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Scientific Editing

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Get expert in-depth editing and strategic advice on your manuscript, review article or grant proposal from a team of editors following the quality standards set by Nature Research. Scientific Editing includes a Gold English language edit, a developmental edit, a quality assurance edit and a summary report. We specialize in research papers, reviews and grant proposals within the natural sciences (medicine, biology, chemistry, physics and earth sciences) and engineering.

A Team-based Assessment of Your Manuscript’s Needs

Scientific Editing team members meet to identify priority issues in the manuscript and discuss how the priorities can be addressed. We leave comments about additional documents provided for editing, such as cover letters or responses to reviewers. We provide insights into how readers, peer reviewers, and journal editors might view your paper.

A Thorough Developmental Edit

A Substantive In-Depth Assessment of Your Scientific Manuscript  

Based on the priorities identified in the team meeting, experienced members of the Scientific Editing team examine the text in significant detail and provide the following:

• Strategic developmental edits that will improve the structure and clarity of the logical argumentation, such as how well the implications of the work are highlighted
• Incisive comments recommending further author revisions that will help you maximize your manuscript’s effectiveness.
• Improved  English grammar  to ensure that your ideas are conveyed clearly

A Thorough Strategic Report

Customized to the Needs of Each Scientific Manuscript

Scientific Editing also includes a custom 3-6 page report that includes:

• Explanations of the prioritized issues identified in your paper, how we addressed them and/or how you might be able to address them further.
• Insights into how readers, peer reviewers, and journal editors might view your paper
• Strategic advice for improving your writing in the future.
• Comments about additional documents provided for editing, such as  cover letters  or responses to reviewers.

Continued Support after Scientific Editing

Trusted by Researchers and Universities to Help their Science Stand Out

• After you have received Scientific Editing and have considered the advice and made changes, we provide one free language edit (for field-specific grammar, phrasing, and punctuation correction) within 6 months of the completion of the initial order.
• You may also want to purchase  Manuscript Formatting  at this time; from our partners, AJE

Download one of our sample files to see the types of suggestions and edits made by our Scientific Editors

Confidentiality Assured

We never show your paper to anyone so you can be confident that when you submit to a journal, the editor’s decision will be independent and fair

These policies relate specifically to Nature Research Editing Service. Please see also our  Terms of Service  for other core principles, for example regarding the confidentiality of your documents. Our aim is to serve the interests of authors and institutions, not the editorial and publishing interests of Springer Nature journals. We openly and clearly declare to potential and current customers that we are part of Springer Nature, and we inform potential customers about our independence from the publishing process. We aim to be publisher-neutral in our editing and advice, and especially in our journal recommendations (where applicable). We take steps during the editing process, when giving advice, and when recruiting and training editors to help us achieve this aim. Nature Research Editing Service does not measure its success in terms of the publication of edited documents by Springer Nature journals. We do not involve ourselves in the publishing process. We do not guarantee publication of papers or funding of grant applications. We expect journal editors and grant review panels will make these decisions entirely independently of Nature Research Editing Service and other author services providers. Draft journal articles and their scientific content are not shared with professional editors who make decisions on research papers at Springer Nature journals. Any comments that we make regarding the suitability of specific target journals are explicitly presented as opinion and not as a definitive prediction of the outcome of submission. If an author indicates that they mainly want to know whether or not their paper is acceptable to a specific Springer Nature journal, or has any other query for which a Springer Nature journal editor is the most appropriate contact, we will suggest that the author contacts the journal directly. We do not suggest peer reviewers. We do not infringe on authorship. When editing documents, wherever possible, we provide our edits and comments in an easily reviewable format. We encourage authors to review our input critically, rather than accepting all of our edits and suggestions without review. We never confirm that any document is ready for submission, submit anything to a journal or funding body, or correspond with journal editors or peer reviewers on behalf of authors. We do not ghostwrite or completely rewrite large passages of text, and we do not directly introduce ideas that are not already present in the documents submitted to us. Our editing focuses on improving how the existing research is communicated. General policies We do not engage in or encourage practices that contravene relevant ethical guidelines. For Scientific Editing, if we suspect unethical practice in a submitted document or correspondence, we will point it out and explain it. If we suspect severe infringement of ethical requirements or laws (particularly unacceptable harm to humans or animals), we act on this where possible. We review these policies on a regular basis and keep up-to-date with issues arising in the publication ethics landscape. We train editors to follow these policies, we monitor adherence to these policies, and we take action in the event of any failure to follow them.

