would also be enrolled when they are 2 years old, but this would occur two years later when Group A is now 4 years old. Finally, children in Group C would be enrolled when they are 2 years old and Group A is now 6 and Group B is now 4. At this time, the children would represent a cross-sectional design (2, 4, and 6 years of age). Further, along the diagonal children of the same age can be compared to determine if cohort effects are evident. Sequential designs are appealing because they allow researchers to learn a lot about development in a relatively short amount of time.

Because they include elements of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, sequential research has many of the same strengths and limitations as these other approaches. For example, sequential work may require less time and effort than longitudinal research, but more time and effort than cross-sectional research. Although practice effects may be an issue if participants are asked to complete the same tasks or assessments over time, attrition may be less problematic than what is commonly experienced in longitudinal research since participants may not have to remain involved in the study for such a long period-of-time. [21]   The table that follows summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of developmental research designs.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Developmental Research Designs [27]

Preferential Looking and Habituation

Conducting psychological experiments that involve infant participants can be difficult.  Infants may fall asleep or cry during procedures, and typically do not follow instructions well.  The most difficult aspect of working with infants is their lack of language abilities.  In other words, infants can’t tell you what they think, believe, or feel like adults can.  However, infant visual capabilities while not as developed as older children or adults can be used to provide researchers with insights into their cognitive abilities.

Preferential Looking

In 1961 Robert L. Fantz introduced the visual preference paradigm .  The technique was simple, show infants two different stimuli paired alongside each other and measure how long the infant would look at either stimulus.  Fantz concluded that the stimulus the infants looked longer at was the preferred stimulus.  As he continued his technique, he began to find similar preference patterns among infants.  For example, Fantz showed that from 2 months of age, infants preferred complex images like bulls-eyes over plain white or black circles.  One of his more interesting findings is that newborns and infants prefer faces and face-like patterns over non-face-like patterns.  This finding led Fantz to hypothesize that this preference was an innate ability that might serve to enhance survival of the newborn and infant.

Fantz’s Looking Chamber

The preferential looking technique can be used to test infant visual acuity.  In this case infants are shown several presentations of different stimuli consisting of black and white stripes of varying widths alongside a control stimulus (a uniform grey disc).  When the looking time between the two stimuli is approximately 50% for either stimulus the infant’s visual acuity limit has been reached.

Finally, the concept behind the preferential looking technique have been adapted for use in the study of audition.  The head-turn preference procedure (HPP) or preferential listening paradigm is used to explore infants’ ability to discriminate between auditory stimuli.

Infant Preferential Looking

Habituation

Fantz was one of the first researchers to make use of the habituation technique (although he did not refer to the technique as “habituation) to study human infant perceptual and cognitive abilities.

In habituation studies, infants are presented with a stimulus such as a photograph of a face over several trials until they become bored with it. Typically, when infants become bored, they will look away from the picture. Once the infant has been habituated, or bored, a new or test stimulus is then paired with the original stimulus.  Therefore, if the infant is shown a new picture–such as a photograph of a different face paired with the original picture, their interest will return, and they will look longer at the new picture. This is a phenomenon known as dishabituation . Habituation procedures work because infants generally look longer at novel stimuli relative to items that are familiar to them. This research technique takes advantage of involuntary or obligatory responses because infants are constantly looking around and observing their environments; they do not have to be taught to engage with the world in this way. [23]

Types of Habituation Protocols

Fixed trial habituation protocols and the infant-controlled procedure.

The simplest habituation protocols are fixed trial (FT) procedures , which involve administering a set of discrete, repetitive stimulus presentations to an infant; each trial has a fixed duration, and a fixed inter-trial interval. For example, one might present 8 trials of a checkerboard to an infant, each lasting 10 s with a 10 s inter-trial interval (e.g., Colombo et al., 1997). In simple FT protocols, the presentations are in no way linked to, or contingent upon, the infant’s behavior or visual attention; the infant is free to look or not look at the stimulus, and the procedure continues. There are a number of distinct advantages to running FT procedures: they are easy to automate, easy to conduct, and they yield data that are simple, uniform for each subject, and easy to analyze. The drawback of FT protocols, however, is that individual infants may habituate at different rates. To the degree that habituation rate reflects stimulus encoding (a central tenet of the comparator model), this implies that at the end of the FT protocol, infants may be at very different levels of processing. For instance, in the example described above (8 trials at 10 seconds each), infants might have looked for as much as 80 seconds and as little as 0 seconds. If one is interested in individual differences in infant processing, this may well be desirable (presuming that the infant has, in fact, looked at the stimulus), as it becomes analogous to a speeded cognitive task, where subjects are given a limited amount of time or exposure to an item before being administered a probe. However, if the aim of the protocol is to demonstrate a generic infant ability or skill, individual and developmental differences in visual behavior may obscure group effects that one is seeking to establish. [24]

This problem is addressed by the development of the infant-controlled procedure (ICP; Horowitz et al., 1972). There are two major differences between this procedure and the fixed trial protocol. The first is that the infant is administered repetitive stimulus presentations, but the beginning and end of the trial is contingent upon the infant’s looking. That is, the trial is not considered to start until the infant has looked at the stimulus, and it is terminated when the infant looks away.

Second, the trials continue until the infant has reduced their looking to some criterion. This criterion may be absolute (e.g., the sessions may end when the infant looks for a total of, say, no more than 3 seconds), but more often the criterion is relative to the infant’s initial level of looking. For example, the infant may be required to show a decline to a particular percentage (typically 50%) of their initial or longest levels.  For example, an experimenter determines the average of the first three trials of looking and continues until the last three trials of looking average 50% or below the average of the first three trials.  In this case, the trials can last anywhere from six trials and longer and will continue until the criteria specified has been reached.  It should be noted that the use of a relative criterion makes theoretical sense from the point of view of the comparator model; if the initial size of the OR (i.e., the length of the look) represents the response when there is no internal representation of the stimulus, then using a constant percentage of decline as a criterion for habituation theoretically equates all of the subjects for the extent to which the external stimulus is encoded. We note that this reasoning is based on a set of assumptions with regard to looking and the OR, but it is also reasonable to point out that the ICP works extremely well in practice.

There are several other issues to consider with respect to the ICP, however. The first one is that this procedure is more difficult to design and implement than the FT protocol. Because criteria are computed, set, and typically reset several times within a session (based on the looks that the infant makes to the stimulus), it is difficult to conduct this without the aid of a microcomputer and custom programming.

Second, there are many decisions to be made about the parameters of the habituation protocol, for which there are neither consensual standards nor empirical evidence to guide the investigator. For example, instead of using the average of the first three trials of looking as a comparison, a researcher may decide to use the average of the first two looking trials as the baseline for comparison.  These decisions can complicate the programming for the administration of the task. Group habituation curves will mislead many novice investigators into thinking that the first look of a habituation sequence is always the longest one. In fact, however, this occurs only about 60% of the time (Colombo & Mitchell, 1990). Thus, it is common to encounter long looks quite late in the habituation session, and if the habituation criterion is rigidly set by the length of the initial looks, infants will continue on in the session longer than necessary or may fail to attain the habituation criterion at all. In response to this, many investigators choose to allow the habituation criterion to “float,” or to be reset when longer looks occur later (i.e., beyond the first or second look) in the habituation sequence. In addition, the number of looks on which the criterion is based can vary; it may be based on the longest look, or the average of the two longest looks, or so forth. Similar issues must be faced when choosing how many criterion looks must be elicited to consider the infant to have habituated; here, the standard used by most investigators is two consecutive looks at or below criterion, but there is no empirical justification for this. accepted standard.

Third, the ICP dictates that the coding of looks must be done online, because the criterion for habituation is based on the duration of looks that have been observed earlier in the session. This has some implications for the reliability of online coding, but the coding of looks using the corneal reflection technique (or other less restrictive judgment criteria) tends to be quite easy and reliable. However, because the individual “look” now serves as the primary datum within the session, one must decide what constitutes a “look.” It is possible to place no constraints on the definition of a look; that is, to count any look to the stimulus as valid for purposes of setting or reaching the habituation criterion. However, one finds quickly that this may yield sequences of brief looks that result in very brief stimulus presentations that interfere with encoding; in addition, such looks may make it difficult to attain the habituation criterion, and have lower reliability (Colombo & Horowitz, 1985). In response, most investigators constrain the definition of looks in the ICP; looks must be of some minimum length (usually 1 or 2 sec) to be counted as valid, and be terminated by some minimum (again, 1 or 2 sec) look away from the stimulus. One of the few empirical evaluations of these procedural parameters, Colombo and Horowitz (1985) found 1 sec to be optimal for both the minimum look length and for the interval to characterize look termination, although this evidence has engendered little/no adoption of these standards, and no research has been conducted to determine whether different parameters might be appropriate for different aged infants.

Finally, it should be noted that like all criterion-based learning paradigms, the ICP will yield data sets that are not uniform in length for all participants; one infant may attain the habituation criterion in 5 looks, while another may take 25 looks to attain the criterion. As a result, the data structures for such files are not readily amenable to conventional forms of analysis and require considerable forethought in arranging. [25]

Conducting Ethical Research

As a student of psychological science, you may already know that Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) review and approve all research projects that are conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. An IRB is typically a panel of experts who read and evaluate proposals for research. IRB members want to ensure that the proposed research will be carried out ethically and that the potential benefits of the research outweigh the risks and harm for participants. What you may not know though, is that the IRB considers some groups of participants to be more vulnerable or at-risk than others. Whereas university students are generally not viewed as vulnerable or at-risk, infants and young children commonly fall into this category. What makes infants and young children more vulnerable during research than young adults? One reason infants and young children are perceived as being at increased risk is due to their limited cognitive capabilities, which makes them unable to state their willingness to participate in research or tell researchers when they would like to drop out of a study. For these reasons, infants and young children require special accommodations as they participate in the research process.

When thinking about special accommodations in developmental research, consider the informed consent process. If you have ever participated in psychological research, you may know through your own experience that adults commonly sign an informed consent statement (a contract stating that they agree to participate in research) after learning about a study. As part of this process, participants are informed of the procedures to be used in the research, along with any expected risks or benefits. Infants and young children cannot verbally indicate their willingness to participate, much less understand the balance of potential risks and benefits. As such, researchers are oftentimes required to obtain written informed consent from the parent or legal guardian of the child participant, an adult who is almost always present as the study is conducted. In fact, children are not asked to indicate whether they would like to be involved in a study at all (a process known as assent ) until they are approximately seven years old. Because infants and young children also cannot easily indicate if they would like to discontinue their participation in a study, researchers must be sensitive to changes in the state of the participant (determining whether a child is too tired or upset to continue) as well as to parent desires (in some cases, parents might want to discontinue their involvement in the research). As in adult studies, researchers must always strive to protect the rights and well-being of the minor participants and their parents when conducting developmental science. [26]

Decisions about whether research is ethical are made using established ethical codes developed by scientific organizations, such as the American Psychological Association, and federal governments. In the United States, the Department of Health and Human Services provides the guidelines for ethical standards in research. The following are the American Psychological Association code of ethics when using humans in research (APA, 2016).

• No Harm: The most direct ethical concern of the scientist is to prevent harm to the research participants.
• Informed Consent: Researchers must obtain informed consent, which explains as much as possible about the true nature of the study, particularly everything that might be expected to influence willingness to participate. Participants can withdraw their consent to participate at any point.
• Confidentiality: Researchers must also protect the privacy of the research participants’ responses by not using names or other information that could identify the participants.
• Deception: Deception occurs whenever research participants are not completely and fully informed about the nature of the research project before participating in it. Deception may occur when the researcher tells the participants that a study is about one thing when in fact it is about something else, or when participants are not told about the hypothesis.
• Debriefing: At the end of a study debriefing, which is a procedure designed to fully explain the purposes and procedures of the research and remove any harmful aftereffects of participation, must occur.

Test Yourself: Review of Research Methodologies

• Bower, T. G. R. (1966). The visual world of infants. Scientific American, 215(6), 80-92 ↵
• All images and text found under this footnote are from Lumenlearning, Introduction to Psychology Module 2: Psychological research   is licensed under CC BY SA 4.0 (modified by Maria Pagano).[3] Introduction to Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet is found on YouTube and is licensed under standard YouTube terms. (modified by Maria Pagano) ↵
• Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective 2nd Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0[5] From Lumenlearning, Introduction to Psychology Module 2: Psychological research   is licensed under CC BY SA 4.0 ↵
• McLeod, S. A. (2019, August 03).  Case study method . Simply Psychology is licensed under CC BY NC 3.0. ↵
• Children’s Development  by Ana R. Leon is licensed under  CC BY 4.0 ↵
• From Lumenlearning, Introduction to Psychology Module 2: Psychological research   is licensed under CC BY SA 4.0 ↵
• Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
• "Skypecast Survey" by Wesley Fryer is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 ↵
• From Lumenlearning, Introduction to Psychology Module 2: Psychological research is licensed under CC BY SA 4.0 ↵
• From Lumenlearning, Introduction to Psychology Module 2: Psychological research   is licensed under CC BY SA 4.0 ↵
• Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective 2nd Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0  (modified by Maria Pagano) ↵
• Table created by Stangor, C. can be found on Canvas Network and is licensed under CC BY SA 3.0[19] Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Maria Pagano) ↵
• Image by  NOBA is licensed under  CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 ↵
• Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective 2nd Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 ↵
• Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective 2nd Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0[27] Image by  NOBA is licensed under  CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 ↵
• Fair Use: Image from Perkins School for the Blind eLEARNING ↵
• Research Methods in Developmental Psychology by Angela Lukowski and Helen Milojevich is licensed under CC BY NC SA 4.0 (modified by Maria Pagano ↵
• Infant Visual Habituation by John Colombo and D. Wayne Mitchell Source: U.S. National Library of Medicine. ↵

originating in or based on observation or experience; capable of being verified or disproved by observation or experiment empirical laws.

the process of objectively establishing facts through testing and experimentation.

a testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

A set of supported hypotheses that have been tested using empirical facts and is used to predict, explain, and understand behaviors.

the possibility that an assertion, hypothesis, or theory can be shown to be false by an observation or experiment.

involves asking broader research questions, collecting more detailed data (e.g., interviews), and using nonstatistical analyses.

involves the statistical and mathematical modeling of psychological processes, the design of research studies and the analysis of psychological data.

the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

a type of research that is used to describe the characteristics of a population. It collects data that are used to answer a wide range of what, when, and how questions pertaining to a particular population or group.

a statistical measure that expresses the extent to which two variables are linearly related (meaning they change together at a constant rate). It's a common tool for describing simple relationships without making a statement about cause and effect.

research conducted using the scientific approach that determines a cause and effect relationship.

A case study has also been described as an intensive, systematic investigation of a single individual, group, community or some other unit in which the researcher examines in-depth data relating to several variables.

several different types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded;a method that involves observing subjects in their natural environment/

a research method used for collecting data from a predefined group of respondents to gain information and insights into various topics of interest

a method of conversation with a specified purpose. Psychologists uses interview method in order to gain information in an efficient and streamlined manner; Interviews can be structured, unstructured or a combination of both structured and unstructured

involves recording and quantifying various physiological responses in controlled conditions using electromechanical equipment (e.g., electromyography, electroencephalography, electrodermal activity, respiratory activity, electrocardiography).

a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. text); research that involves searching for and extracting information and evidence from original archives. Archives are historical – non-current – documents, records and other sources relating to the activities and claims of individuals, entities or both.

a file containing relevant information pertaining to an individual client or group.

a method that involves observing subjects in their natural environment.

the extent to which findings (from a study) can be generalized (or extended) to the those in natural settings (i.e., outside the lab)

a systematic method of collecting behavioral data within a controlled environment, often used in research with infants and young children, in which observers measure overt actions and interpersonal processes.

occurs when a researcher's expectations, opinions, or prejudices influence what they perceive or record in a study

the degree to which different raters or judges make consistent estimates of the same phenomenon

a format for question responses that requires respondents to provide an answer (e.g., yes or no), forcing them to make judgments about each response option

a type of interview in which the interviewer asks only a few predefined questions while the rest of the questions are not planned in advance

physiological responses of human body to psychological manipulations

the measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event.

an instrument used to record electrical activity in the brain and other tissue

a statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between the relative movements of two variables; the values range between -1.0 and 1.0

a visual representation of the relationships or between two numerical variables, which are represented as points plotted at a horizontal axis (y-axis) and vertical axis (y-axis).

a relationship between two variables in which both variables move in the same direction; as one variable increases the other variable increases, or as one variable decreases the other variable decreases.

a relationship between two variables in which an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other

any variable that you're not investigating that can potentially affect the dependent variable of your research study

the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter

the variable that is measured by the experimenter

a group of participants in a research study who are exposed to a particular manipulation of the independent variable

the participants in a study who do not receive the experimental treatment.

a description of something in terms of the operations (procedures, actions, or processes) by which it could be observed and measured.

any systematic errors in the research process or the interpretation of its results that are attributable to a researcher's behavior, preconceived beliefs, expectancies, or desires about results

occurs when the participants are deliberately kept ignorant of the group to which they have been assigned, but the experimenter is aware of which individual is in a particular group.

a study where neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment

when a person's physical or mental health appears to improve after taking a placebo or 'dummy' treatment

the variable that is manipulated/controlled by the experimenter in an experiment.

a person who takes part in a study, or experiment

a subset of individuals randomly selected by researchers to represent the population of interest

how the sample is drawn from the population as a whole

a way of placing participants from your sample into different treatment groups using randomization

looking at data from a population at one specific point in time

the study of a variable or group of variables of the same participants over a period of time, sometimes several years

a mix between cross sectional research and longitudinal research

the effect that having been born at a certain time, or having experienced similar life experiences has on the development of one's perceptions.

a research technique for studying visual discrimination in infants in which the amount of time spent looking at different visual stimuli is measured to determine which stimulus the infants prefer

an experimental method in developmental psychology that works under the assumption that an infant will longer at something that he or she prefers over something that he or she does not prefer

a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

the reappearance or enhancement of a habituated response (i.e., one that has been weakened following repeated exposure to the evoking stimulus) due to the presentation of a new stimulus

infants are repeatedly familiarized to a single stimulus for a fixed amount of time and a new stimulus is then presented

looking time is reduced to a criterion level (typically, when the mean looking time over the last three trials is less than 50% of the mean looking time of the first three trials

a group of individuals designated to review and monitor research that involves human subjects

the process where participants in a study are given important information, including possible risks and benefits, about the study

a term used to express willingness to participate in research by persons who are by definition too young to give informed consent but are old enough to understand the proposed research

Infant and Child Development: From Conception Through Late Childhood Copyright © by Marie Parnes and Maria Pagano is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Methods of studying children: the background

This page was published over 5 years ago. Please be aware that due to the passage of time, the information provided on this page may be out of date or otherwise inaccurate, and any views or opinions expressed may no longer be relevant. Some technical elements such as audio-visual and interactive media may no longer work. For more detail, see how we deal with older content .

The three methods most commonly used by Developmental Psychologists to study children are:

1: Cross-sectional studies - comparisons are made of the behaviour or abilities of two or more different groups of children, with each group covering a different age range. This makes it less expensive to carry out the study, and results are gained faster, as the investigator does not have to wait for the children to get older! An example of a cross sectional study is the research we are carrying out as part of OpenLearn's  Child of Our Time website. Explore some of the results .

2: longitudinal studies - a group of children is followed up across time, this could be a relatively short period of several months, or in some cases for decades. as a result, the same children are seen at all of the ages being studied..

The Child of Our Time series is one example of a longitudinal study, with a relatively small group of children.

The Millennium Cohort Study is an example of a large scale longitudinal investigation, following a much larger number of children who were also born at the beginning of this century.

