write an essay on evolution of horse

IELTS Essay Task 1: Horse Diagram

by Dave | Sample Answers | 0 Comment

This is an IELTS writing task 1 sample answer essay on the topic of the evolution of the horse and its hoof.

Please consider supporting my efforts to creative high quality IELTS materials for students around the world by signing up for my Patreon (and so you won’t miss out on any of my exclusive IELTS Ebooks)!

The diagram delineates the development of prehistoric and modern horses with special emphasis on the formation of the feet. Looking from an overall perspective, it is readily apparent that as horses became larger in size, their feet elongated and broadened until they fused to become a distinctive hoof.

The prehistoric horse from 40 million years ago was termed an Eohippus and is distinguishable by its smaller body and paw containing 4 thin phalanges. The next stage of evolution (30 million years ago) resulted in the Mesohippis, which had a larger body more similar to today’s horse and three distinct digits, the middle one being bulkier and slightly longer.

By 15 million years ago, the Merychippus had emerged, recognizable by a still larger body and the increased size of the middle digit. This leads directly to the modern day horse which is the largest in size, has a full mane, and the separate digits had by this time merged into a single hoof capable of supporting a larger frame.

1. The diagram delineates the development of prehistoric and modern horses with special emphasis on the formation of the feet. 2. Looking from an overall perspective, it is readily apparent that as horses became larger in size, their feet elongated and broadened until they fused to become a distinctive hoof.

• Paraphrase what the map or floorplan shows.
• Write a clear overview summarising the major trends and differences.

1. The prehistoric horse from 40 million years ago was termed an Eohippus and is distinguishable by its smaller body and paw containing 4 thin phalanges. 2. The next stage of evolution (30 million years ago) resulted in the Mesohippis, which had a larger body more similar to today’s horse and three distinct digits, the middle one being bulkier and slightly longer.

• Begin writing about the changes.
• Compare as much as possible.

1. By 15 million years ago, the Merychippus had emerged, recognizable by a still larger body and the increased size of the middle digit. 2. This leads directly to the modern day horse which is the largest in size, has a full mane, and the separate digits had by this time merged into a single hoof capable of supporting a larger frame.

• Write about the rest of the changes for the last two evolutionary stages of the modern horse.
• Make sure you have detailed all the changes.

What do the words in bold below mean? Take some notes on a piece of paper to aid your memory:

The diagram delineates the development of prehistoric and modern horses with special emphasis on the formation of the feet . Looking from an overall perspective, it is readily apparent that as horses became larger in size, their feet elongated and broadened until they fused to become a distinctive hoof .

The prehistoric horse from 40 million years ago was termed an Eohippus and is distinguishable by its smaller body and paw containing 4 thin phalanges . The next stage of evolution (30 million years ago) resulted in the Mesohippis, which had a larger body more similar to today’s horse and three distinct digits , the middle one being bulkier and slightly longer.

By 15 million years ago, the Merychippus had emerged , recognizable by a still larger body and the increased size of the middle digit. This leads directly to the modern day horse which is the largest in size, has a full mane , and the separate digits had by this time merged into a single hoof capable of supporting a larger frame .