Our Quality Guaranteed

To ensure that the changes you make based on the editor’s report are grammatically correct, we include one free language re-edit of your revised paper before you submit to the journal (for Scientific Editing only). To claim this free re-edit, email support within 6 months of your original order and attach your revised paper. After this free re-edit, we guarantee that if your language-edited paper is rejected by a journal because of the English alone, we will re-edit your paper once for free.

Where Our Customers Publish

• Advanced Functional Materials
• Cancer Research
• Developmental Cell
• Earth and Planetary Science Letters
• Energy and Environmental Science
• Genome Biology
• Geophysical Research Letters
• Journal of Experimental Medicine
• Nano Letters
• Nature Climate Change
• Nature Communications
• Nature Genetics
• Nature Geoscience
• Nature Medicine
• Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States
• Science Advances

Testimonials

I would like to express my sincere appreciation for your work. You did really an excellent job. What I liked in particular was that you gave comments with substantial suggestions how to improve. Although I have published till now quite a number of scientific papers (>300) and many of them in high impact journals I learned a lot throughout this. I Iook forward to future cooperation of mutual benefit. -Full Professor · University of Bayreuth · Germany

The report with the feedback summarizing edits and comments is very informative. We appreciate a lot your editor’s work, with changes tracked and comments on the text improving clearly our manuscript. Finally, your recommendations concerning the most appropriate journal for publication will decidedly help us for the next submission of our manuscript. -Research Director, CNRS/Team Leader · Sorbonne University · France

Scientific Proofreading Medical Proofreading Specialist Editors

Examination papers journal articles curricula.

ProofScience is a specialist medical and scientific provider, offering a proofreading service and copy-editing service to repair and develop manuscripts, drafts and journal article submissions. We support organisations, native speakers, researchers, postgraduates and doctoral candidates, and specialise in medical proofreading and scientific proofreading. The proofreading service is appropriate for those authors who are confident in their use of English, while the copy-editing service is targeted towards those authors who require proofreading and then further development to extend their language use. Once we receive your draft document our PhD-qualified editors will begin the process, so that your final manuscript meets the linguistic expectations of your target audience.

PROOFREADING Scientific and medical proofreading to prepare your content for submission and publication

COPY-EDITING Editing your scientific and medical papers to repair and extend your use of English

FORMATTING Setting the format of your document to meet your submission requirements

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Academic Proofreading And Editing

Whether you’re writing a thesis, research paper, or PhD proposal, Proofed’s academic proofreading and editing services will help ensure your writing reads smoothly and your ideas are communicated effectively.

Enhance Your Academic Writing

No matter what you’re working on, with Proofed’s academic proofreading and editing services, you can rest assured that your writing will be clear and concise, with a strong academic style and tone.

We can even check references and citations in your work. Because good writing is vital for success in academia, our proofreading and editing services can help you achieve your career goals.

Experienced Academic Editors

Our team includes editors with PhDs and master’s degrees in a wide range of subject areas. We’ve also edited thousands of academic documents so we understand the high standard of writing required in academia and will use our skills and expertise to make your writing the best it can be.

Are You Looking To Publish Your Writing?

Proofed’s academic proofreading service has helped thousands of academics in many fields of study prepare their papers, reports, and articles for publication. Visit our researcher page to learn more about how we can polish your writing, thus increasing your chances of publication.

Make sure your writing is the best it can be with our expert English proofreading and editing

A Dedicated Team Of Expert Editors Working 24/7, 365 Days A Year

We pair your document with an editor who understands your field of study. If you’re happy with the results, let us know, and we’ll make sure the same editor works on all of your documents. That way, you can be sure the proofreading we provide will always meet your standards.

Expert Editor

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Lightning-fast delivery.

You’ll never miss a deadline with our speedy services: our Next-Day Guarantee means we’ll return any document up to 8,000 words long within 24 hours.

And if you need a faster turnaround, simply select your desired delivery speed when you submit your document. We have three options

We can also meet custom deadlines! Just let us know what you need. 

* For documents up to 8,000 words

** For documents up to 3,000 words

Great Pricing

Our pricing is affordable and transparent – the cost is based on the exact length of your document. Check out our pricing calculator for an instant quote, and rest assured that you’ll receive the highest quality proofreading and editing for the best value on the market.