3: Case Studies - one or a very small number of children are seen regularly over a period of time. The time period is variable but usually is six months or more in length. There are some important diary studies which adopt this approach. The advantage of this method is that it can provide a very rich and detailed picture of development as well as providing insights into topics that should be investigated in a larger sample of children.

The Child of Our Time project is a longitudinal study, and the way it is reported also involves case studies of individual children and their families.

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

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• Status quo bias

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What is a Case Study?

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A child case study is a document that explains a kid’s real-life experience and gives a plan for what to do next. It can help kids develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

Table of Contents

• Frequently Asked Questions
• Science Person Definition

Real World Example of a Case Study

How does a case study work, recommended products, related topics, frequently asked question.

How is a case study conducted?

It involves observations, interviews, and tests to collect comprehensive data on the child. Experts then analyze this data to offer personalized solutions.

Why are case studies important for kids with special needs?

Case studies provide individualized insights that generic approaches can’t. They help educators and parents create strategies that work best for a specific child.

What kind of data is collected in a case study?

Observational data, interviews with caregivers, and skill assessments are common. This mixed-method approach provides a 360-degree view of the child’s needs.

Scientific Definition

A child case study is a research method that involves an in-depth, comprehensive examination of a particular child, typically one with special needs or a developmental disability . The case study aims to provide a holistic understanding of the child’s unique challenges, strengths, and experiences within their social, educational, and familial contexts. By conducting a thorough analysis of the child’s situation, professionals can develop targeted interventions and support strategies to optimize the child’s development and well-being.

• Understood.org
• Autism Society
• Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD)

Sophia’s case study illustrates how this tool can identify a child’s unique needs and inform targeted interventions. Here’s her story:

• Sophia, a bright 7-year-old, was referred for a case study due to concerns about her reading progress and anxiety in the classroom.
• The school psychologist observed Sophia, interviewed her parents and teachers, and conducted assessments of her cognitive skills , academic achievement, and emotional well-being.
• The case study revealed that Sophia had dyslexia and was experiencing anxiety related to reading aloud in class.
• Based on the findings, the team developed an individualized education plan with accommodations such as assistive technology , multisensory reading instruction, and stress management techniques.
• With these supports in place, Sophia’s reading skills improved, and her confidence soared. She now eagerly participates in class and has discovered a love for storytelling.

Sophia’s case study exemplifies how this powerful tool can illuminate a child’s strengths and challenges, paving the way for personalized interventions that foster success and happiness.

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Child case studies are valuable tools for understanding and supporting kids with special needs. Here are some ways they’re used:

• Assessment : Case studies provide a comprehensive assessment of a child’s strengths, challenges, and needs.
• Intervention planning : The findings from a case study inform the development of personalized intervention plans.
• Progress monitoring : Regular case study updates help track a child’s progress and guide adjustments to their support plan.
• Collaboration : Case studies facilitate collaboration among parents, educators, and healthcare professionals.

By using child case studies, parents and professionals can work together to provide the best possible support for kids with special needs.

This post was originally published on Sept. 10, 2023 . It was updated on April 19, 2024 .

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Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

Understanding Case Study Method in Research: A Comprehensive Guide

Table of Contents

Have you ever wondered how researchers uncover the nuanced layers of individual experiences or the intricate workings of a particular event? One of the keys to unlocking these mysteries lies in the qualitative research focusing on a single subject in its real-life context.">case study method , a research strategy that might seem straightforward at first glance but is rich with complexity and insightful potential. Let’s dive into the world of case studies and discover why they are such a valuable tool in the arsenal of research methods.

What is a Case Study Method?

At its core, the case study method is a form of qualitative research that involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a single subject, such as an individual, group, organization, event, or phenomenon. It’s a method favored when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident, and where multiple sources of data are used to illuminate the case from various perspectives. This method’s strength lies in its ability to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case in its real-life context.

Historical Context and Evolution of Case Studies

Case studies have been around for centuries, with their roots in medical and psychological research. Over time, their application has spread to disciplines like sociology, anthropology, business, and education. The evolution of this method has been marked by a growing appreciation for qualitative data and the rich, contextual insights it can provide, which quantitative methods may overlook.

Characteristics of Case Study Research

What sets the case study method apart are its distinct characteristics:

• Intensive Examination: It provides a deep understanding of the case in question, considering the complexity and uniqueness of each case.
• Contextual Analysis: The researcher studies the case within its real-life context, recognizing that the context can significantly influence the phenomenon.
• Multiple Data Sources: Case studies often utilize various data sources like interviews, observations, documents, and reports, which provide multiple perspectives on the subject.
• Participant’s Perspective: This method often focuses on the perspectives of the participants within the case, giving voice to those directly involved.

Types of Case Studies

There are different types of case studies, each suited for specific research objectives:

• Exploratory: These are conducted before large-scale research projects to help identify questions, select measurement constructs, and develop hypotheses.
• Descriptive: These involve a detailed, in-depth description of the case, without attempting to determine cause and effect.
• Explanatory: These are used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships and understand underlying principles of certain phenomena.
• Intrinsic: This type is focused on the case itself because the case presents an unusual or unique issue.
• Instrumental: Here, the case is secondary to understanding a broader issue or phenomenon.
• Collective: These involve studying a group of cases collectively or comparably to understand a phenomenon, population, or general condition.

The Process of Conducting a Case Study

Conducting a case study involves several well-defined steps:

• Defining Your Case: What or who will you study? Define the case and ensure it aligns with your research objectives.
• Selecting Participants: If studying people, careful selection is crucial to ensure they fit the case criteria and can provide the necessary insights.
• Data Collection: Gather information through various methods like interviews, observations, and reviewing documents.
• Data Analysis: Analyze the collected data to identify patterns, themes, and insights related to your research question.
• Reporting Findings: Present your findings in a way that communicates the complexity and richness of the case study, often through narrative.

Case Studies in Practice: Real-world Examples

Case studies are not just academic exercises; they have practical applications in every field. For instance, in business, they can explore consumer behavior or organizational strategies. In psychology, they can provide detailed insight into individual behaviors or conditions. Education often uses case studies to explore teaching methods or learning difficulties.

Advantages of Case Study Research

While the case study method has its critics, it offers several undeniable advantages:

• Rich, Detailed Data: It captures data too complex for quantitative methods.
• Contextual Insights: It provides a better understanding of the phenomena in its natural setting.
• Contribution to Theory: It can generate and refine theory, offering a foundation for further research.

Limitations and Criticism

However, it’s important to acknowledge the limitations and criticisms:

• Generalizability : Findings from case studies may not be widely generalizable due to the focus on a single case.
• Subjectivity: The researcher’s perspective may influence the study, which requires careful reflection and transparency.
• Time-Consuming: They require a significant amount of time to conduct and analyze properly.

Concluding Thoughts on the Case Study Method

The case study method is a powerful tool that allows researchers to delve into the intricacies of a subject in its real-world environment. While not without its challenges, when executed correctly, the insights garnered can be incredibly valuable, offering depth and context that other methods may miss. Robert K\. Yin ’s advocacy for this method underscores its potential to illuminate and explain contemporary phenomena, making it an indispensable part of the researcher’s toolkit.

Reflecting on the case study method, how do you think its application could change with the advancements in technology and data analytics? Could such a traditional method be enhanced or even replaced in the future?

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Research Methods in Psychology

1 Introduction to Psychological Research – Objectives and Goals, Problems, Hypothesis and Variables

• Nature of Psychological Research
• The Context of Discovery
• Context of Justification
• Characteristics of Psychological Research
• Goals and Objectives of Psychological Research

2 Introduction to Psychological Experiments and Tests

• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Extraneous Variables
• Experimental and Control Groups
• Introduction of Test
• Types of Psychological Test
• Uses of Psychological Tests

3 Steps in Research

• Research Process
• Identification of the Problem
• Review of Literature
• Formulating a Hypothesis
• Identifying Manipulating and Controlling Variables
• Formulating a Research Design
• Constructing Devices for Observation and Measurement
• Sample Selection and Data Collection
• Data Analysis and Interpretation
• Hypothesis Testing
• Drawing Conclusion

4 Types of Research and Methods of Research

• Historical Research
• Descriptive Research
• Correlational Research
• Qualitative Research
• Ex-Post Facto Research
• True Experimental Research
• Quasi-Experimental Research

5 Definition and Description Research Design, Quality of Research Design

• Research Design
• Purpose of Research Design
• Design Selection
• Criteria of Research Design
• Qualities of Research Design

6 Experimental Design (Control Group Design and Two Factor Design)

• Experimental Design
• Control Group Design
• Two Factor Design

7 Survey Design

• Survey Research Designs
• Steps in Survey Design
• Structuring and Designing the Questionnaire
• Interviewing Methodology
• Data Analysis
• Final Report

8 Single Subject Design

• Single Subject Design: Definition and Meaning
• Phases Within Single Subject Design
• Requirements of Single Subject Design
• Characteristics of Single Subject Design
• Types of Single Subject Design
• Advantages of Single Subject Design
• Disadvantages of Single Subject Design

9 Observation Method

• Definition and Meaning of Observation
• Characteristics of Observation
• Types of Observation
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation
• Guides for Observation Method

10 Interview and Interviewing

• Definition of Interview
• Types of Interview
• Aspects of Qualitative Research Interviews
• Interview Questions
• Convergent Interviewing as Action Research
• Research Team

11 Questionnaire Method

• Definition and Description of Questionnaires
• Types of Questionnaires
• Purpose of Questionnaire Studies
• Designing Research Questionnaires
• The Methods to Make a Questionnaire Efficient
• The Types of Questionnaire to be Included in the Questionnaire
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaire
• When to Use a Questionnaire?

12 Case Study

• Definition and Description of Case Study Method
• Historical Account of Case Study Method
• Designing Case Study
• Requirements for Case Studies
• Guideline to Follow in Case Study Method
• Other Important Measures in Case Study Method
• Case Reports

13 Report Writing

• Purpose of a Report
• Writing Style of the Report
• Report Writing – the Do’s and the Don’ts
• Format for Report in Psychology Area
• Major Sections in a Report

14 Review of Literature

• Purposes of Review of Literature
• Sources of Review of Literature
• Types of Literature
• Writing Process of the Review of Literature
• Preparation of Index Card for Reviewing and Abstracting

15 Methodology

• Definition and Purpose of Methodology
• Participants (Sample)
• Apparatus and Materials

16 Result, Analysis and Discussion of the Data

• Definition and Description of Results
• Statistical Presentation
• Tables and Figures

17 Summary and Conclusion

• Summary Definition and Description
• Guidelines for Writing a Summary
• Writing the Summary and Choosing Words
• A Process for Paraphrasing and Summarising
• Summary of a Report
• Writing Conclusions

18 References in Research Report

• Reference List (the Format)
• References (Process of Writing)
• Reference List and Print Sources
• Electronic Sources
• Book on CD Tape and Movie
• Reference Specifications
• General Guidelines to Write References

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains †

Associated data.

• Appendix 1: Example assessment questions used to assess the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning
• Appendix 2: Student learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool

Following years of widespread use in business and medical education, the case study teaching method is becoming an increasingly common teaching strategy in science education. However, the current body of research provides limited evidence that the use of published case studies effectively promotes the fulfillment of specific learning objectives integral to many biology courses. This study tested the hypothesis that case studies are more effective than classroom discussions and textbook reading at promoting learning of key biological concepts, development of written and oral communication skills, and comprehension of the relevance of biological concepts to everyday life. This study also tested the hypothesis that case studies produced by the instructor of a course are more effective at promoting learning than those produced by unaffiliated instructors. Additionally, performance on quantitative learning assessments and student perceptions of learning gains were analyzed to determine whether reported perceptions of learning gains accurately reflect academic performance. The results reported here suggest that case studies, regardless of the source, are significantly more effective than other methods of content delivery at increasing performance on examination questions related to chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication. This finding was positively correlated to increased student perceptions of learning gains associated with oral and written communication skills and the ability to recognize connections between biological concepts and other aspects of life. Based on these findings, case studies should be considered as a preferred method for teaching about a variety of concepts in science courses.

INTRODUCTION

The case study teaching method is a highly adaptable style of teaching that involves problem-based learning and promotes the development of analytical skills ( 8 ). By presenting content in the format of a narrative accompanied by questions and activities that promote group discussion and solving of complex problems, case studies facilitate development of the higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning; moving beyond recall of knowledge to analysis, evaluation, and application ( 1 , 9 ). Similarly, case studies facilitate interdisciplinary learning and can be used to highlight connections between specific academic topics and real-world societal issues and applications ( 3 , 9 ). This has been reported to increase student motivation to participate in class activities, which promotes learning and increases performance on assessments ( 7 , 16 , 19 , 23 ). For these reasons, case-based teaching has been widely used in business and medical education for many years ( 4 , 11 , 12 , 14 ). Although case studies were considered a novel method of science education just 20 years ago, the case study teaching method has gained popularity in recent years among an array of scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, nursing, and psychology ( 5 – 7 , 9 , 11 , 13 , 15 – 17 , 21 , 22 , 24 ).

Although there is now a substantive and growing body of literature describing how to develop and use case studies in science teaching, current research on the effectiveness of case study teaching at meeting specific learning objectives is of limited scope and depth. Studies have shown that working in groups during completion of case studies significantly improves student perceptions of learning and may increase performance on assessment questions, and that the use of clickers can increase student engagement in case study activities, particularly among non-science majors, women, and freshmen ( 7 , 21 , 22 ). Case study teaching has been shown to improve exam performance in an anatomy and physiology course, increasing the mean score across all exams given in a two-semester sequence from 66% to 73% ( 5 ). Use of case studies was also shown to improve students’ ability to synthesize complex analytical questions about the real-world issues associated with a scientific topic ( 6 ). In a high school chemistry course, it was demonstrated that the case study teaching method produces significant increases in self-reported control of learning, task value, and self-efficacy for learning and performance ( 24 ). This effect on student motivation is important because enhanced motivation for learning activities has been shown to promote student engagement and academic performance ( 19 , 24 ). Additionally, faculty from a number of institutions have reported that using case studies promotes critical thinking, learning, and participation among students, especially in terms of the ability to view an issue from multiple perspectives and to grasp the practical application of core course concepts ( 23 ).

Despite what is known about the effectiveness of case studies in science education, questions remain about the functionality of the case study teaching method at promoting specific learning objectives that are important to many undergraduate biology courses. A recent survey of teachers who use case studies found that the topics most often covered in general biology courses included genetics and heredity, cell structure, cells and energy, chemistry of life, and cell cycle and cancer, suggesting that these topics should be of particular interest in studies that examine the effectiveness of the case study teaching method ( 8 ). However, the existing body of literature lacks direct evidence that the case study method is an effective tool for teaching about this collection of important topics in biology courses. Further, the extent to which case study teaching promotes development of science communication skills and the ability to understand the connections between biological concepts and everyday life has not been examined, yet these are core learning objectives shared by a variety of science courses. Although many instructors have produced case studies for use in their own classrooms, the production of novel case studies is time-consuming and requires skills that not all instructors have perfected. It is therefore important to determine whether case studies published by instructors who are unaffiliated with a particular course can be used effectively and obviate the need for each instructor to develop new case studies for their own courses. The results reported herein indicate that teaching with case studies results in significantly higher performance on examination questions about chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication than that achieved by class discussions and textbook reading for topics of similar complexity. Case studies also increased overall student perceptions of learning gains and perceptions of learning gains specifically related to written and oral communication skills and the ability to grasp connections between scientific topics and their real-world applications. The effectiveness of the case study teaching method at increasing academic performance was not correlated to whether the case study used was authored by the instructor of the course or by an unaffiliated instructor. These findings support increased use of published case studies in the teaching of a variety of biological concepts and learning objectives.

Student population

This study was conducted at Kingsborough Community College, which is part of the City University of New York system, located in Brooklyn, New York. Kingsborough Community College has a diverse population of approximately 19,000 undergraduate students. The student population included in this study was enrolled in the first semester of a two-semester sequence of general (introductory) biology for biology majors during the spring, winter, or summer semester of 2014. A total of 63 students completed the course during this time period; 56 students consented to the inclusion of their data in the study. Of the students included in the study, 23 (41%) were male and 33 (59%) were female; 40 (71%) were registered as college freshmen and 16 (29%) were registered as college sophomores. To normalize participant groups, the same student population pooled from three classes taught by the same instructor was used to assess both experimental and control teaching methods.

Course material

The four biological concepts assessed during this study (chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication) were selected as topics for studying the effectiveness of case study teaching because they were the key concepts addressed by this particular course that were most likely to be taught in a number of other courses, including biology courses for both majors and nonmajors at outside institutions. At the start of this study, relevant existing case studies were freely available from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) to address mitosis and meiosis and DNA structure and replication, but published case studies that appropriately addressed chemical bonds and osmosis and diffusion were not available. Therefore, original case studies that addressed the latter two topics were produced as part of this study, and case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors and published by the NCCSTS were used to address the former two topics. By the conclusion of this study, all four case studies had been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication by the NCCSTS ( http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/ ). Four of the remaining core topics covered in this course (macromolecules, photosynthesis, genetic inheritance, and translation) were selected as control lessons to provide control assessment data.

To minimize extraneous variation, control topics and assessments were carefully matched in complexity, format, and number with case studies, and an equal amount of class time was allocated for each case study and the corresponding control lesson. Instruction related to control lessons was delivered using minimal slide-based lectures, with emphasis on textbook reading assignments accompanied by worksheets completed by students in and out of the classroom, and small and large group discussion of key points. Completion of activities and discussion related to all case studies and control topics that were analyzed was conducted in the classroom, with the exception of the take-home portion of the osmosis and diffusion case study.

Data collection and analysis

This study was performed in accordance with a protocol approved by the Kingsborough Community College Human Research Protection Program and the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the City University of New York (CUNY IRB reference 539938-1; KCC IRB application #: KCC 13-12-126-0138). Assessment scores were collected from regularly scheduled course examinations. For each case study, control questions were included on the same examination that were similar in number, format, point value, and difficulty level, but related to a different topic covered in the course that was of similar complexity. Complexity and difficulty of both case study and control questions were evaluated using experiential data from previous iterations of the course; the Bloom’s taxonomy designation and amount of material covered by each question, as well as the average score on similar questions achieved by students in previous iterations of the course was considered in determining appropriate controls. All assessment questions were scored using a standardized, pre-determined rubric. Student perceptions of learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the Student Assessment of Learning Gains (SALG) course evaluation tool ( http://www.salgsite.org ), distributed in hardcopy and completed anonymously during the last week of the course. Students were presented with a consent form to opt-in to having their data included in the data analysis. After the course had concluded and final course grades had been posted, data from consenting students were pooled in a database and identifying information was removed prior to analysis. Statistical analysis of data was conducted using the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance and calculation of the R 2 coefficient of determination.

Teaching with case studies improves performance on learning assessments, independent of case study origin

To evaluate the effectiveness of the case study teaching method at promoting learning, student performance on examination questions related to material covered by case studies was compared with performance on questions that covered material addressed through classroom discussions and textbook reading. The latter questions served as control items; assessment items for each case study were compared with control items that were of similar format, difficulty, and point value ( Appendix 1 ). Each of the four case studies resulted in an increase in examination performance compared with control questions that was statistically significant, with an average difference of 18% ( Fig. 1 ). The mean score on case study-related questions was 73% for the chemical bonds case study, 79% for osmosis and diffusion, 76% for mitosis and meiosis, and 70% for DNA structure and replication ( Fig. 1 ). The mean score for non-case study-related control questions was 60%, 54%, 60%, and 52%, respectively ( Fig. 1 ). In terms of examination performance, no significant difference between case studies produced by the instructor of the course (chemical bonds and osmosis and diffusion) and those produced by unaffiliated instructors (mitosis and meiosis and DNA structure and replication) was indicated by the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance. However, the 25% difference between the mean score on questions related to the osmosis and diffusion case study and the mean score on the paired control questions was notably higher than the 13–18% differences observed for the other case studies ( Fig. 1 ).