delineates describes

prehistoric before recorded history

special emphasis extra focus

formation of the feet putting together of the hooves

looking from an overall perspective, it is readily apparent that overall

elongated lengthened

broadened made wider

fused come together

distinctive hoof unique foot

termed called

distinguishable distinctive

phalanges fingers

evolution changes over time

resulted in caused

more similar to close to

three distinct digits clearly different digits

bulkier larger

slightly a little more

emerged coming out

recognizable distinctive

still larger body much bigger frame

leads directly flows into

full mane hair on its neck

merged comes together

capable of can do

larger frame bigger body

Pronunciation

dɪˈlɪnɪeɪts   ˌpriːhɪsˈtɒrɪk   ˈspɛʃəl ˈɛmfəsɪs   fɔːˈmeɪʃən ɒv ðə fiːt ˈlʊkɪŋ frɒm ən ˈəʊvərɔːl pəˈspɛktɪv ,  ɪt ɪz ˈrɛdɪli əˈpærənt ðæt   ˈiːlɒŋgeɪtɪd   ˈbrɔːdnd   fjuːzd   dɪsˈtɪŋktɪv huːf tɜːmd   dɪsˈtɪŋgwɪʃəbl   pɔː   fæˈlænʤɪz ˌiːvəˈluːʃən   rɪˈzʌltɪd ɪn   mɔː ˈsɪmɪlə tuː   θriː dɪsˈtɪŋkt ˈdɪʤɪts ˈbʌlkɪə   ˈslaɪtli   ɪˈmɜːʤd ˈrɛkəgnaɪzəbl   stɪl ˈlɑːʤə ˈbɒdi   liːdz dɪˈrɛktli   fʊl meɪn mɜːʤd   ˈkeɪpəbl ɒv   ˈlɑːʤə freɪm

Vocabulary Practice

Remember and fill in the blanks:

The diagram d_____________s the development of p____________c and modern horses with s_______________s on the f_________________t . L_________________________________t as horses became larger in size, their feet e_____________d and b____________d until they f________d to become a d_______________f .

The prehistoric horse from 40 million years ago was t________d an Eohippus and is d___________________e by its smaller body and p___w containing 4 thin p______________s . The next stage of e___________n (30 million years ago) r_____________n the Mesohippis, which had a larger body m_______________o today’s horse and t__________________s , the middle one being b___________r and s___________y longer.

By 15 million years ago, the Merychippus had e________d , r______________e by a s___________________y and the increased size of the middle digit. This l_______________y to the modern day horse which is the largest in size, has a f_____________e , and the separate digits had by this time m_______d into a single hoof c______________f supporting a l_______________e .

Listening Practice

Listen to the related topic below and practice with these activities :

Reading Practice

Read more and use these ideas to practice:

https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/horse/the-evolution-of-horses

Speaking Practice

Practice with the following related questions from the real IELTS speaking exam:

• Have you ever seen a wild animal?
• What is your favourite wild animal?
• How do you feel when you see animals at the zoo?
• What is the importance of animals to children?

Writing Practice

Practice with the related map below and then check with my sample answer:

IELTS Writing Task 1 Sample Answer Essay: Ceramic Pots Process (Real Past IELTS Exam/Test)

Recommended For You

Latest IELTS Writing Task 1 2024 (Graphs, Charts, Maps, Processes)

by Dave | Sample Answers | 147 Comments

These are the most recent/latest IELTS Writing Task 1 Task topics and questions starting in 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023, and continuing into 2024. ...

Recent IELTS Writing Topics and Questions 2024

by Dave | Sample Answers | 342 Comments

Read here all the newest IELTS questions and topics from 2024 and previous years with sample answers/essays. Be sure to check out my ...

Find my Newest IELTS Post Here – Updated Daily!

by Dave | IELTS FAQ | 18 Comments

IELTS Essay Task 1: Carbonated Drinks

by Dave | Sample Answers | 1 Comment

This is an IELTS writing task 1 sample answer essay showing the process by which carbonated drinks are made (also called a diagram essay). ...

IELTS Essay Task 1 Water Usage Australia

by Dave | Sample Answers | 11 Comments

This is an IELTS writing task 1 sample answer essay related to water usage in Australia. If you want to support my efforts ...

IELTS Essay Task 1: Beachfront Map

This is an IELTS writing task 1 sample answer essay on the topic of a beachfront map. Please consider supporting my efforts to ...

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

You must be logged in to post a comment.

Exclusive Ebooks, PDFs and more from me!

Sign up for patreon.

Don't miss out!

"The highest quality materials anywhere on the internet! Dave improved my writing and vocabulary so much. Really affordable options you don't want to miss out on!"

Minh, Vietnam

Hi, I’m Dave! Welcome to my IELTS exclusive resources! Before you commit I want to explain very clearly why there’s no one better to help you learn about IELTS and improve your English at the same time... Read more

Patreon Exclusive Ebooks Available Now!