Referencing Expertise

Our team includes experts in various referencing styles and systems, including AMA, APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, Vancouver, and IEEE. No matter what style you’re using, though, we can check that your citations and references are correct and let you know if any information is missing. Visit our referencing page to learn more.

Subject-Matter Experts

Our team includes over 750 professional editors with backgrounds in a wide range of disciplines, so we’ll always match you with the best editor for your writing, whether you need help with a sociology dissertation, handouts for a music theory lecture, or a biology research paper.

24-Hour Support

Our support team is available around the clock to address any concerns or questions you have about your order. This means you’ll never be left in the dark, no matter where you are or what time it is.

We Work With Every Major Format

Our system supports over 15 document formats, making it easy to submit content for proofreading and editing. Click on a file icon below to learn more.

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Research papers.

Present your findings with pride by having your research paper checked by our expert academic proofreaders.

Journal Articles

Prepare for publication by letting our expert academic proofreaders check your journal article for errors.

Let our expert academic proofreaders help you put the finishing touches on your PhD thesis or dissertation.

Make sure your arguments come across clearly by having your thesis checked by our expert academic proofreaders.

Research Proposals

Enhance your application by letting our expert academic proofreaders check your research proposal for errors.

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Welcome to BMJ Author Services

• 24/7 Service With A Reply In Minutes
• 100% Satisfaction / Your Money Back

“The experience was very good and the premium editing was very helpful. Thank you!”

- Joanna Kowalska

BMJ partners with Editage to offer Author Services to Medical Researchers worldwide and assist them in their publication goals. Editage offers professional editing by specialized subject experts in Medicine . With a comprehensive quality guarantee, Editage promises to assist you until you are ready to submit.

Services we offer

• English Editing Services
• Translation Services

We offer four levels of manuscript editing services. Each service level differs in terms of the scope of edit and post-submission support. All four levels of editing include free manuscript formatting for the BMJ journal of your choice. This will save your time and budget.

-->

		Plus Plan
		Publication-focused editing that makes your manuscript ready for initial submission.
		Select this service if you like the editor to help with extensive language revisions, organization of your article, and feedback on your writing. -->
Features
	Features
Features
	Revisions for grammar, terminology, word choice, & native English tone
Revisions for grammar, terminology, word choice, & native English tone
	Editing certificate (upon request)
Editing certificate (upon request)
	Letter From The Editor
Letter From The Editor			Included in Scientific Review Report
	Unlimited Q&A with editor
Unlimited Q&A with editor
	Intensive edit for organization (rephrasing and restructuring)
Intensive edit for organization (rephrasing and restructuring)
	Customized cover letter
Customized cover letter
	Feedback on original writing
Feedback on original writing
	Unlimited re-edits for 365 days
Unlimited re-edits for 365 days	60% discount	Free	Free
	Word count reduction
Word count reduction	Word reduction by 10%	Word reduction by 20%	Unrestricted
	Journal-specific formatting
Journal-specific formatting	Free for one journal	Free for one journal	Free for multiple journals
	Journal response letter editing & cross-checking with the revised manuscript
Journal response letter editing & cross-checking with the revised manuscript
	Scientific Review Report which includes:
Scientific Review Report which includes:
	In-depth technical review by top-tier journal peer reviewer
In-depth technical review by top-tier journal peer reviewer
	High-quality developmental editing focusing on paper structure and research design
High-quality developmental editing focusing on paper structure and research design
	Journal submission readiness check by Managing Editor or senior editor
Journal submission readiness check by Managing Editor or senior editor
	Free plagiarism check report
Free plagiarism check report

Don’t get lost in translation! Our academic translators and editors offer subject-specific expertise and superior editing skills to ensure that your manuscript accurately conveys every nuance of your research in perfect scientific English to a global audience. Our aim is simple: deliver a manuscript that journal editors, reviewers and readers find indistinguishable from those written by native English speakers.

We offer subject-specific translation with English Editing for the following language pairs.

• Traditional and Simplified Chinese to English
• Spanish to English
• Korean to English
• Japanese to English
• Brazilian Portuguese to English
• Turkish to English

Why choose BMJ Author Services?

Our goal is 100% client satisfaction. That is what we aim for in everything we do.

From the quality of our editing and translations to the timely delivery of your completed manuscript, we make sure you are satisfied with our service every step of the way.

You reach out to us for expert author services, and we mean to deliver. Our team will work with you until your expectations are met.

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Two-Editor Check

Each document is checked by two language specialists from our global team of editors and peer reviewers to ensure that we miss nothing. The end result will meet the highest quality standards of international journals.