Case study teaching method increases student performance on examination questions. Mean score on a set of examination questions related to lessons covered by case studies (black bars) and paired control questions of similar format and difficulty about an unrelated topic (white bars). Chemical bonds, n = 54; Osmosis and diffusion, n = 54; Mitosis and meiosis, n = 51; DNA structure and replication, n = 50. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean (SEM). Asterisk indicates p < 0.05.

Case study teaching increases student perception of learning gains related to core course objectives

Student learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool ( Appendix 2 ). To determine whether completing case studies was more effective at increasing student perceptions of learning gains than completing textbook readings or participating in class discussions, perceptions of student learning gains for each were compared. In response to the question “Overall, how much did each of the following aspects of the class help your learning?” 82% of students responded that case studies helped a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 70% for participating in class discussions and 58% for completing textbook reading; only 4% of students responded that case studies helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 2% for class discussions and 22% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2A ). The differences in reported learning gains derived from the use of case studies compared with class discussion and textbook readings were statistically significant, while the difference in learning gains associated with class discussion compared with textbook reading was not statistically significant by a narrow margin ( p = 0.051).

The case study teaching method increases student perceptions of learning gains. Student perceptions of learning gains are indicated by plotting responses to the question “How much did each of the following activities: (A) Help your learning overall? (B) Improve your ability to communicate your knowledge of scientific concepts in writing? (C) Improve your ability to communicate your knowledge of scientific concepts orally? (D) Help you understand the connections between scientific concepts and other aspects of your everyday life?” Reponses are represented as follows: Helped a great amount (black bars); Helped a good amount (dark gray bars); Helped a moderate amount (medium gray bars); Helped a small amount (light gray bars); Provided no help (white bars). Asterisk indicates p < 0.05.

To elucidate the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains related to specific course learning objectives compared with class discussions and textbook reading, students were asked how much each of these methods of content delivery specifically helped improve skills that were integral to fulfilling three main course objectives. When students were asked how much each of the methods helped “improve your ability to communicate knowledge of scientific concepts in writing,” 81% of students responded that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 63% for class discussions and 59% for textbook reading; only 6% of students responded that case studies helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 8% for class discussions and 21% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2B ). When the same question was posed about the ability to communicate orally, 81% of students responded that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 68% for class discussions and 50% for textbook reading, while the respective response rates for helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” were 4%, 6%, and 25% ( Fig. 2C ). The differences in learning gains associated with both written and oral communication were statistically significant when completion of case studies was compared with either participation in class discussion or completion of textbook readings. Compared with textbook reading, class discussions led to a statistically significant increase in oral but not written communication skills.

Students were then asked how much each of the methods helped them “understand the connections between scientific concepts and other aspects of your everyday life.” A total of 79% of respondents declared that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 70% for class discussions and 57% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2D ). Only 4% stated that case studies and class discussions helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 21% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2D ). Similar to overall learning gains, the use of case studies significantly increased the ability to understand the relevance of science to everyday life compared with class discussion and textbook readings, while the difference in learning gains associated with participation in class discussion compared with textbook reading was not statistically significant ( p = 0.054).

Student perceptions of learning gains resulting from case study teaching are positively correlated to increased performance on examinations, but independent of case study author

To test the hypothesis that case studies produced specifically for this course by the instructor were more effective at promoting learning gains than topically relevant case studies published by authors not associated with this course, perceptions of learning gains were compared for each of the case studies. For both of the case studies produced by the instructor of the course, 87% of students indicated that the case study provided a “good” or “great” amount of help to their learning, and 2% indicated that the case studies provided “little” or “no” help ( Table 1 ). In comparison, an average of 85% of students indicated that the case studies produced by an unaffiliated instructor provided a “good” or “great” amount of help to their learning, and 4% indicated that the case studies provided “little” or “no” help ( Table 1 ). The instructor-produced case studies yielded both the highest and lowest percentage of students reporting the highest level of learning gains (a “great” amount), while case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors yielded intermediate values. Therefore, it can be concluded that the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains is not significantly affected by whether or not the course instructor authored the case study.

Case studies positively affect student perceptions of learning gains about various biological topics.

Finally, to determine whether performance on examination questions accurately predicts student perceptions of learning gains, mean scores on examination questions related to case studies were compared with reported perceptions of learning gains for those case studies ( Fig. 3 ). The coefficient of determination (R 2 value) was 0.81, indicating a strong, but not definitive, positive correlation between perceptions of learning gains and performance on examinations, suggesting that student perception of learning gains is a valid tool for assessing the effectiveness of case studies ( Fig. 3 ). This correlation was independent of case study author.

Perception of learning gains but not author of case study is positively correlated to score on related examination questions. Percentage of students reporting that each specific case study provided “a great amount of help” to their learning was plotted against the point difference between mean score on examination questions related to that case study and mean score on paired control questions. Positive point differences indicate how much higher the mean scores on case study-related questions were than the mean scores on paired control questions. Black squares represent case studies produced by the instructor of the course; white squares represent case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. R 2 value indicates the coefficient of determination.

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that teaching with case studies produced by the instructor of a course is more effective at promoting learning gains than using case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. This study also tested the hypothesis that the case study teaching method is more effective than class discussions and textbook reading at promoting learning gains associated with four of the most commonly taught topics in undergraduate general biology courses: chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication. In addition to assessing content-based learning gains, development of written and oral communication skills and the ability to connect scientific topics with real-world applications was also assessed, because these skills were overarching learning objectives of this course, and classroom activities related to both case studies and control lessons were designed to provide opportunities for students to develop these skills. Finally, data were analyzed to determine whether performance on examination questions is positively correlated to student perceptions of learning gains resulting from case study teaching.

Compared with equivalent control questions about topics of similar complexity taught using class discussions and textbook readings, all four case studies produced statistically significant increases in the mean score on examination questions ( Fig. 1 ). This indicates that case studies are more effective than more commonly used, traditional methods of content delivery at promoting learning of a variety of core concepts covered in general biology courses. The average increase in score on each test item was equivalent to nearly two letter grades, which is substantial enough to elevate the average student performance on test items from the unsatisfactory/failing range to the satisfactory/passing range. The finding that there was no statistical difference between case studies in terms of performance on examination questions suggests that case studies are equally effective at promoting learning of disparate topics in biology. The observations that students did not perform significantly less well on the first case study presented (chemical bonds) compared with the other case studies and that performance on examination questions did not progressively increase with each successive case study suggests that the effectiveness of case studies is not directly related to the amount of experience students have using case studies. Furthermore, anecdotal evidence from previous semesters of this course suggests that, of the four topics addressed by cases in this study, DNA structure and function and osmosis and diffusion are the first and second most difficult for students to grasp. The lack of a statistical difference between case studies therefore suggests that the effectiveness of a case study at promoting learning gains is not directly proportional to the difficulty of the concept covered. However, the finding that use of the osmosis and diffusion case study resulted in the greatest increase in examination performance compared with control questions and also produced the highest student perceptions of learning gains is noteworthy and could be attributed to the fact that it was the only case study evaluated that included a hands-on experiment. Because the inclusion of a hands-on kinetic activity may synergistically enhance student engagement and learning and result in an even greater increase in learning gains than case studies that lack this type of activity, it is recommended that case studies that incorporate this type of activity be preferentially utilized.

Student perceptions of learning gains are strongly motivating factors for engagement in the classroom and academic performance, so it is important to assess the effect of any teaching method in this context ( 19 , 24 ). A modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool was used to assess student perceptions of learning gains because it has been previously validated as an efficacious tool ( Appendix 2 ) ( 20 ). Using the SALG tool, case study teaching was demonstrated to significantly increase student perceptions of overall learning gains compared with class discussions and textbook reading ( Fig. 2A ). Case studies were shown to be particularly useful for promoting perceived development of written and oral communication skills and for demonstrating connections between scientific topics and real-world issues and applications ( Figs. 2B–2D ). Further, student perceptions of “great” learning gains positively correlated with increased performance on examination questions, indicating that assessment of learning gains using the SALG tool is both valid and useful in this course setting ( Fig. 3 ). These findings also suggest that case study teaching could be used to increase student motivation and engagement in classroom activities and thus promote learning and performance on assessments. The finding that textbook reading yielded the lowest student perceptions of learning gains was not unexpected, since reading facilitates passive learning while the class discussions and case studies were both designed to promote active learning.

Importantly, there was no statistical difference in student performance on examinations attributed to the two case studies produced by the instructor of the course compared with the two case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. The average difference between the two instructor-produced case studies and the two case studies published by unaffiliated instructors was only 3% in terms of both the average score on examination questions (76% compared with 73%) and the average increase in score compared with paired control items (14% compared with 17%) ( Fig. 1 ). Even when considering the inherent qualitative differences of course grades, these differences are negligible. Similarly, the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains was not significantly affected by the origin of the case study, as evidenced by similar percentages of students reporting “good” and “great” learning gains regardless of whether the case study was produced by the course instructor or an unaffiliated instructor ( Table 1 ).

The observation that case studies published by unaffiliated instructors are just as effective as those produced by the instructor of a course suggests that instructors can reasonably rely on the use of pre-published case studies relevant to their class rather than investing the considerable time and effort required to produce a novel case study. Case studies covering a wide range of topics in the sciences are available from a number of sources, and many of them are free access. The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) database ( http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/ ) contains over 500 case studies that are freely available to instructors, and are accompanied by teaching notes that provide logistical advice and additional resources for implementing the case study, as well as a set of assessment questions with a password-protected answer key. Case study repositories are also maintained by BioQUEST Curriculum Consortium ( http://www.bioquest.org/icbl/cases.php ) and the Science Case Network ( http://sciencecasenet.org ); both are available for use by instructors from outside institutions.

It should be noted that all case studies used in this study were rigorously peer-reviewed and accepted for publication by the NCCSTS prior to the completion of this study ( 2 , 10 , 18 , 25 ); the conclusions of this study may not apply to case studies that were not developed in accordance with similar standards. Because case study teaching involves skills such as creative writing and management of dynamic group discussion in a way that is not commonly integrated into many other teaching methods, it is recommended that novice case study teachers seek training or guidance before writing their first case study or implementing the method. The lack of a difference observed in the use of case studies from different sources should be interpreted with some degree of caution since only two sources were represented in this study, and each by only two cases. Furthermore, in an educational setting, quantitative differences in test scores might produce meaningful qualitative differences in course grades even in the absence of a p value that is statistically significant. For example, there is a meaningful qualitative difference between test scores that result in an average grade of C− and test scores that result in an average grade of C+, even if there is no statistically significant difference between the two sets of scores.

In the future, it could be informative to confirm these findings using a larger cohort, by repeating the study at different institutions with different instructors, by evaluating different case studies, and by directly comparing the effectiveness of the case studying teaching method with additional forms of instruction, such as traditional chalkboard and slide-based lecturing, and laboratory-based activities. It may also be informative to examine whether demographic factors such as student age and gender modulate the effectiveness of the case study teaching method, and whether case studies work equally well for non-science majors taking a science course compared with those majoring in the subject. Since the topical material used in this study is often included in other classes in both high school and undergraduate education, such as cell biology, genetics, and chemistry, the conclusions of this study are directly applicable to a broad range of courses. Presently, it is recommended that the use of case studies in teaching undergraduate general biology and other science courses be expanded, especially for the teaching of capacious issues with real-world applications and in classes where development of written and oral communication skills are key objectives. The use of case studies that involve hands-on activities should be emphasized to maximize the benefit of this teaching method. Importantly, instructors can be confident in the use of pre-published case studies to promote learning, as there is no indication that the effectiveness of the case study teaching method is reliant on the production of novel, customized case studies for each course.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS

Acknowledgments.

This article benefitted from a President’s Faculty Innovation Grant, Kingsborough Community College. The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest.

† Supplemental materials available at http://jmbe.asm.org

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23 Methods of Child Study

K. Arockia Maraichelvi

1. INTRODUCTION

The theories of child development in general guide us in predicting the behaviour/performance of a child, termed as hypothesis for a research. But sound research in child development needs many more things apart from theory and hypothesis. A researcher should decide on the nature of subjects, the sample size, what the subjects will be asked, when and how. It is only then relationships can be examined and conclusion can be inferred.

This module will provide you a better understanding of the most commonly employed research strategies for children in particular under three major heads namely

1.      Developmental designs

2.      Research designs

3.      Methods of data collection

2.  LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module you will be able to

• Comprehend the developmental designs adopted to study children.
• Develop an insight into the various research designs used to study children and its shortcomings and
• Understand the different methods of data collection

3.  DEVELOPMENTAL DESIGNS

To answer the question of how do children change in due course of time in a scientific manner, the researchers in the field of child development starts with a research question or hypothesis as any other research. Hypothesis is a research statement or question that would be tested by reflecting on what the researcher wants to find out. Consider the following example in understanding this part of the module.

“How do sibling relationships change among children in their 6 th , 12 th and 18 th year”?

The first step in doing this research will be to determine the type of study that tells us the most about the changes that happen in their sibling relationships. While trying to identify the methods, a researcher comes out with two possible approaches as specified below

1.Do I want to observe the changes over an extended period within a single population of children in their 6th year and then in their 12th year and later in their 18th year?

2.  Do I want to compare the sibling relationship among different population of children in their 6th, 12th and 18th year at the same point of time?

The first approach is referred to as the Longitudinal method of studying children, and the second one is called the Cross – sectional method.

Hence the two approaches are defined as follows

Longitudinal study – It refers to a research design, wherein one single population is studied over and over again at different ages or periods of their life span.

Cross-sectional study – It refers to a research design, wherein various group of subject at different ages or periods of their lifespan are studied at the same point of time No let us know about the benefits and the purpose of each of these approaches.

3.1 Longitudinal study

It is an observational study, where the researchers are in continuous process of observing the same subject over a relatively longer duration. To return to the example specified above, the study would observe the needed subject/subjects in their 6th year, and then again when they attain their 12 year and consequently during their 18th year. So the study would take 12 years to get completed. Though it is a time consuming approach, there are certain benefits as given below

• The possibility of detecting development or its related changes at the individual level over the span of research
• As the subject is studied repeatedly at different age, the sequence of events could be easily traced
• This approach is more likely to suggest cause and effect relationships, as it accountsfor the development of sibling relationship from 6th year to 18th year and changes that occur over time.
• These type of studies could be conducted with only a small group of subjects, so generalization to larger population becomes difficult
• The subject’s drop out rate is high and hence the data prediction becomes complex
• By continuously studying a particular subject for a long time might influence the subject to react wisely to the testing situations and results in contamination of results.
• Cohort effect is another major pitfall. Cohort effect occurs due to the cultural and historical changes on the consistency of findings. That is, while studying a group of children born at a particular period may not have the pattern of development when compared with children born in another period.

3.2 Cross- sectional study

In order to alleviate the pitfalls of longitudinal design, researches developed the cross– sectional design. As longitudinal approach, the cross-sectional design of studying children is also carried out by observing the subject. To make it simpler, the researcher records the information without manipulating the environment. The major success of this type of study is because of its scope of comparing different population groups at a single point of time. Hence the time spanned for this type of study is relatively short. Moreover the factors that influence changes over time (both historical and sociological) get minimized.

However the cause and effect relationship could not be traced by this approach, because the subjects sharing the same cultural and historical experiences but at different periods of lifespan would have caused the changes inspite of their age induced changes. Also this type of study that covers a wide range of age span, also faces the potential difficulty of cohort effect as in the longitudinal approach.

3.3 Longitudinal Sequential study

In order to overcome the potential difficulties of both the designs explained above, child development researchers tried to improve the developmental designs and arrived at a new design called Longitudinal Sequential design. This design is a combination of both longitudinal and cross- sectional approach.

Longitudinal Sequential design is a research design, wherein a group of subjects born at different times are followed over a short span of time. Hence the disadvantage of longer duration of longitudinal study could be conquered and moreover the cohort effect of both the designs is also minimized as careful comparative analysis of historical and cultural changes could be observed.

Turning to the same example of sibling relationships provided, the answer to both the questions could be answered by one design called longitudinal sequential design. Look at this figure.

The green lines indicate the comparison of children born at different periods, and thereby accounting to the longitudinal design

The blue lines shows the cross sectional comparison, say for example a child of six years is studied in two different periods, 2006 and 2010.

The pitfall of both the longitudinal and cross sectional design is the cohort effect that gets resolved in this new design. The red lines compares the 6 year old child studied in the year 2006 with a 12 year child studied in 2010 and 12 year old in 2006 with 18 year old in 2010.

4. RESEARCH DESIGNS

Research design refers to the overall plan of a research to test the hypothesis formulated. The type of design has to be decided by the researcher to test a set hypothesis with a possible greater certainty. Generally two major designs are adopted to study child behaviour. They are

1.      Correlational design and

2.      Experimental design

4.1 Correlational design

The design that involves the gathering of information from individuals without altering their environmental settings even at a minimal level and looks at relationship between variables is referred as correlation design.

Eg. Hypothesis – Do the mother’s interacting style influence the child’s intelligence?

In the correlational studies, the relationships are examined by a term called correlation coefficient, which describes of how the two variables are associated with one another. The correlation coefficient ranges from +1 to -1, where ‘0’ indicates no relationship between variables, and +1 and -1 refers to strong relationship. The sign +/- shows the direction of relationship. Positive sign shows positive correlation which means as one variable increases the other also increases. The negative sign explains negative correlation and indicates that as one variable increases the other decreases. For the above set hypothesis of two variables namely mother’s interacting style and child’s intelligence

•  A Positive correlation would illustrate that both the variables move in the same direction. In other words, when mother’s interacting style increases, the child’s intelligence increases
• A negative correlation becomes an evidence for the variables moving in opposite direction, which means that when the mother’s interacting style increases, the child’s intelligence decreases
• Zero correlation confirms no effect between these two variables.

       Though  the  direction  of  relationship  between  variables  could  be  identified  by correlation studies, the cause and effect of this relationship cannot be ascertained. Because the evidence is not just enough to conclude whether it is only the mother’s interaction influence the intelligence level of the child, as the opposite is also certainly possible. An  intelligent child’s behaviour would have prompted mother’s favourable interaction. Moreover the interaction effect would have been influenced by a third extraneous variable that had not been accounted in the study. In order to overcome the shortcomings of correlational study, experimental design of research came into practice.

4.2. Experimental design

Experimental design determines the cause and effect of a relationship. For an experimental study the researcher considers certain events and behaviour of the subject related to the study and classifies into two variables, namely independent and dependent variables.

Independent variable – The variable thought by the researcher to influence another variable Dependent variable – The variable expected by the researcher to be influenced by the independent variable.

By controlling and manipulating changes in the independent variable, the cause and effect of a relationship would be inferred. The changes in the independent variable can be done by subjecting the sample of interest to one or more conditions of treatment and the behaviour /performance could be compared based on the dependent variable.

Consider the example ‘Do the quality of interaction between adults influence a child’s emotional behaviour while playing with a known peer?

Here, the interaction between adults serves as the independent variable, wherein it could be manipulated by the researcher in two ways

1. In one setting two adults interact in a friendly way in a warm environment in a corner of a room

2.In another setting two adults get involved in n argument and expresses behaviour like shouting, slamming the door etc.