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center
• Introduction
• Anatomical adaptations
• Colour and pattern
• Reproduction and development
• Diseases and parasites
• Thoroughbred
• Turkoman, Akhal-Teke, and others
• American breeds
• Other light breeds
• Heavy breeds

Evolution of the horse

• Origin of horse domestication
• Light breeds

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• The Spruce Pets - 15 Fascinating facts about Horses
• Animal Diversity Web - Horse
• Animal Corner - Horses
• Live Science - Horses: Domestic, feral and wild
• horse - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• horse - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

The evolutionary lineage of the horse is among the best-documented in all paleontology . The history of the horse family , Equidae, began during the Eocene Epoch , which lasted from about 56 million to 33.9 million years ago. During the early Eocene there appeared the first ancestral horse, a hoofed, browsing mammal designated correctly as Hyracotherium but more commonly called Eohippus , the “dawn horse.” Fossils of Eohippus , which have been found in both North America and Europe, show an animal that stood 4.2 to 5 hands (about 42.7 to 50.8 cm, or 16.8 to 20 inches) high, diminutive by comparison with the modern horse, and had an arched back and raised hindquarters. The legs ended in padded feet with four functional hooves on each of the forefeet and three on each of the hind feet—quite unlike the unpadded, single-hoofed foot of modern equines . The skull lacked the large, flexible muzzle of the modern horse, and the size and shape of the cranium indicate that the brain was far smaller and less complex than that of today’s horse. The teeth , too, differed significantly from those of the modern equines, being adapted to a fairly general browser’s diet. Eohippus was, in fact, so unhorselike that its evolutionary relationship to the modern equines was at first unsuspected. It was not until paleontologists had unearthed fossils of later extinct horses that the link to Eohippus became clear.

Recent News

The line leading from Eohippus to the modern horse exhibits the following evolutionary trends: increase in size, reduction in the number of hooves, loss of the footpads, lengthening of the legs, fusion of the independent bones of the lower legs, elongation of the muzzle, increase in the size and complexity of the brain , and development of crested, high-crowned teeth suited to grazing. This is not to imply that there was a steady, gradual progression in these characteristics leading inevitably from those of Eohippus to those of the modern horse. Some of these features, such as grazing dentition, appear abruptly in the fossil record, rather than as the culmination of numerous gradual changes. Eohippus , moreover, gave rise to many now-extinct branches of the horse family, some of which differed substantially from the line leading to the modern equines.

Although Eohippus fossils occur in both the Old and the New World, the subsequent evolution of the horse took place chiefly in North America. During the remainder of the Eocene, the prime evolutionary changes were in dentition. Orohippus , a genus from the middle Eocene, and Epihippus , a genus from the late Eocene, resembled Eohippus in size and in the structure of the limbs. But the form of the cheek teeth—the four premolars and the three molars found in each half of both jaws—had changed somewhat. In Eohippus the premolars and molars were clearly distinct, the molars being larger. In Orohippus the fourth premolar had become similar to the molars, and in Epihippus both the third and fourth premolars had become molarlike. In addition, the individual cusps that characterized the cheek teeth of Eohippus had given way in Epihippus to a system of continuous crests or ridges running the length of the molars and molariform premolars. These changes, which represented adaptations to a more-specialized browsing diet, were retained by all subsequent ancestors of the modern horse.

Fossils of Mesohippus , the next important ancestor of the modern horse, are found in the early and middle Oligocene of North America (the Oligocene Epoch lasted from about 33.9 million to 23 million years ago). Mesohippus was far more horselike than its Eocene ancestors: it was larger (averaging about 6 hands [about 61 cm, or 24 inches] high); the snout was more muzzlelike; and the legs were longer and more slender. Mesohippus also had a larger brain. The fourth toe on the forefoot had been reduced to a vestige, so that both the forefeet and hind feet carried three functional toes and a footpad. The teeth remained adapted to browsing.

By the late Oligocene, Mesohippus had evolved into a somewhat larger form known as Miohippus . The descendants of Miohippus split into various evolutionary branches during the early Miocene (the Miocene Epoch lasted from about 23 million to 5.3 million years ago). One of these branches, known as the anchitheres, included a variety of three-toed browsing horses comprising several genera. Anchitheres were successful, and some genera spread from North America across the Bering land bridge into Eurasia.