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Whether you are sending in a submission or query, our customer support managers will respond to you within 24 hours, with solutions customized to your needs. If your document submission is even a second late, we offer a full fee refund, No questions asked!

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Native English editors - specialists in your subject area guiding you to publication success

Our unique editor-selection algorithm ensures that your paper is assigned to highly qualified language specialists with expertise in your subject. As it learns your requirements, we are able to offer more tailored services. Our editors are all native English speakers who hold PhDs or Master’s degrees from top universities such as Harvard, MIT and Oxford. They are all experts in their respective academic fields with an average of 19.4 years’ experience in editing. Most of them are published authors and peer reviewers in their own right as well as members of some of the world’s best editor societies, such as BELS and CSE.

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Publication Ethics

We at BMJ, and our partners at Editage, are aware of the increasing pressure that the academic research and publishing community are under today. As a leading provider of editorial and publication support services for the past 12 years, we have on occasion been witness to potential cases of ethical violation while editing research papers. A majority of these are instances of “accidental plagiarism” where authors unwittingly engage in unethical practices, mainly because of lack of information and professional training on the subject.

As the first people to look at research papers, even before journal editors do, we can serve as trusted advisors to thousands of researchers, especially early-career scientists not fully aware of the pitfalls of unethical academic publication by:

• Ensuring quality
• Offering processes for suspected ethical misconduct
• Providing educational initiatives for editors and authors

Frequently asked questions

What are the different types of editing services you offer.

We provide manuscript editing services to meet the publication standards of international high-impact journals. We offer 3 levels of manuscript editing and proofreading services for academic research papers.

What training do your editors and writers receive?

All our manuscript editors and writers go through the Basic Editor Training (BET) program that comprises 5 standard modules and various customized programs.

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It was great to have a native speaker scrutinize our manuscripts. We managed to publish two papers with the help of Editage in good quality international journals. I suggest using Editage to my colleagues to get a flawless manuscript before the publication.

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XpertScientific is a platform created by scientists for scientists. Our Team of Xperts consists of academics from a variety of science disciplines , including natural, life, (bio)medical, social, engineering, and environmental sciences. We provide two kinds of services: a professional English Editing and Proofreading as well as Scientific Translation service for your research papers, articles, theses, proposals, etc.; and a Science Consulting service to support you in the execution and management of your research project:

• Professional English language editing and proofreading of your research paper, thesis, dissertation, grant proposal, CV, etc.
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Our team consists of experienced academics from a range of scientific backgrounds with extensive publishing and editing experience. We can provide English language proofreading and copy-editing services at the highest level while maintaining competitive prices . This not only improves the quality of your publication but also the standing and reputation within the scientific community. In addition, we adapt manuscripts to your in-house style. Please contact us for a specific quote tailored to your requirements.

At XpertScientific, we provide a wide range of science consulting services such as:

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We can perform statistical analyses to help you extract meaningful results from complex datasets (e.g., univariate and multivariate analyses to create predictive models for patient outcomes) and construct mathematical models to help you test hypotheses or find the theoretical underpinnings of your observations. Furthermore, we master a range of programming languages (Matlab, Fortran, C++, Python, Perl, R, Statistica, SPSS) and have sufficient hardware to carry out small to medium-sized modelling projects .

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Every scientific project requires a modern approach to science communication, in order to increase visibility within the community and raise awareness in the general public through outreach activities. We can provide assistance with communication and outreach activities by setting up and maintaining a project web page, creating and maintaining social media pages, maintaining blogs, writing reports and press releases, etc.

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A student guide to proofreading and writing in science

Affiliations.

• 1 College of Integrative Sciences and Arts, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona; [email protected].
• 2 College of Public Service & Community Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona; and.
• 3 Department of Human Science, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia.
• PMID: 28679566
• DOI: 10.1152/advan.00004.2017

Scientific writing requires a distinct style and tone, whether the writing is intended for an undergraduate assignment or publication in a peer-reviewed journal. From the first to the final draft, scientific writing is an iterative process requiring practice, substantial feedback from peers and instructors, and comprehensive proofreading on the part of the writer. Teaching writing or proofreading is not common in university settings. Here, we present a collection of common undergraduate student writing mistakes and put forth suggestions for corrections as a first step toward proofreading and enhancing readability in subsequent draft versions. Additionally, we propose specific strategies pertaining to word choice, structure, and approach to make products more fluid and focused for an appropriate target audience.