The child playing with a known friend becomes the dependent variable that undergoes no alteration.

The researcher observed that the children in a hostile setting showed aggressiveness and are found to be distressed when compared to the children in warm environment.

However the challenge on the part of the researcher in an experimental study is that he/she should take special care to control the unknown traits/characteristics of the subjects  involved, as this would hamper the accuracy of the findings. In the study just explained, there is a possibility those children who were already exposed to unfriendly environment exhibits aggressiveness irrespective of the manipulated settings. Thereby, the study cannot conclude that it is only because of the independent variable the child’s emotional reaction changes.

   To overcome this problem two methods are generally used

1.  Random Assignment – The subjects being picked up randomly increases the chance of equal distribution of the subject’s characteristics

2.  Matching – The subjects are measured for behaviour of interest (Aggressiveness in the above said example) ahead of the actual research and then randomly assigned based on their level of aggression to every treatment condition.

5.  METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

After looking into the benefits and pitfalls of the developmental designs in child stdy and after identifying a particular relevant approach to conduct the study, what is next?

The next step is to identify how to gather data or information from the subjects of interest. Some major methods of data collection are through

• Observation
• Self-Reports – Interview and Questionnaires
• Case studies

  5.1 Observation

As the term indicates, the information is gathered by mere observation of the subject and recording his/her behaviour as it happens. This method is again divided into two, namely naturalistic and structured observation.

Naturalistic observation refers to observation of subjects in real world setting. In other words observation happens in natural setting.

For example observing a child of 6-8 years in his own class-room setting and recording the behaviour of the child with key reference to the number of times the child extends physical and emotional support to his friend in the form of sharing, helping, comforting, expressing kindness or sympathy serves as a good method of studying the child’s social development.

However, every child being observed doesn’t get the chance of expressing every form of social behaviour at a particular time. To bridge this gap of observation, one another technique called as structured observation got into practice.

Structured observation is the method, wherein the researcher observed the subject in a laboratory setting by controlling the environmental factors. In other words the researchers provides cue for the display of needed behaviour

For example, the researcher observes the helping nature of a child by providing a situation where in an adult spill a box of pencils and records the child’s response to the situation.

Though this method of observation provides researcher with more control over the natural setting, it has its own flaws, as we cannot expect a child to behave in the artificial setting as they do in the natural setting. Hence, observation could only provide us with certain information on how the children behave. It should be supported with certain other methods of child study to reason out the motive that lies behind their behaviour.

5.2 Self-Reports – Interview and Questionnaires

Self report method of child study is one method that could fill the gap of observation methods. These reports are methods that ask subjects to answer questions related to their capacities, beliefs, attitudes, feelings and experiences. The method varies from unstructured interview (eg. Clinical interviews) to relatively structured interviews (eg. Well formulated questionnaires and standardized tests).

Unstructured interview – One best example of unstructured interview otherwise called clinical interview was the Piaget’s method of questioning a 5 year old child about his understanding of dreams. He used a flexible, conversational style of questioning to prompt the child to express his ideas in detail and give a complete picture of his dream. Unstructured interview has got two advantages

1. It encourages the subject to express their thoughts in a way that has close proximity with their everyday thinking process

2. It provides more information in less time.

1. It should be checked for the accuracy of information provided by the subject as there is a possibility of making up of the answers for one or the other reason.

2. The subjects who are poor in their verbal ability cannot put forth their ideas clearly.

3.  The strength of flexibility of this method becomes a weakness as the questions would  be framed differently for different subjects.

To eliminate these disadvantages the structured interview method is adopted.

Structured Interview – This method of collecting data has got a set of questions either formulated by the researcher or standardized tests and the subjects are questioned in the same order. This technique is considered to be efficient to the clinical interview method as information from many subjects can be procured at the same time. Also, the answers have a chance of being tabulated by computers and subjected to consolidation and analysis easily. However problems of depth in information and accuracy of data arises.

5.3 Case studies

It is a method of collecting data, wherein a particular subject of interest is studied comprehensively to obtain a great deal of information. Case studies are often in clinical researches as their approach cannot be generalised to larger population. This method gives descriptive case details that offer important insights into the understanding of the subject’s behaviour.

Though case study is an elaborate method, the conclusions drawn from studying a subject cannot be applied to another subject as every individual varies. Also the chance of the investigator being biased in the interpretation of data is high.

6. ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCHES INVOLVING CHILDREN

As the expedition for scientific knowledge widens day by day, the possibility of exploiting people is on the rise. It is here where the ethical issues and concerns gained significance. As we are concerned with the study of children the ethical concerns seems to be more complex than any other research areas. Certain concerns that need to be addressed are as follows

1. Children are more vulnerable to physical, mental and psychological harm in comparison to adults.

2.Immature mentality of the children poses a big challenge of being assessed or evaluated.

American Psychological Association and Society for Research in Child Development had come up with special ethical guidelines for research with children to address the above  said issues. Some of the basic research rights drawn from these guidelines are important to be dealt in this module. They are

• Protection from harm – when any sort of physical, mental or psychological harm seems possible, an alternate method of procuring data should be considered
• Informed Consent – Consent of significant others of the child subject (Such as parents or school officials) should be obtained in writing. Moreover in case of unwillingness after the consent, the child has the right to be freed from the research at any point of time of the research
• Privacy – the identity of the subject shall be concealed if the subject feels so.
• Knowledge of results – the child subject possess the right to be informed of the research result and its interpretation
• Beneficial treatment – children of control group as well have the right to receive the experimental treatment if found to be beneficial.

Hence, researchers first and foremost responsibility is to foresee the potential risks that the children would encounter as an effect of the study conducted on them. Then follows the efforts to minimize those risks. The major responsibility is to make sure that the benefits of research outweigh the potential hazards.

Thus this section had given you an elaborate insight of the various methods of studying children and its relevant research designs. The advantages and pitfalls of each method and design were discussed over the other, which would prompt you to consider the best method of studying children.

• www.open.edu/…/childhood…/childhood…studies/childhood/methods-studying-children…
• www.psy.cmu.edu/~rakison/POCDclass2_2006.htm
• psych.colorado.edu/~colunga/p4684/methods.pdf
• www.psychologydiscussion.net/child-psychology/studying-child…4…methods/943

Case Study Method – 18 Advantages and Disadvantages

The case study method uses investigatory research as a way to collect data about specific demographics. This approach can apply to individuals, businesses, groups, or events. Each participant receives an equal amount of participation, offering information for collection that can then find new insights into specific trends, ideas, of hypotheses.

Interviews and research observation are the two standard methods of data collection used when following the case study method.

Researchers initially developed the case study method to develop and support hypotheses in clinical medicine. The benefits found in these efforts led the approach to transition to other industries, allowing for the examination of results through proposed decisions, processes, or outcomes. Its unique approach to information makes it possible for others to glean specific points of wisdom that encourage growth.

Several case study method advantages and disadvantages can appear when researchers take this approach.

List of the Advantages of the Case Study Method

1. It requires an intensive study of a specific unit. Researchers must document verifiable data from direct observations when using the case study method. This work offers information about the input processes that go into the hypothesis under consideration. A casual approach to data-gathering work is not effective if a definitive outcome is desired. Each behavior, choice, or comment is a critical component that can verify or dispute the ideas being considered.

Intensive programs can require a significant amount of work for researchers, but it can also promote an improvement in the data collected. That means a hypothesis can receive immediate verification in some situations.

2. No sampling is required when following the case study method. This research method studies social units in their entire perspective instead of pulling individual data points out to analyze them. That means there is no sampling work required when using the case study method. The hypothesis under consideration receives support because it works to turn opinions into facts, verifying or denying the proposals that outside observers can use in the future.

Although researchers might pay attention to specific incidents or outcomes based on generalized behaviors or ideas, the study itself won’t sample those situations. It takes a look at the “bigger vision” instead.

3. This method offers a continuous analysis of the facts. The case study method will look at the facts continuously for the social group being studied by researchers. That means there aren’t interruptions in the process that could limit the validity of the data being collected through this work. This advantage reduces the need to use assumptions when drawing conclusions from the information, adding validity to the outcome of the study over time. That means the outcome becomes relevant to both sides of the equation as it can prove specific suppositions or invalidate a hypothesis under consideration.

This advantage can lead to inefficiencies because of the amount of data being studied by researchers. It is up to the individuals involved in the process to sort out what is useful and meaningful and what is not.

4. It is a useful approach to take when formulating a hypothesis. Researchers will use the case study method advantages to verify a hypothesis under consideration. It is not unusual for the collected data to lead people toward the formulation of new ideas after completing this work. This process encourages further study because it allows concepts to evolve as people do in social or physical environments. That means a complete data set can be gathered based on the skills of the researcher and the honesty of the individuals involved in the study itself.

Although this approach won’t develop a societal-level evaluation of a hypothesis, it can look at how specific groups will react in various circumstances. That information can lead to a better decision-making process in the future for everyone involved.

5. It provides an increase in knowledge. The case study method provides everyone with analytical power to increase knowledge. This advantage is possible because it uses a variety of methodologies to collect information while evaluating a hypothesis. Researchers prefer to use direct observation and interviews to complete their work, but it can also advantage through the use of questionnaires. Participants might need to fill out a journal or diary about their experiences that can be used to study behaviors or choices.

Some researchers incorporate memory tests and experimental tasks to determine how social groups will interact or respond in specific situations. All of this data then works to verify the possibilities that a hypothesis proposes.

6. The case study method allows for comparisons. The human experience is one that is built on individual observations from group situations. Specific demographics might think, act, or respond in particular ways to stimuli, but each person in that group will also contribute a small part to the whole. You could say that people are sponges that collect data from one another every day to create individual outcomes.

The case study method allows researchers to take the information from each demographic for comparison purposes. This information can then lead to proposals that support a hypothesis or lead to its disruption.

7. Data generalization is possible using the case study method. The case study method provides a foundation for data generalization, allowing researches to illustrate their statistical findings in meaningful ways. It puts the information into a usable format that almost anyone can use if they have the need to evaluate the hypothesis under consideration. This process makes it easier to discover unusual features, unique outcomes, or find conclusions that wouldn’t be available without this method. It does an excellent job of identifying specific concepts that relate to the proposed ideas that researchers were verifying through their work.

Generalization does not apply to a larger population group with the case study method. What researchers can do with this information is to suggest a predictable outcome when similar groups are placed in an equal situation.

8. It offers a comprehensive approach to research. Nothing gets ignored when using the case study method to collect information. Every person, place, or thing involved in the research receives the complete attention of those seeking data. The interactions are equal, which means the data is comprehensive and directly reflective of the group being observed.

This advantage means that there are fewer outliers to worry about when researching an idea, leading to a higher level of accuracy in the conclusions drawn by the researchers.

9. The identification of deviant cases is possible with this method. The case study method of research makes it easier to identify deviant cases that occur in each social group. These incidents are units (people) that behave in ways that go against the hypothesis under consideration. Instead of ignoring them like other options do when collecting data, this approach incorporates the “rogue” behavior to understand why it exists in the first place.

This advantage makes the eventual data and conclusions gathered more reliable because it incorporates the “alternative opinion” that exists. One might say that the case study method places as much emphasis on the yin as it does the yang so that the whole picture becomes available to the outside observer.

10. Questionnaire development is possible with the case study method. Interviews and direct observation are the preferred methods of implementing the case study method because it is cheap and done remotely. The information gathered by researchers can also lead to farming questionnaires that can farm additional data from those being studied. When all of the data resources come together, it is easier to formulate a conclusion that accurately reflects the demographics.

Some people in the case study method may try to manipulate the results for personal reasons, but this advantage makes it possible to identify this information readily. Then researchers can look into the thinking that goes into the dishonest behaviors observed.

List of the Disadvantages of the Case Study Method

1. The case study method offers limited representation. The usefulness of the case study method is limited to a specific group of representatives. Researchers are looking at a specific demographic when using this option. That means it is impossible to create any generalization that applies to the rest of society, an organization, or a larger community with this work. The findings can only apply to other groups caught in similar circumstances with the same experiences.

It is useful to use the case study method when attempting to discover the specific reasons why some people behave in a specific way. If researchers need something more generalized, then a different method must be used.

2. No classification is possible with the case study method. This disadvantage is also due to the sample size in the case study method. No classification is possible because researchers are studying such a small unit, group, or demographic. It can be an inefficient process since the skills of the researcher help to determine the quality of the data being collected to verify the validity of a hypothesis. Some participants may be unwilling to answer or participate, while others might try to guess at the outcome to support it.

Researchers can get trapped in a place where they explore more tangents than the actual hypothesis with this option. Classification can occur within the units being studied, but this data cannot extrapolate to other demographics.

3. The case study method still offers the possibility of errors. Each person has an unconscious bias that influences their behaviors and choices. The case study method can find outliers that oppose a hypothesis fairly easily thanks to its emphasis on finding facts, but it is up to the researchers to determine what information qualifies for this designation. If the results from the case study method are surprising or go against the opinion of participating individuals, then there is still the possibility that the information will not be 100% accurate.

Researchers must have controls in place that dictate how data gathering work occurs. Without this limitation in place, the results of the study cannot be guaranteed because of the presence of bias.

4. It is a subjective method to use for research. Although the purpose of the case study method of research is to gather facts, the foundation of what gets gathered is still based on opinion. It uses the subjective method instead of the objective one when evaluating data, which means there can be another layer of errors in the information to consider.

Imagine that a researcher interprets someone’s response as “angry” when performing direct observation, but the individual was feeling “shame” because of a decision they made. The difference between those two emotions is profound, and it could lead to information disruptions that could be problematic to the eventual work of hypothesis verification.

5. The processes required by the case study method are not useful for everyone. The case study method uses a person’s memories, explanations, and records from photographs and diaries to identify interactions on influences on psychological processes. People are given the chance to describe what happens in the world around them as a way for researchers to gather data. This process can be an advantage in some industries, but it can also be a worthless approach to some groups.

If the social group under study doesn’t have the information, knowledge, or wisdom to provide meaningful data, then the processes are no longer useful. Researchers must weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the case study method before starting their work to determine if the possibility of value exists. If it does not, then a different method may be necessary.

6. It is possible for bias to form in the data. It’s not just an unconscious bias that can form in the data when using the case study method. The narrow study approach can lead to outright discrimination in the data. Researchers can decide to ignore outliers or any other information that doesn’t support their hypothesis when using this method. The subjective nature of this approach makes it difficult to challenge the conclusions that get drawn from this work, and the limited pool of units (people) means that duplication is almost impossible.

That means unethical people can manipulate the results gathered by the case study method to their own advantage without much accountability in the process.

7. This method has no fixed limits to it. This method of research is highly dependent on situational circumstances rather than overarching societal or corporate truths. That means the researcher has no fixed limits of investigation. Even when controls are in place to limit bias or recommend specific activities, the case study method has enough flexibility built into its structures to allow for additional exploration. That means it is possible for this work to continue indefinitely, gathering data that never becomes useful.

Scientists began to track the health of 268 sophomores at Harvard in 1938. The Great Depression was in its final years at that point, so the study hoped to reveal clues that lead to happy and healthy lives. It continues still today, now incorporating the children of the original participants, providing over 80 years of information to sort through for conclusions.

8. The case study method is time-consuming and expensive. The case study method can be affordable in some situations, but the lack of fixed limits and the ability to pursue tangents can make it a costly process in most situations. It takes time to gather the data in the first place, and then researchers must interpret the information received so that they can use it for hypothesis evaluation. There are other methods of data collection that can be less expensive and provide results faster.

That doesn’t mean the case study method is useless. The individualization of results can help the decision-making process advance in a variety of industries successfully. It just takes more time to reach the appropriate conclusion, and that might be a resource that isn’t available.

The advantages and disadvantages of the case study method suggest that the helpfulness of this research option depends on the specific hypothesis under consideration. When researchers have the correct skills and mindset to gather data accurately, then it can lead to supportive data that can verify ideas with tremendous accuracy.

This research method can also be used unethically to produce specific results that can be difficult to challenge.

When bias enters into the structure of the case study method, the processes become inefficient, inaccurate, and harmful to the hypothesis. That’s why great care must be taken when designing a study with this approach. It might be a labor-intensive way to develop conclusions, but the outcomes are often worth the investments needed.

• Our Mission

Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies

The open-ended problems presented in case studies give students work that feels connected to their lives.

To prepare students for jobs that haven’t been created yet, we need to teach them how to be great problem solvers so that they’ll be ready for anything. One way to do this is by teaching content and skills using real-world case studies, a learning model that’s focused on reflection during the problem-solving process. It’s similar to project-based learning, but PBL is more focused on students creating a product.

Case studies have been used for years by businesses, law and medical schools, physicians on rounds, and artists critiquing work. Like other forms of problem-based learning, case studies can be accessible for every age group, both in one subject and in interdisciplinary work.

You can get started with case studies by tackling relatable questions like these with your students:

• How can we limit food waste in the cafeteria?
• How can we get our school to recycle and compost waste? (Or, if you want to be more complex, how can our school reduce its carbon footprint?)
• How can we improve school attendance?
• How can we reduce the number of people who get sick at school during cold and flu season?

Addressing questions like these leads students to identify topics they need to learn more about. In researching the first question, for example, students may see that they need to research food chains and nutrition. Students often ask, reasonably, why they need to learn something, or when they’ll use their knowledge in the future. Learning is most successful for students when the content and skills they’re studying are relevant, and case studies offer one way to create that sense of relevance.

Teaching With Case Studies

Ultimately, a case study is simply an interesting problem with many correct answers. What does case study work look like in classrooms? Teachers generally start by having students read the case or watch a video that summarizes the case. Students then work in small groups or individually to solve the case study. Teachers set milestones defining what students should accomplish to help them manage their time.

During the case study learning process, student assessment of learning should be focused on reflection. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick’s Learning and Leading With Habits of Mind gives several examples of what this reflection can look like in a classroom: 

Journaling: At the end of each work period, have students write an entry summarizing what they worked on, what worked well, what didn’t, and why. Sentence starters and clear rubrics or guidelines will help students be successful. At the end of a case study project, as Costa and Kallick write, it’s helpful to have students “select significant learnings, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commit to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.”

Interviews: While working on a case study, students can interview each other about their progress and learning. Teachers can interview students individually or in small groups to assess their learning process and their progress.

Student discussion: Discussions can be unstructured—students can talk about what they worked on that day in a think-pair-share or as a full class—or structured, using Socratic seminars or fishbowl discussions. If your class is tackling a case study in small groups, create a second set of small groups with a representative from each of the case study groups so that the groups can share their learning.

4 Tips for Setting Up a Case Study

1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students’ lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers.

2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary. Hook the learners to help them understand just enough about the problem to want to learn more.

3. Have a clear rubric: Giving structure to your definition of quality group work and products will lead to stronger end products. You may be able to have your learners help build these definitions.

4. Provide structures for presenting solutions: The amount of scaffolding you build in depends on your students’ skill level and development. A case study product can be something like several pieces of evidence of students collaborating to solve the case study, and ultimately presenting their solution with a detailed slide deck or an essay—you can scaffold this by providing specified headings for the sections of the essay.

Problem-Based Teaching Resources

There are many high-quality, peer-reviewed resources that are open source and easily accessible online.

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University at Buffalo built an online collection of more than 800 cases that cover topics ranging from biochemistry to economics. There are resources for middle and high school students.
• Models of Excellence , a project maintained by EL Education and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has examples of great problem- and project-based tasks—and corresponding exemplary student work—for grades pre-K to 12.
• The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning at Purdue University is an open-source journal that publishes examples of problem-based learning in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms.
• The Tech Edvocate has a list of websites and tools related to problem-based learning.