It was a different branch, however, that led from Miohippus to the modern horse. The first representative of this line, Parahippus , appeared in the early Miocene. Parahippus and its descendants marked a radical departure in that they had teeth adapted to eating grass . Grasses were at this time becoming widespread across the North American plains, providing Parahippus with a vast food supply. Grass is a much coarser food than succulent leaves and requires a different kind of tooth structure. The cheek teeth developed larger, stronger crests and became adapted to the side-to-side motion of the lower jaw necessary to grind grass blades. Each tooth also had an extremely long crown, most of which, in the young animal, was buried beneath the gumline. As grinding wore down the exposed surface, some of the buried crown grew out. This high-crowned tooth structure assured the animal of having an adequate grinding surface throughout its normal life span . Adaptations in the digestive tract must have occurred as well, but the organs of digestion are not preserved in the fossil record .

The change from browsing to grazing dentition was essentially completed in Merychippus , which evolved from Parahippus during the middle and late Miocene. Merychippus must have looked much like a modern pony . It was fairly large, standing about 10 hands (101.6 cm, or 40 inches) high, and its skull was similar to that of the modern horse. The long bones of the lower leg had become fused; this structure, which has been preserved in all modern equines, is an adaptation for swift running. The feet remained three-toed, but in many species the footpad was lost, and the two side toes became rather small. In these forms, the large central toe bore the animal’s weight. Strong ligaments attached this hoofed central toe to the bones of the ankles and lower leg, providing a spring mechanism that pushed the flexed hoof forward after the impact of hitting the ground. Merychippus gave rise to numerous evolutionary lines during the late Miocene. Most of these, including Hipparion , Neohipparion , and Nannippus , retained the three-toed foot of their ancestors. One line, however, led to the one-toed Pliohippus , the direct predecessor of Equus . Pliohippus fossils occur in the early to middle Pliocene beds of North America (the Pliocene Epoch lasted from about 5.3 million to 2.6 million years ago).

Equus —the genus to which all modern equines, including horses, asses , and zebras , belong—evolved from Pliohippus some 4 million to 4.5 million years ago during the Pliocene. Equus shows even greater development of the spring mechanism in the foot and exhibits straighter and longer cheek teeth. This new form was extremely successful and had spread from the plains of North America to South America and to all parts of the Old World by the early Pleistocene (the Pleistocene Epoch lasted from about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago). Equus flourished in its North American homeland throughout the Pleistocene but then, about 10,000 to 8,000 years ago, disappeared from North and South America. Scholars have offered various explanations for this disappearance, including the emergence of devastating diseases or the arrival of human populations (which presumably hunted the horse for food). Despite these speculations, the reasons for the demise of Equus in the New World remain uncertain. The submergence of the Bering land bridge prevented any return migration of horses from Asia, and Equus was not reintroduced into its native continent until the Spanish explorers brought horses in the early 16th century.

During the Pleistocene the evolution of Equus in the Old World gave rise to all the modern members of the genus. The modern horse, Equus caballus , became widespread from central Asia to most of Europe. Local types of horses, all breeds of this single species, undoubtedly developed, and three of these— Przewalski’s horse ( E. ferus przewalskii or E. caballus przewalskii ) from central Asia, the tarpan from eastern Europe and the Ukrainian steppes, and the forest horse of northern Europe—are generally credited as being the ancestral stock of the domestic horse. (Przewalski’s horse may be the last surviving distinct breed of wild horse when compared genetically with domesticated horses.) According to this line of thinking, Przewalski’s horse and the tarpan formed the basic breeding stock from which the southerly “warm-blooded” horses developed, while the forest horse gave rise to the heavy, “cold-blooded” breeds.

Task 1 writing: Evolution of a horse

This task is occasionally asked in IELTS. It always seems to involve comparing four things. I’ve also seen a similar task with four bicycles. We can go through the following steps:

• Have a good look at the task and try and figure out what the differences are between the four pictures.
• Look for an overall summary = the horse gets bigger and the number of toes reduces
• Decide on a structure. We could put all four horses into one big giant body paragraph but that wouldn’t be the best way. A better way is to have a paragraph for each horse. And even better ways to write three body paragraphs as I have done

DIAGRAM: EVOLUTION OF MODERN HORSE

MODEL ANSWER

The picture shows how a horse has evolved over millions of years. Overall, the horse has become larger and the number of toes on its hooves has become fewer.