Keywords: pedagogy; undergraduate.

Copyright © 2017 the American Physiological Society.

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Unusual Fraud Claim Against Scientific Co-Author Over Alleged Research Problems Fizzles Out

The claim was brought too late, the court holds, and the associated defamation claim is barred by the judicial proceeding privilege..

Eugene Volokh | 8.22.2024 4:16 PM

From Judge Wendy Beetlestone's opinion today in Pratico v. Giannopoulos (E.D. Pa.):

According to his Complaint, well-pleaded allegations from which are taken as true, Praticò is a professor at Temple University, where he researches "clinical pharmacology …." Giannopoulos graduated from Temple with a PhD in 2015. While he was at Temple, Praticò served as his advisor, and he conducted original research in Praticò's lab, which helped form the basis for his doctoral dissertation. Praticò also helped Giannopoulos publish that data, including in a journal from Springer Nature Academic Publishing … in 2018 and 2019. As part of that process, the parties communicated via email, and Praticò notified Giannopoulos that his data was being put together and that he would "be in the authorship." The first article lists Praticò and Giannopoulos as authors, while the second article lists them and another person named Jian Chiu as authors. Giannopoulos allowed the Springer Nature papers to be featured on his profile on the website ResearchGate. In March 2020, individuals challenged the accuracy of the data underlying these articles on a website called Pubpeer. Praticò responded by "email[ing] Dr. Giannopoulos to schedule a conversation." Giannopoulos did not, at this point, "say anything about [the] authorship" of these papers. Later, in 2023, further criticism of Giannopoulos's work came out.

In response to an inquiry from Springer Nature, Giannopoulos's attorney sent a letter to its Associate Editor and Publisher, which insisted that: (1) his "name was placed as the lead author [of these papers] without his consent, nor was he informed of the submission of these manuscripts;" (2) he "has never met, worked with, and cannot identify" Chiu; and, (3) he "did not receive any form of communication from the corresponding author regarding these manuscripts." This, as far as Praticò knows, was the first time that Giannopoulos had disputed the authorship of these articles. The feedback from third parties led Praticò to review Giannopoulos's data himself, and he concluded that "the integrity of [the] data is compromised." This episode has led to the retraction of three papers that the parties co-authored, and Praticò has requested the retraction of four additional papers on which Giannopoulos is the first author…. Praticò alleges: (1) that Giannopoulos's statements, made through his attorney, were defamatory; and, (2) that Giannopoulos defrauded him by "represent[ing] … that his data was reliable for scholarly publications." … Defamation "It has long been the law of Pennsylvania that statements made by judges, attorneys, witnesses and parties in the course of or pertinent to any stage of judicial proceedings are absolutely privileged and, therefore, cannot form the basis for liability for defamation." "Judicial proceeding" is a capacious term, covering "not merely … pleadings and sessions in open court, but also … 'less formal circumstances, such as preliminary conferences, negotiations, and routine correspondence exchanges between counsel in furtherance of their clients' interests.'" It includes "'communications made prior to the institution of proceedings' if such communications were 'pertinent and material' and 'ha[d] been issued in the regular course of preparing for contemplated proceedings.'" … Giannopoulos argues that the privilege covers his attorney's statements because "they were sent in an effort to explain [his] position related to certain allegations against him" and contemplated "a suit against [him] for fraud." Praticò counters that no such judicial proceeding has been identified: at the time Giannopoulos's lawyer sent the letter, Praticò had not filed a lawsuit yet, so no immunity can be applied here. The privilege applies here even though the letter does not facially contemplate a proceeding between the two parties. Buschel v. MetroCorp. (E.D. Pa. 1996), is instructive. In that case, a journalist and Philadelphia Magazine had gotten into a dispute over whether he had orally agreed to sell the publication rights to an article. The journalist signed a written contract with another magazine, Esquire , for rights to the piece. In the course of this dispute, counsel for Philadelphia Magazine wrote a letter to the journalist and to Esquire that "made clear that Philadelphia would pursue its legal rights against [the plaintiff] … arising from [his] contractual arrangement with Philadelphia " and referenced a statement by Philadelphia Magazine 's editor that characterized the plaintiff's decision to contract with Esquire as "a moral transgression against me and my magazine." The author alleged that these statements amounted to defamation because they accused him "of breaching a contract and committing the crime of conversion" and "of a breach of journalistic ethics." … [T]he court concluded that the judicial privilege applied. These letters "were both relevant and material to Philadelphia 's contemplated litigation" because they: (1) "informed each potential defendant … of [its] belief in the existence of its oral contract;" and, (2) "served to inform each recipient of the factual basis upon which Philadelphia would rely to prove the oral contract." Here, as in Buschel , Giannopoulos's lawyer's letter lays out his legal position and the factual basis for it. In response to serious allegations—according to the Second Amended Complaint, academic fraud—the letter disclaims any responsibility for any possible misconduct because Giannopoulos did not "agree to be accountable for any/all aspects of" the at-issue articles' publication. In support of that position, Giannopoulos made three specific factual assertions, which form the basis for Praticò's defamation claim. Therefore, as in Buschel , those statements are entitled to judicial privilege. The defamation claim therefore will be dismissed without prejudice…. Fraud … Fraud claims in Pennsylvania are governed by a two-year statute of limitations. The limitations period runs from "the time 'the right to institute and maintain the suit arises.'" It thus is subject to equitable tolling, inter alia , "until the plaintiff knew, or through the exercise of reasonable diligence should have known, of the injury and its cause." Giannopoulos argues that, because the Second Amended Complaint presses a fraud claim based on "work [that] was done in 2015," "articles … published in 2018 and 2019," and "data [that] was subject to scrutiny in 2020," the two-year limitations period has run. In response, Praticò argues that he originally defended Giannopoulos's work and only discovered any inaccuracies after hiring an independent reviewer in 2023. But the Complaint alleges that Praticò learned about the alleged problems with Giannopoulos's data three years earlier in 2020. Once Pubpeer posted concerns about the data, he emailed Giannopoulos "to schedule a conversation." Considering such allegations, Praticò at least should have known through the exercise of reasonable diligence about the alleged falsity of Giannopoulos's data more than two years ago. His fraud claim therefore is barred by Pennsylvania's two-year statute of limitations and will be dismissed with prejudice….