In their book Problems as Possibilities , Linda Torp and Sara Sage write that at the elementary school level, students particularly appreciate how they feel that they are taken seriously when solving case studies. At the middle school level, “researchers stress the importance of relating middle school curriculum to issues of student concern and interest.” And high schoolers, they write, find the case study method “beneficial in preparing them for their future.”

Case Studies

A key purpose of  ERIC  is to share stories, experiences and learning about ethical issues and concerns that shape  research  involving  children  and  young people . Case studies have been contributed by  researchers , using their own words, to assist others to reflect critically on some of the more difficult and contested ethical issues they may encounter. These case studies which are from diverse international contexts and different research paradigms highlight the processes that can be engaged in developing ethical thinking and improving ethical practice in research with children .  Researchers  are invited to consider these case studies in light of their own experience and context. Please submit your expression of interest using the form at the bottom of this page.

Positioning families as co-researchers at the museum: How do we see and hear the voices of parents and children? By Nicola Wallis

You can download this case study as a pdf here. Positioning young children as co-researchers seeks to elevate their voice, interests and power in research processes. However, there are added tensions when

Embracing the embarrassment: Potential of seemingly unsuccessful research interactions for critical professional development. By Katrin Velten & Julia Höke

You can download this case study as a pdf here. When children participate in research, particularly research conducted with or by children, a key goal is to authentically represent their viewpoints. Striving

‘Your life looks like a fairytale’ : Challenges in building rapport with children and youth in contexts of protracted conflict. By Cadhla Fiona o’Sullivan

You can download this case study as a pdf here. My PhD research, titled ‘Artisans of Peace’, was conducted in the post conflict environment of Bogotá, Colombia. It consisted of an Arts

Developing an ethical and reflexive mindset in emerging childhood researchers. By Daniella Bendo and Paige Sheridan

You can download this case study as a pdf here. As thinking and practice has grown around ethical research involving children, so too has the need to train and equip new researchers

Navigating disability identity and language in research involving children and young people. By Fathimath Shiraani

You can download this case study as a pdf here. Despite contemporary tourism research being more inclusive of previously neglected groups, the views of children with disability are still largely absent, reflecting

Interviewing young people on sensitive topics: An iterative approach. By Tim Moore, Jodi Death & Steven Roche

You can download this case study as pdf here. In 2015, a Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse was established to understand the nature and extent of sexual abuse

Incidental brain findings in neuroimaging research. By Sebastián J. Lipina

You can download this ERIC case study as a pdf in English, français, español, 한국어, Türkçe and Bahasa Indonesia. Incidental brain findings (IBFs) are brain abnormalities with no outward symptoms that are

Immediacy of fieldwork in participatory research with children in precarious contexts. By Tatek Abebe

You can download this case study as a pdf here. Conducting participatory fieldwork with children can result in a researcher becoming involved in their lives more broadly, blurring the lines around the

But, what is a researcher?: Supporting informed consent with young children. By Laura Benton and Julia Truscott

You can download this case study as a pdf here. It is now common practice to seek children’s own consent for research participation, alongside (usually) that of a parent or guardian. This

Using the Narrative Approach to informed consent to empower young children and their educators

You can download this case study as a pdf here. Conducting research with young children is a complex process with many stakeholders and ethical considerations to navigate. One of the most enduring

Negotiating confidentiality, privacy and consent in focus groups with children and young people. By Tim Moore

You can download this case study as a pdf here. In 2015, the Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse contracted us to complete a study to understand what

Obtaining informed and voluntary consent in a group context. By Muireann Ní Raghallaigh & Robbie Gilligan

You can download this ERIC case study as a pdf in English, français, español, 한국어, Türkçe and Bahasa Indonesia. In designing a doctoral research study of the experiences of unaccompanied/ separated asylum

Communicating with gatekeepers in UK educational settings. By Alice Little

You can download this case study as a pdf here. In the Spring of 2022 I joined a team of researchers exploring issues surrounding school toilet use in English schools. The project

Maintaining confidentiality of responses and preventing social desirability bias with an innovative method: The polling booth in research on early marriage, including child marriage. By Urvashi Wattal & Angela Chaudhuri

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Addressing health illiteracy and stunting in culture-shocked indigenous populations: a case study of outer baduy in indonesia, 1. introduction, 2. outer baduy community, 3. research methods, 3.1. design, 3.2. participants and setting, 3.3. data collection, 3.4. ethical considerations, 3.5. data analysis, 4.1. factors associated with low health literacy in the baduy community.

“ If I do not repeat it, I was afraid I will not understand the writing on the card, so I ask Teh Ira ”. (Baduy 2)

“ We use Baduy as the stunting pilot project site because this tribe emphasizes many prohibitions related to food, related to customs that must not be violated ”. (NGO)

“ At that time, the Ministry of Social Affairs had food-giving activities in Baduy. We warned that Baduy people only need rice, salted fish, and shrimp paste. Nevertheless, they sent all other foods. Hence, many containers of food came just to be rejected by the Baduy at that time ”. (The Government)

“ We are ashamed. [The egg] should have been provided by their parents. We are also ashamed because the eggs are provided for stunted children, but their parents eat them ”. (Punggawa)

“ Well, the target does not like anything like that, ma’am. For example, I want to provide additional food like that, giving eggs or holding a gathering for education and providing additional food like that. The target is in the huma [rice field], in the fields, so there are only 1 or 2. So, it is less effective here because of the people. They do not stay home every day, so they are also busy with their farming activities. Their livelihood is farming, right, ma’am? If they do not farm, they cannot eat because they earn money there; that is how it is ”. (Midwife)

“ And also looking at the elders’ previous [bad] habits, yes, they have been followed [uncritically by the community], so that is [a sign of] a lack of education, huh ”. (Midwife)

“ Well, what is interesting about our survey findings is that we divided three areas so there is Inner Baduy, and this is the area where access is difficult, so if we look for it, it is also problematic; there is also little knowledge about health and stunting. That is the characteristic of what is Inner Baduy. However, for Outer Baduy, communication is accessible because their knowledge regarding various kinds of programs has been widely accepted. On the other hand, because it is easy to access, many government, private, or community programs are carried out in the village. This village, so yes, is in the villages of Kaduketuk and then Cijahe and the surrounding areas, and the people are already used to receiving programs ”. (Archaeologist)

“ Someone once told about stunting, but there was no further follow-up ”. (Punggawa)

No, maybe men understand . (Baduy 1)

“ If you talk like this [health information about stunting], if you want it to be clear, you have to convey it to a man ”. (Baduy 1)

“ Don’t know. That’s a man’s business. They held a meeting together. You should talk about this with a man. If there is a community meeting here, all the people who come are men ”. (Baduy 1)

4.2. The Impact of Low Health Literacy in the Baduy Community

“ His father’s [body] was small, so Sardin’s [body] was small ”. (Baduy 1)

“ So far, they have completely ignored the data regarding deaths due to snake bites, thinking that they have just given up. This belief [the folk legend that Baduy is immune to snake venom] is just a tactic from kokolot [community elders]. [he actual belief is that] when someone’s life is ended [by snake bites], it is predestined. There’s something [belief] like that. But when medical people come in and all that [health facilities], [they start to believe that] there are things that can be fixed ”. (NGO)

“ Well, yesterday, we looked at the data from the last few years. Yes, in the last two years and three years, Baduy had a high maternal mortality rate. Yes, up to 4 people per year. Well, this is quite extraordinary. Just one is quite high. Here, it is up to four every year. The child death figure is even higher. There are cases of child deaths, especially neonates. They died when they were born. Well, this case is also quite high. Between 9 and 14 children per year die in Baduy ”. (Nurse)

“ Sometimes there are things like this, ma’am. For example, the village used to be a tiny population. Even then, they said no matter how badly my child is sick, do not take him to the medical centre. Could you not take him to Rangkasbitung? It is expensive, so where do we get the money to pay the bill? That is the chatter of old people is like ”. (Punggawa)

4.3. Strategies to Improve Baduy Community Health Literacy

4.3.1. developing the health literacy of community leaders.

“ The point is that Jaro and Puun also urge the Baduy people to consume nutritious food, but not force it because there is a clash of customs [such as eating healthy but prohibited food] that cannot be forced ”. (Midwife)

“ We were invited to a community gathering every month. The purpose of the meeting is to provide instructions to the village or the parents; everything is talked about and entrusted to the parents. Only recently has this happened. Violations of various kinds are reported, and then there are instructions, such as if you [want to] eat [certain] food [from outside], you must be careful [that the food contains prohibited or unhealthy items]. It was recently held with the community. Every month, the meeting is held ”. (Baduy 1)

4.3.2. Managing Information-Technology-Based Health-Information Groups

“ Technology can come in slowly. Cell phones are already in, but if they want to use them, they must go to Outer Baduy, ma’am. In Inner Baduy, they must go outside the village first. Then they are now free to meet their friends ”. (Dentist)

“ I have all [the midwives’ cellphone numbers]. I have the [cellphone] number of the health personnel and midwives in Cibaleger, in Kariki, I have all the [cellphone] numbers ”. (Baduy 1)

4.3.3. Always Present at Least One Health Worker among Residents and Provide an Example of Healthy Living

“ Indeed, in the past, I heard that people from Baduy Dalam, for example, were not allowed to use medical services because it has been like that for generations. Nevertheless, now we live in a wider society. So, people from Outer Baduyhave already used modern medicine, right? So sometimes what else can we do if we do not get help ”. (Punggawa)

“ My intention here is nothing different. I do not sell medicine. I do not sell these or those. I want to help the Baduy people because they do not know where to go. Mr. Jaro said, “Do not leave the Pustu [Subsidiary Health Center]”. No, I will not leave it. If the condition is like this, then that is the condition. So, in the end, that is it. Yesterday, Mr. Jaro’s wife had her feet scalded with hot water. I have taken it to the doctor, there are burns. Then, given ointment, she is healthy now. “It was Mr. Jaro who asked for treatment directly ”. (NGO)

4.3.4. Encouraging Collective Reflection When Health Cases Occur

“ That is why I say when I go around, “Do not eat cilok [chewy tapioca balls], do not eat noodles, better eat boiled bananas”. This local wisdom has now been lost. The children eat cilok every morning; there are cilok around. Snacks. That afternoon, a lady on a motorbike was picked up by her husband and shouted “cilok…cilok”. The children do not want to eat dinner anymore; why? Because the taste is different, there is already flavouring, and all kinds of things, and a generation of flavouring-addicted people has emerged ”. (NGO)

“ For example, there was a risky pregnancy, but it turns out that because of a customary problem, she was not allowed to access health services. Finally, after negotiating with the traditional authorities, she was allowed. However, 15 min before arriving at the hospital, the mother died. The mother died on the road. So she died in the ambulance ”. (Nurse)

4.3.5. Balancing Gender Communication

5. discussion, limitations, 6. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Putri, L.D.; Agustin, H.; Bakti, I.; Suminar, J.R. Addressing Health Illiteracy and Stunting in Culture-Shocked Indigenous Populations: A Case Study of Outer Baduy in Indonesia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024 , 21 , 1114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21091114

Putri LD, Agustin H, Bakti I, Suminar JR. Addressing Health Illiteracy and Stunting in Culture-Shocked Indigenous Populations: A Case Study of Outer Baduy in Indonesia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 2024; 21(9):1114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21091114

Putri, Liza Diniarizky, Herlina Agustin, Iriana Bakti, and Jenny Ratna Suminar. 2024. "Addressing Health Illiteracy and Stunting in Culture-Shocked Indigenous Populations: A Case Study of Outer Baduy in Indonesia" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 21, no. 9: 1114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21091114

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© Bachudo Science Co. Ltd. This work is licensed under the creative commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

Olufowoke Mary Oyeyipo

Guidance and Counselling, School Director, Shepherd's Academy,                                                           Shepherd's Porch Church, Off MCC, Akai efai, Calabar, CRS, Nigeria

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Girl child early marriage and its impact on education: a case study of cross river state.

This study sought to investigate primarily the extent of girl child marriage and how it impacts education in Cross River State. Four purpose, research questions and hypothesis guided the study. The research design adopted for this study was the survey research design. The population for the study was all parents with school aged girls in their homes in Cross River State, Nigeria. Stratified random sampling technique was used to select nine local government for the study out of the 18 local government in the state. The actual sample respondents of 378 parents with school aged girls in their homes in Cross River State was drawn for the study from the sampled LGA. Three experts validated the instruments both the used to collect data for the study. Instrument was used for the study, the instrument was titled “Girl Child Early Marriage and Education questionnaire” was administered to the respondents to elicit their responses. The instruments was 23 items with 4-option answer format and 3 items to elicit the respondent’s demographic data. A pilot study was conducted on a sample of 40 participants and internal consistency coefficient ranging from .80-.83 was obtained using Cronbach alpha reliability estimate methods. The researchers administered the instruments on the sampled respondents in the selected faculty. The data that was collected was analyzed using and the hypothesis was tested using independent t-test, one way analysis of variance and Pearson product moment correlations at 0.05 level of significance. The result showed that Rate of Girl child marriage, Girl child family Social economic status, and Girl child Parental type education does significantly influence education in Cross River State. It was further fund that there is a strong positive relationship between Old folktales about girl child early marriage and education in Cross-River State. Above all it was recommended that government should create and implement policy that will efficiently improve educational accessibility among minority groups.

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Journal Identifiers

Life cycle assessment of innovative methods for treating wastewater and solid wastes: a case study focusing on their application within the brewing sector

First published on 22nd August 2024

The brewing sector is known for its high energy consumption, significant water usage, and the generation of substantial solid and liquid waste. Therefore, effective treatment methods for these wastes have been explored to treat and either recycle water within the industry or proceed to safe aquatic discharge, while repurposing solid waste for energy production and valuable products. This study aims to assess the overall environmental sustainability of solid waste valorization and wastewater treatment in a brewery through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The evaluation involved comparing the total environmental impact of a typical brewing industry utilizing conventional waste management methods (base case scenario) with two alternative approaches employing appropriate waste treatment and valorization processes. In scenario A, waste management employed anaerobic digestion coupled with a cogeneration unit, aeration treatment, and membrane filtration treatment. Meanwhile, Scenario B utilized gasification, screening, membrane bioreactors and UV treatment as treatment techniques. As anticipated, the LCA study revealed that both Scenarios A and B exhibited significantly improved environmental footprints across all studied indicators compared to the base case scenario, with reductions in the greenhouse gas emissions reaching up to 25.90% and 45.68% for Scenarios A and B, respectively. The findings from this case study underscore the potential for the brewing industry to efficiently generate energy and markedly improve its environmental footprint by integrating appropriate waste treatment methods. This contribution to environmental safety and sustainability emphasizes the significance of adopting suitable techniques within the industry.

Introduction

Beer production is a combination of malting and brewing processes. More specifically, the malting process relies on water for steeping and energy primarily for germination, kilning, and storage. The energy needs can vary based on the scale of the malting operation, the efficiency of equipment and processes, and the type of energy sources used. Modern malting facilities aim to optimize both water and energy usage to reduce environmental impact and operational costs. As for the brewing process, it involves water for mashing, lautering, cooling, and cleaning, and energy is mainly required for heating during mashing and boiling, cooling, and packaging. 3 The specific water and energy demands can vary depending on the brewery's size, technology, and the type of beer being produced, with modern breweries focusing on sustainability and efficiency to reduce resource consumption along with their environmental impact. Thus, beer production is a resource-intensive process that consumes substantial quantities of grains, water, and energy, resulting in the generation of significant amounts of solid wastes and wastewater. Various methods have been employed to address these waste products, with the goal of purifying the wastewater and harnessing the potential energy within the solid waste to promote the recycling of the generated energy within the industry.

Among the various methods available for treating and making better use of beer processing by-products, the following techniques are considered highly suitable due to their effectiveness in both wastewater treatment and the generation of renewable energy from waste materials: membrane bioreactors, aeration treatment, ultraviolet (UV) treatment, anaerobic digestion, and gasification. Aeration treatment involves the introduction of air into wastewater, enabling the biodegradation of organic compounds and leading to water decontamination. 4 Simultaneously, membrane treatment aids in the removal of suspended particles and microorganisms from the treated water. 5 Anaerobic digestion, a process for wet solid waste, efficiently breaks down organic matter through microorganisms, ultimately converting it into biogas. 6 Subsequently, the generated biogas can be harnessed in a biogas cogeneration unit to produce renewable electricity and heat. 7 A membrane bioreactor is an advanced approach for wastewater treatment, combining a biological process (aeration treatment) with membrane filtration. This method involves a bioreactor tank where biomass is broken down, followed by membrane filtration to eliminate microorganisms from the treated water. 1 UV treatment is an efficient technique for disinfecting treated water by subjecting it to ultraviolet light, which effectively eliminates harmful pathogens like bacteria and viruses. 8 Finally, gasification of solid wastes involves converting them into combustible gases, mainly in the form of hydrogen, through a high-temperature process in the absence of oxygen. 9

The assessment of environmental impacts in product systems is facilitated using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), a valuable framework that considers inputs, outputs, and potential environmental effects throughout the entire life cycle of a product system. 10,11 LCA's primary purpose is to identify key environmental hotspots during various production stages and offer recommendations for enhancing the overall production process with a focus on environmental sustainability. 12

The main purpose of this study is to investigate whether the processing of wastewater and solid wastes within the boundaries of a brewery can exhibit a positive impact on its environmental footprint in the brewing industry. The primary objective of this study is to assess the sustainability from an environmental aspect of a beer industry adopting advanced wastewater treatment methods; aeration and membrane treatment for Scenario A and membrane bioreactors as well as UV treatment for Scenario B. Moreover, for the valorization of solid wastes, anaerobic digestion coupled with CHP was studied for Scenario A and gasification for the latter scenario. Subsequently, the two different scenarios were directly compared with current practices regarding the disposal of wastewater (transportation to municipal wastewater treatment plants) and solid wastes (biodegradable waste in landfills) in most breweries, utilizing LCA as the evaluation tool. To sum up, the main scope of the present study is to assess the environmental sustainability of incorporating novel methods in the valorization of solid wastes and the treatment of wastewater that are generated in the brewing industry via performing an LCA analysis.

Methodology

Aim & scope.

The study centered on a conventional brewing operation as the baseline case, focusing on the production of beer as the final product. The various processes involved in brewing, illustrated in Fig. 1 , include grinding, mashing, boiling, fermentation, conditioning, filtration and finally the packaging. Each stage was analyzed to understand its environmental impact and resource utilization within the broader context of the brewing industry.

Regarding the base case scenario that is depicted in Fig. 1 , the produced wastewater is conveyed to and treated at a municipal wastewater treatment facility, while solid waste is simply disposed of in landfills; thus the brewing industry adopts a passive approach. This traditional practice reflects a historical norm where industries typically remained detached from the active treatment and reutilization of their wastes.

In Scenario A, wastewater and solid wastes are treated on site within the boundaries of the industry ( Fig. 2 ). Specifically, wastewater is first subjected to aeration treatment and subsequently filtered through a membrane unit to obtain clean water. Solid wastes undergo treatment in an anaerobic digester, where the resulting biogas, after removing CO 2 to enhance methane concentration, is utilized for electricity and heat generation through cogeneration. 13

Scenario B ( Fig. 3 ) includes several meticulous stages for the treatment of wastewater and the valorization of solid wastes. Initially, wastewater is screened to remove large solids, and then enters a membrane bioreactor followed by a subsequent exposure to UV light. The resulting water achieves a quality level suitable for either recycling within the industry to curtail fresh water consumption or safe discharge into aquatic ecosystems. Solid waste valorization is accomplished utilizing gasification, a process in which the solid wastes (mainly spent grains) are converted into hydrogen, which can be used for the production of electricity and thermal energy. In Scenarios A and B, the production of thermal energy and electricity is represented as thermal and electricity credits, respectively. These credits typically contribute positively to the environmental footprint of both scenarios as they stem from the valorization of waste, rather than relying on the traditional combustion of fossil fuels for energy generation.