Comparing the oldest horse, Eohippus, from 40 million years ago to the one 30 million years back, Mesohippus, it has grown larger, with a longer tail, and a short mane on its back. The number of toes on its hooves has reduced from four to three and the toes are thicker; especially the middle one.

The next horse in the evolution, Merychipppus emerged around 15 million years back. It has grown even larger, its tail is even longer and the mane has grown more pronounced. It still has three toes, but the middle one has become even more extended.

The horse as we know it today is by far the tallest, with the longest mane and tail. Three toes have become one hoof.

IELTS Writing Correction

About Mike I’m Mike Wattie from Australia. I have been teaching IELTS for over 20 years in Asia and Australia.

I have written IELTS books and this enables me to be an effective tutor. This is because I understand the main problems that students have taking the test and also the ways to overcome them.

Maybe you would like me to teach you the necessary skills and strategies to pass your test.

IELTS is a registered trademark of University of Cambridge ESOL, the British Council, and IDP Education Australia and they jointly manage the IELTS test. This website is for test preparation only and has nothing to do with the administration of IELTS tests This website is not affiliated, approved or endorsed by the University of Cambridge ESOL, the British Council, and IDP Education Australia.

Origin and Evolution of Horses

See files for Horses

From the humble beginnings of small, four-toed mammals to the majestic creatures we know today, the evolution of horses spans millions of years. Thanks to the field of paleontology, we have gained valuable insights into the origins and evolution of horses. Through meticulous study and analysis, scientists have pieced together the puzzle of the horse's lineage, enabling us to unravel its captivating history.

The following AnimalWised article explores the fascinating story of horse origin and evolution , as well as the adaptations and remarkable transformations that have played a pivotal role in shaping the magnificent animals we know today.

When did the first horse appear on Earth?

How horses evolved over time, how did horse breeds come about.

The evolution of horses is a fascinating story that spans millions of years and showcases the gradual development and transformation of these magnificent creatures. The modern horse, Equus ferus caballus , is the result of a long lineage of evolutionary changes that began around 55 million years ago .

The earliest ancestors of horses were small mammals known as Eohippus or Hyracotherium , which lived during the Eocene epoch. These animals were approximately the size of a dog and had four toes on their front feet and three toes on their hind feet. They were adapted to forested environments and fed on soft plant material.

Over the course of millions of years, horses underwent a gradual increase in size and adapted to a wider range of environments, including grassy plains. Their migration to other parts of the world took place via the Bering Land Bridge, which connected Alaska and Siberia, allowing them to venture into Asia and eventually move westward.

Throughout the majority of their history, horses predominantly remained small explorers of forested areas. However, as weather conditions changed, pastures expanded , creating an opportunity for rapid species diversification around 20 million years ago.

One of the most significant changes was the elongation of the limbs , which resulted in an increase in body size and the ability to run faster. The toes also gradually reduced in number, with the middle toe becoming the dominant one.

Are horses related to zebras?

Yes, horses are indeed related to zebras. Horses, zebras, and donkeys belong to the same taxonomic family , known as Equidae . They share a common ancestry and belong to the same genus, Equus.

The evolutionary history of horses and zebras can be traced back to a common ancestor from approximately 5 million years ago . This ancestor is often referred to as the " hipparion " or " hippidion " and represents a now-extinct genus within the Equidae family. Over time, different species within the Equus genus diverged and adapted to various habitats and environments.

Despite their shared ancestry, horses and zebras have developed distinct physical traits due to their different evolutionary paths. Zebras, for example, possess distinctive black and white striped coats, which serve as camouflage and a means of communication within their social groups.

Don't miss out on our other article that delves into the world of equines , where we explore their characteristics, classification, and historical significance.

The evolution of horses can be broadly categorized into six stages , each representing significant changes in their anatomy and ecological adaptations. These stages highlight the gradual transformation of early horse ancestors into the modern Equus species.

Eohippus Stage (55-45 million years ago)

During the Eocene epoch, the first stage of horse evolution was marked by the appearance of Eohippus , also known as Hyracotherium . Eohippus was a small mammal about the size of a dog, with four toes on its front feet and three toes on its hind feet. They lived in forested environments and were adapted to browsing on soft plant material.