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How do you read a scientific article?

Published on October 17, 2014 by Bas Swaen . Revised on August 8, 2024.

A scientific article in a journal or scientific publication , if you have little research experience, can seem to be a difficult and complicated text. However, most scientific articles have a clear structure to make reading them just that much easier.

By reading a scientific article in a structured manner, you can better determine if it’s relevant and useful for your dissertation. In this (non-scientific) article, we explain how you should read a scientific article.

Table of contents

Before you start, quality of the article, getting started.

In this article we will use the following scientific article as an example:

Example article

Perrett, D. I., Burt, D. M., Penton-Voak, I. S., Lee, K. J., Rowland, D. A., & Edwards, R. (1999). Symmetry and Human Facial Attractiveness.  Evolution and Human Behavior ,  20 , 295-307. Retrieved from  http://www.grajfoner.com/Clanki/Perrett%201999%20Symetry%20Attractiveness.pdf

This article is about the possible link between facial symmetry and the attractiveness of a (human) face. We will concentrate on Experiment 1 in the article.

The very first question that you should ask yourself is, could this article be relevant to my dissertation? You answer this by scanning the article. In other words, read only the title and the headings. If you notice right away that the article is not relevant to your subject, then you are better to look for another article.

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Now that you have determined that the article is interesting for your own study, it is worth considering whether the article is of high quality, because you can’t just assume that every scientific article is a high quality one.

When an article of poor quality is used as a source in your dissertation, you run the risk of drawing incorrect or unsubstantiated conclusions. Your supervisor will also always look at the quality of your sources to determine whether your conclusions are well founded.

There are a number of points by which you can determine whether the article is of a high quality.

Now that you know that the article is relevant for your own research and the article is of high quality, you can get started reading the article in more detail.

Step 1: Read the introduction

Many students begin by reading the abstract , but you can better start by reading the introduction. The abstract is concise and often contains difficult language, and it is difficult to understand the abstract if you haven’t yet read anything of the rest of the article.

Step 2: Determine the big question within the research field

What is the “big question” that the researchers in the field of study want to answer?

When you know what the underlying big question is, you understand better why the research in the article was done. The article is, in fact, often just one small part of a much larger study about which more researchers write articles.

Look for the reasons for performing the research. Often, a study builds on a previous study. See which studies were done previously, which limitations these studies had and how this research adds to the prior research. You don’t always have to search for this information yourself, because it is often provided in the paper itself.