Functional unit

System boundaries, data requirements, assumptions & limitations.

A significant assumption is the homogeneity and reliability of the data across different literature sources. One major assumption is that these sources provide consistent and representative information applicable to our scenarios, despite potential variations in data collection methods and reporting standards. This assumption extends to the operational conditions and efficiencies across different breweries, presuming them to be similar to those described in the literature. 14

Another critical assumption is the uniform impact of uncertainty across all scenarios. This implies that any inconsistencies or variations in data quality do not bias one scenario over another, thereby maintaining a level playing field. Additionally, static environmental conditions are assumed, which may not accurately reflect real-world variances such as local climate differences and resource availability.

Technological consistency is another assumption, where it is hypothesized that the technology and processes used in waste treatment and beer production are in line with those documented in the literature. This does not account for advancements or regional differences in process efficiency, which could impact the study's outcomes.

However, these assumptions bring several limitations. The reliance on literature data may not fully capture the diversity and complexity of real-world situations, leading to potential inaccuracies in estimating environmental footprints. Geographical and temporal variations, such as regional differences in environmental regulations and changes in technology over time, are not accounted for, which could affect the generalizability of the obtained results.

The study also simplifies complex environmental processes and interactions, potentially overlooking certain indirect or long-term impacts. Moreover, it may not cover all environmental impact categories comprehensively, focusing primarily on those directly related to wastewater and solid waste treatment.

To understand the robustness of the conclusions, a sensitivity analysis was conducted by varying key parameters within realistic ranges.

Life cycle inventory

Tables 2 and 3 outline the input and output specifics for each process within the various scenarios, as depicted in Fig. 2 and 3 .

Uncertainty analysis

Results and discussion.

However, the primary aim of the present study was to validate the environmental advantages of the proposed waste treatment methods against traditional wastewater and solid waste treatment. By focusing on these specific stages, all efforts were concentrated on the critical areas, ensuring a thorough and detailed examination. Including additional aspects such as transportation and specific ingredients would have broadened the study's scope, potentially diluting the focus and making it challenging to draw clear conclusions about the waste treatment methods themselves. Moreover, reliable and comprehensive data on the transportation of raw materials and the detailed environmental impacts of yeasts and hops can be difficult to obtain. Transportation data vary widely depending on distances traveled, modes of transport used, and fuel consumption. Similarly, the environmental impacts of cultivating yeasts and hops are influenced by factors such as local agricultural practices, climate conditions, and farming methods. This variability and potential lack of consistent, high-quality data would introduce significant uncertainties into our analysis, complicating the accuracy and reliability of the results. In summary, while including the transportation of raw materials and the incorporation of yeasts and hops would provide a more comprehensive view of the environmental footprint, it was not feasible in the present study due to the need to maintain focus, the challenges in obtaining reliable data, and the methodological constraints involved.

Thus, two different scenarios were studied within the industrial boundaries using the same assumptions as the base case scenario to address this, with the obtained results being presented in Fig. 5 and 6 . According to the obtained results, the two studied scenarios that focus on the treatment of wastewater and solid waste within the brewery, employing suitable methods, significantly improve the environmental impact of the studied case. Purifying wastewater efficiently and safely disposing of it in the aquatic environment notably reduce the marine and freshwater ecotoxicity in both Scenarios A (involving aeration treatment and membrane filtration) and B (involving screening, MBR and UV treatment). 32 Additionally, in both studied scenarios a decrease in the greenhouse gas emissions (25.90% and 45.68% for Scenarios A and B, respectively) and in human toxicity regarding cancer (32.87% and 38.18% for Scenarios A and B, respectively) is attained due to the valorization of solid wastes and the production of renewable energy that can substitute the use of conventional fossil fuels. The aforementioned observation can also explain the significant decrease in the studied category of fossil fuels exhibited in both studied scenarios (33.16% and 45.50% for Scenarios A and B, respectively). Finally, Scenarios A and B also achieved an improvement in the studied category of photochemical ozone formation (17.06% and 21.76% for Scenarios A and B, respectively) that affects human health. 16,18,33,34

The improved environmental impacts observed in Scenarios A and B are attributed to the advanced and integrated treatment methods for wastewater and solid wastes within the brewery. In Scenario A, wastewater undergoes an aeration process, which introduces oxygen to promote the breakdown of organic matter by aerobic microorganisms, significantly reducing organic pollutants. 4 The subsequent membrane filtration further purifies the water by removing residual contaminants, resulting in clean water suitable for discharge. 5,35 This dual treatment process minimizes the ecological footprint by ensuring that the discharged water meets high environmental standards, reducing marine and freshwater ecotoxicity.

Simultaneously, solid wastes in Scenario A are processed in an anaerobic digester, where anaerobic microorganisms decompose organic material in the absence of oxygen, producing biogas primarily composed of methane and carbon dioxide. 7,36 After enhancing the methane concentration by removing CO 2 , the biogas is utilized in cogeneration units to produce both electricity and heat. This valorization of solid waste into renewable energy not only reduces greenhouse gas emissions but also lessens dependence on fossil fuels, leading to a significant decrease in fossil fuel consumption and associated emissions.

Scenario B employs a more elaborate wastewater treatment process, starting with screening to remove large solids, followed by treatment in a membrane bioreactor (MBR). The MBR combines biological degradation and membrane filtration, efficiently removing organic and inorganic pollutants. 37,38 The final UV treatment disinfects the water, ensuring that it is safe for reuse within the brewery or for discharge into aquatic ecosystems. 39,40 This comprehensive treatment process further enhances water quality and reduces environmental pollution.

For solid waste treatment in Scenario B, gasification is used. In this process, solid wastes, mainly spent grains, are converted into hydrogen gas through a high-temperature reaction in the presence of a controlled amount of oxygen. The resulting hydrogen can then be used to generate electricity and thermal energy, contributing to the brewery's energy needs. 26 The production of energy from waste materials reduces the reliance on conventional fossil fuels and lowers greenhouse gas emissions.

In both scenarios, the production of thermal energy and electricity from waste valorization is represented as thermal and electricity credits. These credits positively impact the environmental footprint by offsetting the need for fossil fuel-based energy generation, thereby reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants. 41 The integrated waste treatment and valorization processes demonstrate how breweries can achieve significant environmental benefits by adopting sustainable and circular economy practices.

The broader implications of these findings for the brewing industry and similar sectors are significant. By adopting these advanced waste treatments and valorization technologies, breweries can drastically reduce their environmental footprint, contribute to sustainability, and align with circular economy principles. This approach not only enhances environmental performance but also offers potential cost savings through energy production and waste reduction. These practices can serve as a model for other industries aiming to mitigate their environmental impact and promote sustainable production methods.

A direct comparison of base case scenarios and Scenarios A and B is shown in Fig. 7 , and the overall reduction in environmental footprint is summarized in Table 4 . Moreover, the endpoints of the ReCiPe methodology applied in the present work are depicted in Fig. 8 and Table 5 .

According to the attained results, the adoption of innovative methods targeting wastewater purification, and repurposing of solid waste for energy production has notably enhanced the environmental impact of the brewing industry across all examined aspects in both Scenarios A and B. A direct comparison between the two studied alternative scenarios reveals that in the studied categories depicted in the present study, Scenario B exhibits a slighter enhanced environmental footprint compared to Scenario A. Moreover, the obtained endpoints from the ReCiPe methodology validate the significance of incorporating the studied wastewater treatment and solid waste valorization methods; as for the two studied scenarios, the damages to human health, ecosystems and resource availability are significantly lower compared to those of the base case scenario. In contrast to the studied categories, Scenario A exhibits lower values regarding the damage to human health and to resource availability compared to Scenario B. This can be attributed to the additional incorporation of other indicators (presented in the supplementary material) and to the larger electricity consumption in the treatment of wastewater and the valorization of solid wastes in Scenario B compared to Scenario A, respectively.

According to the results of the uncertainty analysis, it is evident that the environmental footprint of the two studied alternative scenarios does not change significantly as a function of the anaerobic digester's biogas production and gasification's hydrogen production capacity. However, in both cases the high efficiency of the studied methods resulted in a slightly improved environmental performance, and the low efficiency, in a slight increase in the environmental footprint in certain categories, such as greenhouse gas emissions.

Future perspectives and recommendations

First, comprehensive feasibility studies are crucial. These studies should include technical, economic, and environmental assessments to ensure that the proposed waste treatment methods are suitable and beneficial for specific breweries. However, the initial cost and time investment for these studies can be significant barriers. To mitigate this, breweries can seek funding from government grants or industry partnerships and collaborate with academic institutions to reduce costs. 42

Implementing pilot projects or demonstration plants is another vital recommendation. These projects showcase the effectiveness of the new technologies in real-world settings. The initial financial investment and potential operational disruptions during this phase pose challenges. To address these, subsidies and financial incentives from government bodies or environmental agencies can be utilized, and pilot projects can be planned in phases to minimize disruptions. 42,43

Training and capacity building are essential for the successful adoption of new technologies. Extensive training programs should be provided to brewery staff and management on the operation and maintenance of new waste treatment systems. Resistance to change and lack of technical expertise among existing staff are potential barriers. Developing partnerships with technology providers for training sessions and offering incentives for staff participation can help overcome these challenges.

Financial incentives and support are crucial for encouraging breweries to invest in new technologies. Tax breaks, low-interest loans, and grants can support initial investments. Lack of awareness or access to these financial support mechanisms can be a barrier. Engaging with local and national governments to create awareness and streamline the application process for financial incentives is a practical strategy to overcome this barrier. 42,43

Regulatory support and a conducive policy framework are necessary to promote the adoption of sustainable waste treatment technologies. However, slow policy changes and regulatory approvals can hinder progress. Participating in industry associations to collectively advocate for regulatory changes and engaging in continuous dialogue with policymakers can facilitate faster policy support. 44

Conducting detailed cost-benefit analyses can highlight the long-term economic benefits and environmental savings of adopting new technologies. A common barrier is the short-term cost focus among stakeholders. Presenting case studies and data from pilot projects to demonstrate long-term savings and environmental benefits can help shift this focus. 44

Increasing public awareness and community engagement about the environmental benefits of the new waste treatment technologies is also important. Limited public knowledge about industrial waste management practices can be a barrier. Launching public awareness campaigns and involving local communities in pilot projects can demonstrate the benefits firsthand and garner public support. 42,45

Fostering collaborations and partnerships between breweries, technology providers, research institutions, and environmental organizations can facilitate technology transfer and shared learning. Competitive concerns and lack of trust between different stakeholders can be barriers. Establishing formal agreements and creating neutral platforms for knowledge sharing and collaboration can help overcome these challenges.

Despite these recommendations, several potential barriers to implementation exist. High initial costs are a significant barrier, but securing funding through government grants, subsidies, and financial incentives, as well as exploring financing options like green bonds or public-private partnerships, can address this issue. 44

Technical challenges and a lack of expertise can also hinder implementation. Investing in comprehensive training programs and collaborating with technology providers for ongoing support can mitigate these challenges. 46

Regulatory and policy hurdles can delay the adoption of new technologies. Advocacy for policy changes through industry associations and maintaining active engagement with regulatory bodies can expedite approval processes.

Operational disruptions during the implementation of new systems are another barrier. Planning and executing the implementation in phases and utilizing off-peak production periods for major changes can minimize these disruptions. 46

Lastly, cultural resistance to change among staff and management can impede progress. Fostering a culture of sustainability within the organization, highlighting long-term benefits, and involving employees in the decision-making process can help gain their buy-in and overcome resistance.

By addressing these barriers with targeted strategies, breweries can effectively adopt and benefit from advanced waste treatment technologies, leading to improved environmental performance and operational efficiencies.

Application in the wine industry

Furthermore, the wine industry can benefit from the use of gasification, screening, membrane bioreactors, and UV treatment techniques to manage waste more effectively. Gasification of solid wastes such as grape marc and vine prunings can produce hydrogen-rich syngas, providing a renewable energy source and reducing waste disposal issues. The implementation of membrane bioreactors and UV treatments can improve the quality of wastewater discharged from wineries, making it safe for aquatic ecosystems and potentially suitable for reuse in vineyard irrigation. By integrating these waste treatment and valorization processes, the wine industry can achieve significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and overall environmental impact, fostering a more sustainable and environmentally friendly production cycle. 49,50

The application of advanced waste treatment and valorization methods in the wine industry can bridge several critical gaps in environmental sustainability. One significant gap is the high energy consumption associated with traditional waste management practices. By adopting anaerobic digestion and cogeneration units, wineries can convert organic waste into biogas, subsequently generating renewable heat and electricity, thereby reducing their reliance on fossil fuels and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Another gap is the substantial water usage in wine production. Implementing aeration and membrane filtration treatments enables water recycling within wineries, minimizing freshwater withdrawals and reducing the environmental impact on local water resources. Additionally, the challenge of managing solid wastes such as grape marc and vine prunings can be effectively addressed through gasification, which converts these wastes into hydrogen-rich syngas, providing a renewable energy source and mitigating waste disposal issues. Furthermore, the use of membrane bioreactors and UV treatments enhances wastewater quality, making it suitable for safe discharge or reuse in vineyard irrigation, thus promoting a circular economy and significantly reducing the overall environmental footprint of the wine industry. 45

Conclusions

Data availability, conflicts of interest, acknowledgements.

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Accessing silence : research methods into sexual harassment : a case study of the Committee of Enquiry into Sexual Harassment at the University of Cape Town

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Evaluating the impact of the global evidence, local adaptation (GELA) project for enhancing evidence-informed guideline recommendations for newborn and young child health in three African countries: a mixed-methods protocol

• Tamara Kredo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7115-9535 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Emmanuel Effa 5 ,
• Nyanyiwe Mbeye 6 ,
• Denny Mabetha 1 ,
• Bey-Marrié Schmidt 1 , 7 ,
• Anke Rohwer 2 ,
• Michael McCaul 2 ,
• Idriss Ibrahim Kallon 2 ,
• Susan Munabi-Babigumira 8 ,
• Claire Glenton 8 ,
• Taryn Young 2 ,
• Simon Lewin 1 , 9 ,
• Per Olav Vandvik 10 , 11 &
• Sara Cooper 2 , 4 , 12  

Health Research Policy and Systems volume  22 , Article number:  114 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Poverty-related diseases (PRD) remain amongst the leading causes of death in children under-5 years in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) based on the best available evidence are key to strengthening health systems and helping to enhance equitable health access for children under five. However, the CPG development process is complex and resource-intensive, with substantial scope for improving the process in SSA, which is the goal of the Global Evidence, Local Adaptation (GELA) project. The impact of research on PRD will be maximized through enhancing researchers and decision makers’ capacity to use global research to develop locally relevant CPGs in the field of newborn and child health. The project will be implemented in three SSA countries, Malawi, South Africa and Nigeria, over a 3-year period. This research protocol is for the monitoring and evaluation work package of the project. The aim of this work package is to monitor the various GELA project activities and evaluate the influence these may have on evidence-informed decision-making and guideline adaptation capacities and processes. The specific project activities we will monitor include (1) our ongoing engagement with local stakeholders, (2) their capacity needs and development, (3) their understanding and use of evidence from reviews of qualitative research and, (4) their overall views and experiences of the project.

We will use a longitudinal, mixed-methods study design, informed by an overarching project Theory of Change. A series of interconnected qualitative and quantitative data collections methods will be used, including knowledge translation tracking sheets and case studies, capacity assessment online surveys, user testing and in-depth interviews, and non-participant observations of project activities. Participants will comprise of project staff, members of the CPG panels and steering committees in Malawi, South Africa and Nigeria, as well as other local stakeholders in these three African countries.

Ongoing monitoring and evaluation will help ensure the relationship between researchers and stakeholders is supported from the project start. This can facilitate achievement of common goals and enable researchers in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria to make adjustments to project activities to maximize stakeholder engagement and research utilization. Ethical approval has been provided by South African Medical Research Council Human Research Ethics Committee (EC015-7/2022); The College of Medicine Research and Ethics Committee, Malawi (P.07/22/3687); National Health Research Ethics Committee of Nigeria (01/01/2007).

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Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has the highest under-five mortality rate in the world [ 1 ]. Although the global under-five mortality rate declined from 76 to 38 per 1000 live births between 2000 and 2019, more than half of the deaths in children and youth in 2019 were among children under 5 years, approximately 5.2 million deaths [ 1 ]. Poverty-related diseases including pneumonia, diarrhoea and malaria remain amongst the leading causes of death in children under-5 years [ 2 ].Thus, despite progress in the health of young children globally, most countries in SSA fall below the average gains and do not meet maternal and child health targets set by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 3 to ‘ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing’ (1). As of December 2021, under-five mortality rates were reported as 113.8, 38.6 and 32.2 per 1000 live births for Nigeria, Malawi and South Africa, respectively [ 3 ]. Factors accounting for regional disparities in child mortality rates include poverty, socioeconomic inequities, poor health systems and poor nutrition, with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) adding substantially to the burden [ 4 ].

Addressing healthcare issues such as these requires an evidence-informed approach, where intervention design and implementation are based on the best available evidence, to ensure that scarce resources are used effectively and efficiently, avoid harm, maximize good and improve healthcare delivery and outcomes [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Evidence-informed practices have been growing in SSA [ 6 ], and evidence ecosystems are becoming stronger. The evidence ecosystem reflects the formal and informal linkages and interactions between different actors (and their capacities and resources) involved in the production, translation and use of evidence [ 6 , 8 , 9 ]. Guidance that can be developed through this ecosystem includes evidence-based health technology assessments (HTA) and clinical practice guidelines (CPGs). CPGs include recommendations that are actionable statements that are informed by systematic reviews of evidence, and an assessment of the benefits and harms of alternative care options and are intended to optimize patient care [ 10 ]. They can help bridge the gap between research evidence and practice and are recognized as important quality-improvement tools that aim to standardize care, inform funding decisions and improve access to care, among others.

CPG method advancements, challenges and research gaps

Over the past decade, internationally and in SSA, there has been a rapid growth of CPGs developed for a range of conditions [ 11 ]. In particular, rapid evidence syntheses and guideline development methods has advanced in response to urgent evidence needs, especially during COVID [ 12 , 13 ]. For example, WHO has developed guidelines for all key infectious conditions that cause most deaths. This development has been accompanied by a growing volume of research evidence around CPGs, including the processes for their rapid development, adaptation, contextualization, implementation and evaluation, and further spurred on by COVID. For example, global knowledge leaders, such as the WHO and the GRADE Working Group, have set standards for CPG development, outlining the steps of what is known as ‘de novo’ (from scratch) CPG development [ 14 ]. Another global group, the Guidelines International Network (G-I-N), is a network dedicated to leading, strengthening and supporting collaboration in CPG development, adaptation and implementation. They have published minimum standards and the G-I-N McMaster guideline checklist, which contains a comprehensive list of topics and items outlining the practical steps to consider for developing CPGs [ 15 ].

As CPG standards have evolved, however, so has the complexity of development and adaptation. In the context of poorer settings, such as sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), CPG development is prohibitively human and finance resource intensive. It requires scarce skills, even in the growing evidence-based healthcare (EBHC) community, and financial investments by government where resources are often directed to healthcare services, rather than policymaking processes. Against this backdrop, several studies have found that CPGs in the region often perform poorly on reporting on their rigour of development and editorial independence [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Other, more resource-efficient methods for guideline development in SSA are, therefore, essential and urgently needed. Moreover, investment in the overall management of the process is needed, including convening the guideline group and moving stepwise through a rigorous process.