Orohippus Stage (45-40 million years ago)

The Orohippus stage saw the emergence of Orohippus , which had slightly larger body size compared to Eohippus . Orohippus had three toes on its front feet and three toes on its hind feet, with the middle toe becoming more robust and weight-bearing. This adaptation allowed Orohippus to better navigate through wooded areas .

Epihippus Stage (40-35 million years ago)

Epihippus appeared during the Eocene-Oligocene transition, representing the next stage in horse evolution. Epihippus had a larger body size than its predecessors and underwent further changes in its limb structure. The side toes reduced in size, and the middle toe became more elongated and developed a stronger hoof. These adaptations were beneficial for running on open grasslands .

Mesohippus Stage (35-30 million years ago)

The Mesohippus stage marked a significant shift towards a more horse-like appearance. Mesohippus had a larger body size and longer limbs, allowing for greater speed and agility. It had three toes on its front feet and three toes on its hind feet, with the middle toe serving as the main weight-bearing structure. Mesohippus was well-adapted for life on open grassy plains .

Merychippus Stage (20-10 million years ago)

The Merychippus stage witnessed the evolution of a genus with more advanced adaptations for grazing. Merychippus had a more slender build, longer limbs, and teeth with high-crowned molars. These hypsodont teeth were better suited for grinding tough grasses and reflected the expansion of grasslands during this period.

Pliohippus and Equus Stage (5 million years ago to present)

The final stages of horse evolution encompass the genera Pliohippus and Equus . Pliohippus had a similar appearance to modern horses, with a single toe on each foot. Its body size and teeth continued to evolve, adapting to changes in the grassland habitats.

Equus , the genus to which modern horses belong, emerged during this stage and underwent further refinement. Equus had elongated limbs, a robust body structure, and specialized teeth for grazing on grass . Domestication of Equus by humans occurred around 5,000 to 6,000 years ago, leading to the wide variety of horse breeds seen today.

Throughout these six stages of horse evolution, it is evident that the environmental changes played a crucial role in shaping the adaptations and transformations observed in horses. The shifts in their physical characteristics, locomotion, and diet were closely linked to the evolving environments they inhabited.

Horse breeds arose through the process of selective breeding , in which humans intentionally mate specific horses to perpetuate desired traits in their offspring.

This process began thousands of years ago and has continued to the present day. The origins of horse breeds can be traced back to the domestication of horses by humans, which occurred around 5,000 to 6,000 years ago .

The initial domestication of horses involved taming and utilizing wild horses for various purposes such as transportation, agriculture, and warfare. Over time, humans recognized that certain horses possessed traits that made them more suitable for specific tasks. For example, some horses were faster and more agile, while others were stronger and better suited for pulling heavy loads.

As humans gained knowledge and experience in breeding horses, they began to selectively mate horses with desirable traits, aiming to produce offspring that exhibited those traits more consistently. This selective breeding led to the development of distinct horse populations with shared characteristics. Over generations, these populations were selectively bred further, resulting in the establishment of specific horse breeds.

The formation of horse breeds was influenced by a variety of factors , including geographical location, cultural practices, and the specific needs of different human societies. Different regions developed their own breeds based on their requirements and preferences.

Over time, breed registries and breed standards were developed to document and maintain the purity and integrity of each breed . These standards outline the specific characteristics, such as size, conformation, coat color, and temperament, that define a particular breed.

Today, there are hundreds of recognized horse breeds, each with its own unique set of characteristics and purposes. Some breeds are specialized for racing, others for riding, driving, or working in specific industries like agriculture or ranching. Selective breeding and the continued efforts of breeders have led to the preservation and refinement of these breeds, ensuring that they maintain their distinctive qualities and serve various human needs.

You might be interested in this other article, which delves into the concept of wild horses and provides insights into the various horse subspecies found worldwide.

If you want to read similar articles to Origin and Evolution of Horses , we recommend you visit our Facts about the animal kingdom category.

• M. Mihlbachler, F. Rivals, N. Solounias, G. Semprebon. (2011). Dietary change and evolution of horses in North America . Science.
• D. Goodwin. (2007). Horse behaviour: evolution, domestication and fertilization . The welfare of horses.
• B. MacFadden. (1994). Fossil horses: systematics, paleobiology, and evolution of the family Equidae . Cambridge University Press.