In the case of the example article, the big question in the field of research is: “Which factors determine attractiveness?” Possible predictors of attractiveness, such as facial symmetry, are researched. This study focuses on the attractiveness of the human face. Research is being done on the effect of facial symmetry on attractiveness, and a link has been found between symmetry and attractiveness.

Step 3: Determine the research questions

Which research questions are the authors trying to answer, exactly? There could be multiple questions, but there could also be just one. Write down the research questions for yourself.

Sometimes there aren’t any questions but rather hypotheses. with hypotheses instead of research questions, the research determines whether the expectation of the author (the hypothesis) is correct. In that case, write down the hypotheses.

In the article from the example, there are no clear research questions or hypotheses to be found, so you’ll have to determine them yourself from the text. Two experiments are done in the research, studying whether a certain expectation that the authors have is correct. This is, then,  research that assasses hypotheses. It appears from the introduction that the expectation is that people find a symmetric face more attractive than a face that is not symmetric. This brings us to H1 and H0.

H1 = People find a symmetric face more attractive than an asymmetric face.

H0 = People have no preference between a symmetric face and an asymmetric face.

Step 4: Look at the approach

What do the authors do to answer the specific questions? What is the plan of approach?

Surprisingly enough, in prior studies of the attractiveness of human faces, a preference for asymmetry was found. The researchers of this article think that this is due to the fact that the faces in the previous studies were made unnaturally symmetric. With this type of research, a photograph is taken of a face and this is then manipulated to make the face symmetrical. This resulted in unnatural properties and changes in the structure of the skin. It is, then, not strange that the participants had a preference for the naturally asymmetric faces. In this research, therefore, a new manipulation technique was used to make the faces symmetric. The form of the facial features is varied and skin structure is kept constant.

Step 5: Read the methods section

Write down exactly what the authors have done per experiment. Describe it, for example, in a clear outline but make sure that you record all the details so that you can understand the big picture from your outline. This goes more quickly by hand than on the computer, but for clarity we have made an example in Word.

Table – Experiment 1

Plan – Experiment 1

Summary planning

For Experiment 1, two photos were made of each face. A photo was taken of a test subject and this photo was then manipulated using the new technique to make a symmetric face. Thus, there was an original photo and a more symmetrically formed version of the photograph. The photographs were presented in pairs to 49 evaluators. For each pair, they had to choose the most attractive photo.

Step 6: Read the results section

Write one or more sections to summarize the results of each experiment, each figure and each table. Don’t even think about what the results mean; just write them down as they are. Often, the results are summarized in the figures and tables, so look at these carefully!

Also pay particular attention to the words “significant” and “not significant”. These specific words have an important statistical meaning.

A result is significant if the probability is smaller then 5%  that the difference found or the link found is coincidental. If the probability that the observed result is coincidental is equal to or greater than 5% , then the result is not significant. The probability that the result found is coincidental is also indicated with ‘ p = … ’. This means that a result is significant when the number after the ‘ p ’ is smaller than 0.05 (p < 0.05). Some studies speak of significance at only 1%. In these studies, the ‘ p ’ must be smaller than 0.01.

Example significance

Suppose you are researching the influence of studying on the grade of an exam, and you do this research on 100 test subjects. It appears from your research that the average grade increases with more hours of study. Now, your finding doesn’t mean that you can immediately conclude that this result is always the case. It is possible that the results of your research are purely coincidental. That’s why you test for significance. Only when your result is significant may you conclude that more hours of study contribute to a higher average grade on the exam.

Example table 1: Extent of asymmetry in the photographs

Of the 30 faces, the average asymmetry of all 13 facial features is not more than 1 pixel. Only at the height of the outer corners of the eyes was a significant asymmetry observed.

Example piece about preferences

At the end of the experiment, the number of symmetric faces chosen was calculated per evaluator. In 57.8% of the cases, the evaluators preferred a symmetrical face. The t-test shows that the average deviates significantly from 50% (or, no preference). If the result was 50% then this would mean that the evaluator had no preference for symmetry or asymmetry. It was also tested whether the preference for symmetry differed with photos of men or women, and whether there was a difference in the preferences of male and female evaluators. Finally, it was investigated whether the gender of both the evaluator and the person in the photograph had an interactive effect on the number of preferred symmetrical faces. For all of these tests, the ANOVA test was performed and no significant results were observed. The analysis has even been done in reverse as well. Now it was examined per photo whether there was a preference for the symmetrical face more often than for the asymmetrical face. This examination gave the same results. Of all the evaluators, 75% did not realize that the faces were manipulated and did not think that this had influenced their judgment. It turns out that, also with only this group of evaluators, the preference for symmetrical faces is significant and is 56%.