Approaches for and challenges of guideline adaptation

There is also increased international recognition of the value of taking guidelines developed in one country and applying them to other countries. This can avoid duplication of effort and research waste in de novo guideline development, when useful guidelines may exist elsewhere [ 12 , 19 ]. Against this backdrop, several adaptation methods are emerging for contextualization of recommendations to country needs (e.g. ADAPTE, adolopment and SNAP-it, amongst others) [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. For example, WHO is developing strategies for adapting and implementing their CPGs at country level. One example is the WHO Antenatal Care Recommendations Adaptation Toolkit lead by the Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research [ 22 ]. Their approach is pragmatic and transparent. Another approach is so-called ‘adolopment’, a GRADE method, in which the original guideline evidence is used, either adopted or adapted, considering contextual evidence such as costs and feasibility and local values [ 20 ]. Adolopment involves convening a guideline panel, reviewing available evidence and local contextual evidence and weighing up the panel’s judgements to make recommendations that are fit for purpose [ 20 ].

Despite these advances in CPG adaptation methods, many countries and professional associations in sub-Saharan Africa still use expert opinion-based approaches or proceed to prepare their own systematic reviews and guidelines, ultimately perpetuating resource wastage and duplication of efforts [ 23 ]. Moreover, when countries do adapt and contextualize other countries’ guidelines, there is frequently a lack of transparency and reporting on changes, without clarity on why or by whom. This in turn casts doubts on the recommendation’s credibility. For example, guidelines for child health in sub-Saharan Africa are usually derived from the WHO and UNICEF. However, adaptation of such guidelines and recommendations to national contexts is not well described [ 24 ]. Transparency in guideline adaptation is critical for creating trustworthy, context-sensitive recommendations. What guideline adaptation methods work best and how these can be transparently implemented in the context of lower resource settings, remain key research questions. Therefore, despite the emergence of several guideline adaptation approaches, we need to explore and understand how best to adapt recommendations from one context to another [ 25 ].

Qualitative evidence to inform guideline panels decisions

Another major advancement within guideline research has been growing recognition of the potential contribution of qualitative research evidence [ 26 , 27 ]. Traditionally, guidelines have been informed by systematic reviews of the effectiveness of specific interventions [ 14 ]. Such reviews provide robust evidence about which interventions ‘work’. However, there is appreciation that evidence regarding the potential effectiveness of an intervention is not sufficient for making recommendations or decisions. Policymakers also need to consider other issues, including how different stakeholders’ value different outcomes, the intervention’s acceptability to those affected by it and the feasibility of implementing the intervention [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Evidence from qualitative research is particularly well suited to exploring factors that influence an intervention’s acceptability and feasibility [ 31 , 32 ]. The use of qualitative research to inform recommendations by guidelines has become easier in recent years as systematic reviews of qualitative studies have become more common, and the methods for these reviews are now well developed [ 33 ]. The first WHO guideline to systematically incorporate reviews of qualitative studies was published in 2012 in the field of task-shifting for maternal and child health [ 31 ]. The inclusion of this qualitative evidence helped shape the panel’s recommendations [ 32 ], and this approach is now included in the WHO Handbook for Guideline Development and has been applied in many other WHO CPGs [ 34 , 35 ].

However, a key challenge in using findings from systematic reviews of qualitative evidence is communicating often complex findings to users such as guideline panel members to facilitate effective knowledge translation. While there is now considerable research on communicating findings from reviews of intervention effectiveness [ 36 ], there is limited experience on the usefulness of different options for packaging and presenting findings from systematic reviews of qualitative evidence to CPG panels. To make best use of this evidence, we need presentation formats that are accessible to users who may be unfamiliar with qualitative methods, are concise and simple while retaining sufficient detail to inform decisions and clearly present ‘confidence in the evidence from systematic reviews of qualitative evidence’ (GRADE-CERQual) assessments of how much confidence users should place in each finding [ 37 ]. In addition, we need to understand how qualitative evidence included in global guidelines, such as those produced by WHO, is interpreted and used in country-level guideline adaptation processes.

Communicating clinical practice guidelines to end-users

A final key guideline method advancement has been around the development of multi-layered and digitally structured communication formats for end users [ 38 , 39 ]. Guidelines are not an end in themselves. Recommendations may lack impact if not adequately communicated and disseminated to those who need to implement them, namely healthcare providers, managers and the public. Indeed, in a South African study of primary care guideline national policymakers, subnational health managers and healthcare providers agreed that dissemination is a particular gap [ 40 ]. While guidelines typically are produced as static documents (e.g. PDF formats), information technology is needed to enhance dissemination. The MAGIC authoring and publication Platform (MAGICapp/) was developed for this purpose ( https://magicevidence.org/magicapp/ ). MAGICapp is a web-based tool that enables evidence synthesizers and guideline organizations to create, publish and dynamically update trustworthy and digitally structured evidence summaries, guidelines and decision aids in user-friendly formats on all devices. Such digital multi-layered formats allow different users to rapidly find recommendations, while having the supporting evidence for them one click away [ 41 ]. MAGICapp, used by WHO, NICE and professional societies across the world, holds potential to enhance the impact of evidence-informed guideline recommendations in practice, in an enhanced evidence ecosystem [ 9 ]. However, the usability of the MAGICapp in sub-Saharan Africa, based on local user preferences for different communication formats, are key research questions.

Against this backdrop, the Global Evidence, Local Adaptation (GELA) project will maximize the impact of research on poverty-related diseases through enhancing researchers and decision makers’ capacity to use global research to develop locally relevant guidelines for newborn and child health in Malawi, Nigeria and South Africa. These guidelines will build on and add value to the large-scale programme of child health guideline development from agencies such as the WHO, to support adaptation and implementation led by national ministries in collaboration with WHO Afro regional office.

Brief overview of the GELA project aim, objectives and approach

The overarching aim of GELA is to bridge the gap between current processes and global advances in evidence-informed decision-making and guideline development, adaptation and dissemination by building skills and sharing resources in ways that can be sustained beyond the project period. The project has seven linked and related work packages (WPs) to support delivery of the planned project deliverables. Table 1 provides a brief summary of the activities of each WP. This protocol outlines our approach for the monitoring and overall evaluation of the project activities and impact (WP 6).

The project will be implemented in three SSA countries: Malawi, South Africa and Nigeria over a 3-year period. The project adopts a multi-faceted multidisciplinary research and capacity strengthening programme using primary and secondary research, guideline adaptation methodology and digital platforms to support authoring delivery and dynamic adaptation. These processes will offer bespoke capacity strengthening opportunities for policy makers, researchers and civil society. Throughout the project, we plan for innovations in the tools we use, accompanied by comprehensive evaluation of all aspects of the research, research uptake into policy and capacity strengthening.

This current proposal is for WP6: monitoring and evaluation

Ongoing monitoring and evaluation of project processes and activities will help facilitate ongoing engagement between researchers and stakeholders throughout the research project. This will in turn help ensure that the project is centred on a common goal, with clear understandings of the different research activities and potential impact. This can also promote research uptake and enable researchers to make adjustments to project activities, maximizing stakeholder engagement and research utilization.

M&E aims & objectives

The overarching aim of the monitoring and evaluation work package is to monitor and evaluate the various GELA project activities and processes, including whether, how and why activities took place or if goals were met.

The specific monitoring and evaluation objectives are to:

Monitor ongoing engagement with local stakeholders across work packages and explore what worked and didn’t and why;

Assess the capacity development needs of guideline panels and steering group committees and explore their views and experiences of the project’s capacity development activities;

Explore guideline panelists’ experiences with reading and using evidence from reviews of qualitative research, including their preferences regarding how qualitative review findings are summarized and presented;

Evaluate guideline panelists’, steering group committees’ and project team members’ overall views and experiences of the project, including the what works or not, to influence evidence-informed decision-making and guideline adaptation processes

Overall approach

We will use a longitudinal, mixed-methods study design, informed by an overarching project Theory of Change (Table  2 ). The theoretical underpinning for the GELA project across all work packages is related to the three-layered behaviour change wheel comprising opportunity, capability and motivation [ 42 ]. The design, delivery and implementation of multi-stakeholder integrated activities based on identified priority areas and needs is expected to lead to guideline related improved capacity, practice and policy within each country’s health system. Certain objectives also have specific underpinning theoretical frameworks, in addition to the overarching project Theory of Change, which are explained under the respective objectives below. A series of interconnected qualitative and quantitative data collections methods will be used to address each objective.

In what follows, we describe each objective and the methods we will use to achieve it, separately. However, in many cases the qualitative data collection cuts across objectives, with the same interviews and observations being used to explore multiple issues simultaneously (e.g. knowledge translation, capacity, overall views and experiences of the project, etc.). The relationship between the different objectives and associated methods are depicted in Tables 3 and 4 . Table 3 outlines the stakeholder groups included in the monitoring and evaluation work package, including their composition and for which objectives they are targeted. Table 4 provides the timeline for the different data collection methods and how they relate to each across the objectives.

1. Objective 1: monitor ongoing engagement with local stakeholders across work packages and explore what worked and did not work and why

Overall approach for this objective.

This objective will be guided by an integrated knowledge translation (IKT) approach. IKT focuses on the important role of stakeholder engagement in enhancing evidence-informed decision-making [ 43 ]. As part of work package 4 (‘dissemination and communication’), knowledge translation (KT) champions have been identified in each of the three countries and will work together to develop and implement country-level KT strategies. This will include defining KT objectives, identifying and mapping relevant stakeholders, prioritizing those we will actively engage and developing a strategy for engaging each priority stakeholder. We will monitor these engagements through the development and implementation of a tracking sheet, qualitative case studies and semi-structured interviews.

Participants

Participants will comprise of knowledge translation (KT) champions and relevant country-level stakeholders. KT champions are GELA project staff who have dedicated time to work on the communication, dissemination and engagement aspects at a country-level. At least one KT champion has been identified for each of Malawi, Nigeria and South Africa.

Relevant country-level stakeholders will be identified as part of the KT strategy development (WP4) and will comprise any health decision-makers, e.g. health practitioners, community groups, health system managers, policy-makers, researchers and media.

Tracking sheet and qualitative case studies

A tracking sheet will be used to capture information for each stakeholder related to the purpose, message, medium or forum, messenger, timing and resources for engagement. KT champions in each country will be responsible for tracking these details on a continuous basis, and the tracking sheet will be monitored bi-monthly at a meeting with KT champions from the three country teams. This will help us monitor whether and how engagement activities are taking place, as well as the strategies for implementation. The tracking sheets will consist of different in-country stakeholders (e.g. government officers, health professional associations, researchers, media, etc.), and there may be several goals for engaging each individual stakeholder. The engagement strategy will be reviewed and updated as priority stakeholders change over the research stages and project period. As such, the sample size will be determined iteratively.

We will analyse information with descriptive statistics. For example, we will group and count by categories: number and type of stakeholders, type of engagement activities, type of KT products produced, type of forum or medium used for dissemination, frequency and duration of engagement, follow-ups, intensive engagement period and resources required for engagement.

We will also develop case stories (or impact stories) describing engagement activities and processes between project staff and relevant stakeholders. The case studies will help us monitor successful engagement, disseminate best practice scenarios and draw out lessons for future engagements. We will identify case stories through the tracking sheet and at bi-monthly meetings with the KT co-ordinator, where KT champions will be asked to share success stories or learning moments. KT champions will not know which ‘case’ will be selected for the case study in advance. The information will be collected by the KT co-ordinator, who is not involved in any of the country strategy implementation. The information collected from the KT champions (and messenger, if the messenger is not the KT champion) will be via a standard case story template, including aim of engagement, what the engagement was, experiences from both sides (quotes to be included in stories), success of engagement, lessons learnt and any future engagement plans. The number of cases will be determined iteratively. The intention is to develop one case story from each country annually, showcasing different cases, e.g. type of KT goal, type of stakeholder, type of KT medium/forum, etc.

Semi-structured interviews

At project close (month 30), we will conduct semi-structured interviews to explore if, why and how project KT goals were met and what planned stakeholder engagements worked (and did not work) and why. The interviews will be conducted with KT champions, other messengers (e.g. communication officers), country leads and selected stakeholders. At least two people from each county (KT champion and messenger and/or stakeholder) will be interviewed, and so there will be six to eight interviews in total. Participants will be selected purposively for information-rich cases that can help yield insights and in-depth understanding of the nature and success (or not) of our stakeholder engagements [ 44 ].

These interviews will form part of the interviews conducted with project team members more broadly as part of objective 4, the methods of which are therefore described in more detail below.

2. Objective 2: assess the capacity development needs of guideline panels and steering group committees and explore their views and experiences of the project’s capacity development activities.

Overarching theoretical lens.

We will draw on the Kirkpatrick model [ 45 ] as the underpinning theoretical framework for this objective. This model evaluates training effectiveness across four levels: (1) reaction, (2) learning, (3) behaviour and (4) results. The ‘reaction level’ assesses the degree of satisfaction of participants with the training event. The ‘learning level’ examines learning among participants both before and after the training event to determine any change in knowledge [ 46 , 47 ]. The ‘behaviour level’ assesses whether the training event has provided any favourable change in behaviour among participants. The final ‘results level’ assesses the use of knowledge gained through the training event within the workplace [ 46 , 47 ].

To assess the potential difference that project capacity development activities make, the outcomes of interest will be those related to training in evidence-based healthcare (EBHC). An overview of systematic reviews by Young and colleagues identified that EBHC training often aims to ‘improve critical appraisal skills and integration of results into decisions, and improved knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour among practising health professionals’ [ 48 , 49 ].

We will employ mixed methods to achieve this objective, including three rounds of online surveys (at baseline, mid-line and at the project close) as well as semi-structured interviews (at project close) and non-participant observations of meetings (various). The first online survey at baseline will assess the capacity needs of the guideline panels and steering group committees in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria, and the two subsequent online surveys will assess the potential difference project capacity development activities make on these groups across all the four levels of the Kirkpatrick model, i.e. reaction, learning, behaviour and results. The capacity needs and progress of these groups will also be explored qualitatively through semi-structured interviews and observations of meetings.

Details of the project capacity development activities that will be implemented as part of work package 5 (‘capacity strengthening and sharing’) of the GELA project are outlined in Table  1 (above). All members of the guideline panels and steering group committees in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria will be invited and encouraged to attend all project capacity development activities. ‘On the job’ capacity building will also take place during the various meetings convened with these groups, as they are supported to identify priority topics, to appraise and discuss the evidence used to inform the recommendations and to formulate the final recommendations.

Participants will comprise members of the guideline panels and steering group committees in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria. Table 3 (above) provides details of the composition of the guideline panels and steering group committees.

Online surveys

Procedures and data collection tools.

At baseline (at approximately 6 months before engagement in any project training activities), at mid-line (month 18) and at the project close (month 30), all members of the guideline panels and steering group committees in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria will be invited, via email, to participate in a survey. In each of the three countries the guideline development group and steering group committees will include approximately 20 and 10 members, respectively; we will therefore aim to have 90 participants in total complete the survey. The email invitation to all three survey rounds will inform participants about the nature of the study and direct them to an online survey. The landing page of the survey will provide information about the purpose of the research project and what is being requested from the participants, with a consent statement at the end which the participant will be required to agree to before being able to continue with the survey. Data will only be collected from participants who consent to freely participate in the study. The survey will be carried out using a secure online survey platform (such as Microsoft Forms) where all cookies and IP address collectors will be disabled to protect the confidentiality of the participants and to avoid tracking of the participant activities online. Unique identifiers (last six numbers of their ID) will be used to track participants responses over time and link data from baseline to project close.

The baseline survey will be a short (10–25 min) form that will ask participants about their capacity needs and knowledge/skills in evidence-based healthcare (EBHC) and decision-making. The survey will capture demographic variables of participants at baseline, mid-term and at the end of the project. It will assess the training needs of participants at baseline, participants’ satisfaction at the end of each training activity, the knowledge and skills at baseline, mid-term and at the end of the project. Participants’ behaviour will also be assessed using open-ended questions and vignettes. The surveys will focus on all four levels (i.e. reaction, learning, behaviour and results) of the Kirkpatrick model.

Data management and analysis

All data collected on the secure online survey platform will be coded, cleaned and entered into STATA. Data collected for the baseline survey will be analysed using descriptive statistics to determine the frequency of the various training needs and qualitative data gathered using the open-ended questions will be analysed thematically using manual coding (or if available and dataset is large), and NVivo or a similar tool will be used to identify the recurring themes which emerge in the data collected about the key training needs of participants.

Data collected for the surveys conducted at midpoint and at project close will be analysed using descriptive statistics to determine if there has been a change in the learning, knowledge gained and behaviours over time, as well as the extent of the potential application of evidence-based practice, while the data collected using the open-ended questions will be analysed using thematic analysis outlining how project capacity development activities informed particular outcomes and results in the participant’s workplace. To determine change in skills (and trends over time such as confidence improvement or decay), the descriptive statistics will be supplemented by appropriate inferential statistics for repeated measures (paired data) such as McNemar or paired t -tests, reporting change in percentages as mean differences (such as self-reported confidence) with 95% confidence intervals or/and frequencies. Descriptive trends over time will also be presented graphically using line graphs or other visual aids as appropriate. However, these will be interpreted with caution as the primary analysis is descriptive. Statistical significance will be set at a p value of 0.05.

At project close (month 30), we will conduct semi-structured interviews with a sample of members from the guideline panels and steering group committees in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria. Sampling will be purposive, with the aim of understanding the broad range of needs, experiences and perspectives and ensuring that the sample reflects a range of socio-demographic characteristics and stakeholder categories. We will begin with a sample size of 10–15 participants in each country; however, sampling will continue if we have not reached saturation of the data through the initial sample size [ 44 ].

Participants will be contacted, either by telephone or via email, and invited to participate in an interview. Interviews will be conducted face-to-face or electronically (e.g. using Microsoft Teams) at a date and time chosen by participants. Face-to-face interviews will take place at a location convenient to participants, which is conducive to a confidential exchange. The interviews will last between 45 and 60 min and will be conducted by researchers trained in qualitative research methodologies and interviewing techniques. The interviews will be guided by a semi-structured topic guide and will include questions informed by the four levels (i.e. reaction, learning, behaviour and results) of the Kirkpatrick model. Specifically, the questions will explore participants’ views and experiences regarding their capacity development needs and expectations of the project; whether and why these expectations were met (or not), the project capacity development activities, what they learned (or not) from these activities and what impact participants believe they have had (or may have) on their practices.

Verbal and written information about the study will be provided to all participants taking part in interviews. Written informed consent will be obtained from all participants before proceeding with the interview. With the permission of participants, all interviews will be digitally recorded.

Non-participant observations

We will conduct non-participant observations of guideline panel and steering group committee meetings. Observational methods can provide useful data on what people do, how they interact with each other and how they engage with particular artefacts in situ (rather than their accounts of these) [ 50 ]. The steering group committees in each country will meet approximately twice over the project duration (with the option for additional meetings): an initial meeting for project orientation (month 2/3) and again to identify priority topics and guideline gaps (month 6). Guideline panels in each country will meet approximately three times over the project duration (with the option for additional meetings): an initial meeting for project orientation and outcome prioritization (month 6/7), another potential meeting if necessary to finalize outcome prioritization and a final meeting to draft recommendations for the guideline (months 17–20). Meetings for both groups will be held virtually or in person, informed by preferences of the committee.

With the exception of the initial steering group committee (month 2/3), at least one researcher will be present to observe guideline panel and steering group committee meetings. The observer will aim to identify any capacity-related needs, expectations, gaps, strengths, achievements and challenges and the contexts in which these occur. He or she will also pay particular attention to group dynamics and the interactions between members and different stakeholder groups, and the potential impact of these on capacity-related issues. Observations will be informed by Lofland’s [ 51 ] criteria for organizing analytical observations (acts, activities, meanings, participation, relationships and settings). The observer will take detailed observational notes. With consent of the attendees, all meetings will also be digitally recorded. The recordings will be used to identify further issues not identified and to deepen or clarify issues noted, through the real-time observations of verbal engagements.

Data management and analysis: semi-structured interviews and observations

Interview and meeting recordings will be transcribed verbatim, and all personal identifying information will be removed from transcripts. The anonymized transcripts, together with observational notes, will be downloaded into Nvivo, a software programme that aids with the management and analysis of qualitative data. Analysis of the qualitative data will proceed in several rounds. First, as with all qualitative data analysis, an ongoing process of iterative analysis of the data will be conducted throughout the data collection period. Second, we will use a thematic analysis approach, using the phases described by Braun and Clarke [ 52 ], to identify key themes pertaining to participants’ capacity development needs and expectations and whether, how and why project capacity development activities met (or not) these needs and expectations. Finally, findings from the surveys (as described above) will also be integrated with the findings from the thematic analysis using a ‘narrative synthesis’ approach, a technique recommended by the Cochrane Collaboration as a way of synthesizing diverse forms of qualitative and quantitative evidence in mixed methods studies [ 53 , 54 ]. This approach will allow for both robust triangulation, and a more comprehensive interpretation of the difference project capacity development activities may have made on the guideline panels and steering group committees.

3. Objective 3: explore guideline panelists’ experiences with reading and using evidence from reviews of qualitative research, including their preferences regarding how qualitative review findings are summarized and presented.

Objective 3 of the monitoring and evaluation stakeholder matrix work package explores how guideline panels view and experience evidence from the review(s) of qualitative research, including how it is summarized and presented. Here, we will employ a user testing approach, drawing on the methods and guidance of the SURE user test package 2022 developed by Cochrane Norway ( https://www.cochrane.no/our-user-test-package ) and which has been used to test various evidence-related products [ 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ]. User testing involves observing people as they engage with a particular product and listening to them ‘think-aloud’. The goal is to gain an understanding of users’ views and experiences, the problems they face and to obtain suggestions for how a product may be improved [ 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ].

We will begin by identifying or preparing relevant reviews of qualitative research. We will then develop review summary formats and explore guideline panel members’ views and experiences of these formats. We will revise the formats in multiple iterative cycles.

Identifying or preparing relevant reviews of qualitative research

As part of WP2 of the project (‘evidence synthesis’), we will identify relevant review(s) of qualitative research, including reviews exploring how people affected by the interventions of interest value different outcomes, the acceptability and feasibility of the intervention and potential equity, gender and human rights implications of the intervention. These reviews need to be assessed as sufficiently recent and of a sufficient quality. They also need to have applied GRADE-CERQual assessments to the review findings. Where necessary, we will update existing reviews or prepare reviews ourselves.

Developing the review summaries

In WP3 of the project (‘decision-making’) the evidence from these reviews will be provided to guideline panels as part of the evidence-to-decision (‘EtD’) frameworks that will inform the recommendations they develop (see Table  1 for further details about project work packages 2 and 3). Our next step will therefore be to prepare summaries of the reviews in a format that can easily be included in the EtD frameworks.

Each summary needs to present review findings that are relevant to specific parts of the EtD framework (typically the ‘values’, ‘acceptability’, ‘feasibility’ and ‘equity’ components). It also needs to include information about our confidence in these findings. Finally, the summary needs to indicate where this evidence comes from and to allow guideline panels to move from the summary to more detailed information about the evidence.

Most of this information is found in the review’s Summary of Qualitative Findings tables. However, these tables are usually too large for EtD frameworks and are not tailored to each framework component. We will, therefore, start by creating new summaries, using a format that we have previously used in EtD frameworks [ 59 , 60 , 61 ] but that we have not user tested. As opposed to the Summary of Qualitative Findings tables, where each finding and our confidence in the finding, is presented individually in separate rows, this format involves pulling the findings and confidence assessments together in short, narrative paragraphs.

User testing the summary format

For our first set of user tests, we will observe guideline panels participating in the CPG panel simulation workshops. For our second round of user tests, we will observe how the guideline panels experience and interact with this qualitative evidence during the real guideline processes. Third, we will then test a potentially refined format with a selection of guideline panel members using a semi-structured interview guide. Finally, at the end of the project, we will conduct semi-structured interviews with a selection of guideline panel members to explore their broader views and experiences of interpreting and using evidence from reviews of qualitative studies in their deliberation processes. Figure  1 provides a visual depiction of this iterative process.

Iterative approach for user testing evidence from reviews of qualitative research

We will draw on the adapted version of Peter Morville’s original honeycomb model of user experience [ 62 ] as the underpinning theoretical framework for this objective [ 63 ] (Fig.  1 ). This adapted version extends and revises the meaning of the facets of user experience depicted in the original model. It includes eight facets: accessibility, findability, usefulness, usability, understandability, credibility, desirability and affiliation. Accessibility involves whether there are physical barriers to gaining access; findability is about whether the person can locate the product or the content that they are looking for; usefulness is about whether the product has practical value for the person; usability comprises how easy and satisfying the product is to use; understandability is about whether the person comprehends correctly both what kind of product it is and the content of the product (and includes both user's subjective perception of her own understanding and an objective measure of actual/correct understanding); credibility comprises whether the product/content is experienced as trustworthy; desirability is about whether the product is something the person wants and has a positive emotional response to it; affiliation involves whether the person identifies with the product, on a personal or a social level, or whether it is alienating and experienced as being not designed for ‘someone like me’. The adapted model also adds to the original model a dimension of user experience over time, capturing the chronological and contingent nature of the different facets.

Participants will comprise members of the guideline panels in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria. Table 3 (above) provides details of the composition of the guideline panels.

Non-participant observations: guideline panel simulation workshops and guideline panel meetings

We will conduct non-participant observations of the CPG panel simulation workshops and the subsequent guideline panel meetings for developing the recommendations. The CPG panel simulation workshops will run a simulation of a real guideline process and give guideline panels an opportunity to understand how the guideline process works before they participate in real panel meetings. The guideline panels in all three countries will be invited and encouraged to attend these workshops, which will form part of the project capacity development activities of WP5 (Table  1 ).

With the participants’ consent, both the simulation workshops and meetings will be digitally recorded and at least two observers will observe and take notes. The observations will focus on how guideline panel members refer to and interact with the summaries of qualitative evidence. Drawing on a user testing approach ( https://www.cochrane.no/our-user-test-package ), we will also look specifically for both problems and facilitators in the way the qualitative evidence is formatted, including ‘show-stoppers’ (the problem is so serious that it hindered participants from correct understanding or from moving forward), ‘big problems/frustrations’ (participants were confused or found something difficult but managed to figure it out or find a way around the problem eventually), ‘minor issues/cosmetic things’ (small irritations, frustrations and small problems that do not have serious consequences, as well as likes/dislikes), ‘positive/negative feedback’, ‘specific suggestions’, ‘preferences’ and any other ‘notable observations’, e.g. feelings of ‘uncertainty’.

Structured user testing interviews

Based on the insights gained from the non-participant observations (above), we may make changes or refinements to our original summary format (Fig.  1 ). Once the guideline panel meetings have concluded (approximately by month 20), we will then conduct structured user testing interviews to test the potentially refined summary format. These interviews will be conducted with a sample of members from the guideline panels in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria. Sampling will be purposive, with the aim of understanding the broad range of experiences and perspectives and ensuring the sample reflects a range of socio-demographic characteristics and stakeholder categories. As recommended ( https://www.cochrane.no/our-user-test-package ), we will begin with a sample size of six to eight participants in each country; however, sampling will continue until saturation is achieved [ 44 ].

Participants will be contacted, either telephonically or via email, and invited to participate in an interview. Interviews will be conducted face-to-face or electronically (e.g. using Skype or Teams) at a date and time chosen by participants. Face-to-face interviews will take place at a location convenient to participants, which is conducive to a confidential exchange. In line with the SURE user test package 2022 guidance, the interviews will last approximately 60 min ( https://www.cochrane.no/our-user-test-package ). They will be facilitated by a test leader, who will accompanied by at least one observer who will take notes. Both the test leader and observer(s) will be trained in user testing interviewing methodology and techniques. Verbal and written information about the study will be provided to all participants taking part in interviews. Written informed consent will be obtained from all participants before proceeding with the interview. With the permission of participants, all interviews will be video recorded.

For these interviews we will show panel members the latest version of the format, explore immediate first impressions, and then opinions about different elements of the summary. We may also show panel members different formats where we think this may be helpful. We will use a structured interview guide which draws heavily on other interview guides that been developed to user test evidence-related products [ 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ]. It will include questions related the participant’s background; their immediate first impressions of the summary format(s); in-depth walk-through of the summary format(s), with prompts to think aloud what they are looking at, thinking, doing and feeling; and suggestions for improving the way the summary is formatted and for improving the user testing itself. We may ask follow-up questions to specific issues we observed in the simulation workshops and guideline panel meetings and/or create scenarios that resemble issues we observed in the workshops/meetings. This will be decided upon based on the findings that emerge from these workshops/meetings. The guide will be finalized once the relevant qualitative evidence (from WP2) has been produced and we have gained insights from the workshops and meetings.

As with the non-participant observations of meetings and workshops, throughout the interview, the observers will make notes about the participant’s experience as heard, observed and understood. Drawing on a user testing approach, they will look specifically for both problems and facilitators, specific suggestions, preferences and any other notable observations (as described above under ‘non-participant observations’).

At project close (month 30), we will also conduct semi-structured interviews with a sample of members from the guideline panels in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria. These will be the same interviews with guideline panel members as described in objective 2. In addition to exploring participants’ capacity development needs, expectations and achievements, the semi-structured topic guide will also explore their views and experiences of (and specific capacity in) interpreting and using evidence from reviews of qualitative studies in guideline processes. More specifically, questions will investigate participants’ familiarity/experience with qualitative evidence; their perceptions of different types of evidence, what constitutes qualitative evidence and the role of qualitative evidence in guideline processes; and their experiences of using the qualitative evidence in their deliberations as part of the project, including what influenced its use and whether they found it useful. Details pertaining to sampling, data collection procedures and collection tools are described in objective 2.

All interview and meeting recordings will be transcribed verbatim, and all personal identifying information will be removed from transcripts. The anonymized transcripts, together with observational notes (from the workshops, meetings and interviews), will be downloaded into a software programme that aids with the management and analysis of qualitative data. Analysis of the data will be guided by the user testing analysis methods described in the SURE user test package 2022 ( https://www.cochrane.no/our-user-test-package ). The analysis will proceed in several, iterative rounds to develop and revise the summary format and to inform the focus of subsequent data collection. After each user test, we will review our notes, first separately and then together. In line with the SURE user test package 2022 guidance, we will look primarily for barriers and facilitators related to correct interpretation of the summary’s contents, ease of use and favourable reception, drawing on the facets of the revised honeycomb model of user experience (Fig.  2 ). We will trace findings back to specific elements or characteristics of the summaries that appeared to facilitate or hinder problems. Before the next set of user tests, we will discuss possible changes that could address any identified barriers and make changes to the summary format.

Adapted version of Peter Morville’s honeycomb model of user experience

4. Objective 4: evaluate guideline panelists’, steering group committees’ and project team members’ overall views and experiences of the project, including what works or not, to influence evidence-informed decision-making and guideline adaptation processes.

This objective explores overall views and experiences of the project, with a focus on guideline panelists, steering group committees and project team members. Specifically, it seeks to gain an understanding of these three stakeholder groups’ more general views and experiences of the project activities they were involved with and whether, why and how these activities may influence (or not) evidence-informed decision-making and guideline adaptation processes. This will be achieved through semi-structured interviews.

Participants will comprise members of the guideline panels and steering group committees in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria, as well as members of the project team (as described in Table  3 above).

At project close (month 30), we will conduct semi-structured interviews with a sample of members from the guideline panels and steering group committees in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria. These will be the same interviews and participants as described in objective 2. In addition to exploring issues around capacity development and qualitative evidence, the interviews will also investigate participants’ views and experiences of the various project activities they were involved with, and whether, why and how these activities may influence (or not) evidence-informed decision-making and guideline adaptation processes. Details pertaining to sampling, data collection procedures and collection tools are described in objective 2.

At project close (month 30), we will also conduct semi-structured interviews with members of the project team (see Table  3 for details of project team composition). We will begin by interviewing all project management team members, WP leads and KT champions. Additional participants will be determined iteratively (depending on what emerges from initial interviews) and purposively, with the aim of understanding the broad range of experiences and perspectives and ensuring the sample reflects the various groups which make up the project team. Interviews will be conducted face-to-face or electronically (e.g. using Skype or Teams) at a date and time chosen by the interviewee. The interviews will last between 45 and 60 min and will be guided by a semi-structured topic guide. The questions will explore participants’ views and experiences of the respective work packages in which they were involved, including what the primary goals of the work package were; if, why and how these goals were met; and what worked and what did not work and why.

The same qualitative data analysis procedures and methods will be used as described in objective 2. For this objective, the thematic analysis will identify key themes pertaining to views and experiences of project activities, including what worked (or not) and why, whether, why and how the project may (or not) influence evidence-informed decision-making and guideline development, adaptation and dissemination processes in South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria and potential barriers and facilitators to the sustainability of this influence.

Evidence-based guideline development is a multi-stakeholder, multi-perspective, complex set of tasks. There is limited, if any, research that has followed these steps from the perspectives of policymakers or researchers from start to end. The GELA project protocol sets out to monitor and evaluate various key steps in the process, using in-depth qualitative methods alongside appropriate surveys not only to inform the project as it progresses but also to understand the overall impact of all steps on development of transparent and contextually-rich guideline recommendations. Following WHO’s guideline steps, the tasks range from scoping stakeholder-informed priority topics to conducting relevant data gathering and evidence synthesis, followed by guideline panel meetings to reach consensus decisions and finally to produce recommendations that can be useful to end-users and improve health and care outcomes. The GELA project is undertaking a 3-year project to conduct these tasks in the context of newborn and child health priorities. We are doing this in collaboration with national ministries of health, academics, non-governmental partners and civil society groups in Malawi, Nigeria and South Africa. Overall, we aim build capacity across all collaborators for evidence-informed guideline development, while producing fit for context guideline recommendations, in accessible formats that benefit children, caregivers and health care providers.

As such, this is a practical research project, in that the products should directly impact care decisions at the national level but with the added benefit of being able to learn about what works or does not work for collaborative guideline development in country. We will also be applying emergent guideline adaptation methods to explore reducing duplication of expensive guideline development efforts in our lower resource settings. Our project addresses newborn and child health, keeping this most vulnerable population in our focus, hoping that producing sound evidence-based recommendations has the potential to impact care.

Through some of our formative work, we have completed a landscape analysis identifying and describing all available newborn and child health guidelines in each of the partner countries. In all countries there were similar findings, (1) there is no easy access to guidelines for end-users, thus locating a guideline requires effort and screening through multiple sources; (2) considering national priority conditions in this age group, there were often gaps in available current guidelines for managing children; and (3) when we appraised the guidelines using the global standard, AGREE II tool, we found that the reporting of guideline methods were poor, leaving it uncertain whether the recommendations were credible or whether any influences or interests had determined the direction of a recommendation. Finally, we expected to find many adapted guidelines, based on WHO or UNICEF or similar guidance available globally; however, very few of the identified guidelines stated clearly whether they had been adapted from other sources and, if so, which recommendations were adopted and which adapted.

Given progress globally in methods for guideline development, the continued poor reporting on guideline methods at the country level speak to a breakdown in skills-sharing globally, for example, WHO produces guidelines that are recognized as rigorous and follow good practice and reporting, but the same standards are not supported in country. Overall, GELA aims to address these key gaps in national guideline approaches for adaptation, but we need to recognize that this will be a long term process and that we need to learn from each other about what works and what may not serve us. Therefore, this protocol outlines our approach for monitoring several aspects of the project in our efforts to move closer to trustworthy and credible guidelines that all can use and trust for countries like ours.

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Abbreviations

Poverty-related diseases

Sub-Saharan Africa

• Clinical practice guidelines

Evidence-informed decision-making

Evidence-based healthcare

Global Evidence Local Adaptation

Knowledge translation

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Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the representatives from the National Ministries of Health in Nigeria, Malawi and South Africa for their support and partnership. We would also like to thank the appointed Steering Committees who have been providing input for the research project and guiding the prioritization of topics. We would also like to thank Joy Oliver and Michelle Galloway for their contribution an support of the project.

The GELA project is funded by EDCTP2 programme supported by the European Union (grant number RIA2020S-3303-GELA). The funding will cover all the activities for this Monitoring and Evaluation work package, including costs for personnel and publication of papers.

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T.K., S.C., T.Y., S.L., C.G. and P.O.V. conceptualized the protocol idea and S.C. drafted the protocol with input from TK, D.M., A.R., B.M., M.M., I.I., C.G., T.Y., S.L. and P.O.V.; all authors approved the final version for submission for publication.

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Correspondence to Tamara Kredo .

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Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Ethics approval has been obtained in each partner country (South Africa, Malawi and Nigeria) from the respective Health Research Ethics Committees or Institutional Review Boards. Information about the project will be provided to, and consent obtained from, all participants completing the online surveys and interviews and all participants taking part in the meetings. The consent forms will make explicit the voluntary nature of participation, that there will be no negative consequences if they decide not to participate and in the case of the interviews and meetings observations will ask explicitly for permission for the interview or meeting to be recorded. The online surveys will ask participants to provide the last six numbers of their ID as a unique identifier to track their capacity development needs and progress throughout the project. To help protect their confidentiality, the information they provide will be private, deidentified and no names will be used. In addition, all cookies and IP address collectors will be disabled to ensure confidentiality. All interview and meeting recordings on the digital recorders will be destroyed following safe storage and transcription, and any identifying information will be redacted from all transcripts. All study data, including recordings, will be stored electronically using password-controlled software only accessible to key project members and project analysts. Reports of study findings will not identify individual participants. We do not anticipate any specific harms or serious risks to participants. However, there is a risk of breaches of confidentiality for participants who take part in guideline panel and steering group committee project meetings. At the start of all meetings, participants will be introduced to each other. The member names of these groups will not be anonymous as they will play an ongoing role in the GELA project. At the start of each meeting, we will discuss the importance of maintaining confidentiality by everyone. As part of guideline development processes, all guideline members will need to declare conflicts of interests and sign a confidentiality agreement. We will explain, however, that while the researchers undertake to maintain confidentiality, we cannot guarantee that other meeting participants will, and there is, thus, a risk of breaches of confidentiality. We will ensure participants are aware of this risk. Participants may also feel anxiety or distress expressing negative views about project activities. Where there is this potential and where participants identify concerns, we will reassure participants of the steps that will be taken to ensure confidentiality.

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Kredo, T., Effa, E., Mbeye, N. et al. Evaluating the impact of the global evidence, local adaptation (GELA) project for enhancing evidence-informed guideline recommendations for newborn and young child health in three African countries: a mixed-methods protocol. Health Res Policy Sys 22 , 114 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-024-01189-5

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Received : 02 June 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-024-01189-5

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• Related diseases
• Newborn and child health
• Saharan Africa (SSA)
• Informed decision
• Capacity development
• Monitoring and evaluation;
• Research impact

Health Research Policy and Systems

ISSN: 1478-4505

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