Step 7: Determine if the results answer the specific questions

Form your own interpretations before you read those of the authors (in the discussion ). Ask yourself at this step: what do the results mean? If you are a beginner in reading scientific articles, then this will be more difficult than when you are more experienced.

In the beginning, you will often need to adjust your opinion to that of the authors themselves. Later, you will probably be more critical.

The results show that the evaluators did find that symmetrical faces are more attractive than asymmetrical faces. The gender of the evaluator and of the faces could have perhaps influenced the preference, but this was not evident. Thus, H1 is confirmed.

Step 8: Read the discussion and conclusion

Now read what the authors think that the results mean. Do you agree with their interpretations? Also pay attention to what the authors identify as shortcomings of the research and what they propose for follow-up research. Don’t assume that they have done everything correctly – be critical.

Did you see any shortcomings that they didn’t mention? Do you agree with their proposal for follow-up research?

I agree with the interpretations of the authors. They identify a number of shortcomings whereby they immediately propose follow-up research to improve the completed research. I noticed that the study sample is small and that the ratio between the number of men and women is not very equal. This they don’t identify as a shortcoming, but perhaps the research could be improved with a larger and more equal sample. In addition, they have used only white respondents for the research, but it is naturally interesting to study whether the results also hold for the other races, such as Asians.

Step 9: Go back to the abstract

Now you can read the abstract. Does this reflect what the authors say in the article? Does the abstract match your interpretation of the article?

The abstract fits well with the rest of the article. I have interpreted the article as it was described in the abstract.

Step 10: Save the article and always reference the source

Now that you’ve read the article intensively, is it still relevant and useful for your research? If so, take the following steps:

• Save the document. As of recently, you can save your found articles in Google Scholar via ‘My library’. You can activate this by clicking on ‘My library’ to the upper left of the search bar. Note: you do need a Gmail account for this.
• If you don’t have a Gmail account, then save the document preferably in the Cloud (for example, Microsoft OneDrive or Dropbox ). For a document name, you can use the authors and the title of the article.
• Immediately note the article in a reference list . Often this must be in the APA Style . You can use the APA Citation Generator , Mendeley or References in Word for this purpose.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Swaen, B. (2024, August 08). How do you read a scientific article?. Scribbr. Retrieved August 26, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/tips/how-do-you-read-a-scientific-article/

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Webb Finds Early Galaxies Weren’t Too Big for Their Britches After All

It got called the crisis in cosmology. But now astronomers can explain some surprising recent discoveries.

When astronomers got their first glimpses of galaxies in the early universe from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, they were expecting to find galactic pipsqueaks, but instead they found what appeared to be a bevy of Olympic bodybuilders. Some galaxies appeared to have grown so massive, so quickly, that simulations couldn’t account for them. Some researchers suggested this meant that something might be wrong with the theory that explains what the universe is made of and how it has evolved since the big bang, known as the standard model of cosmology.

According to a new study in the Astronomical Journal led by University of Texas at Austin graduate student Katherine Chworowsky, some of those early galaxies are in fact much less massive than they first appeared. Black holes in some of these galaxies make them appear much brighter and bigger than they really are.

“We are still seeing more galaxies than predicted, although none of them are so massive that they ‘break’ the universe,” Chworowsky said.

The evidence was provided by Webb’s Cosmic Evolution Early Release Science (CEERS) Survey , led by Steven Finkelstein, a professor of astronomy at UT Austin and study co-author.

Image A : CEERS Deep Field (NIRCam)

Black holes add to brightness.

According to this latest study, the galaxies that appeared overly massive likely host black holes rapidly consuming gas. Friction in the fast-moving gas emits heat and light, making these galaxies much brighter than they would be if that light emanated just from stars. This extra light can make it appear that the galaxies contain many more stars, and hence are more massive, than we would otherwise estimate. When scientists remove these galaxies, dubbed “little red dots” (based on their red color and small size), from the analysis, the remaining early galaxies are not too massive to fit within predictions of the standard model.

“So, the bottom line is there is no crisis in terms of the standard model of cosmology,” Finkelstein said. “Any time you have a theory that has stood the test of time for so long, you have to have overwhelming evidence to really throw it out. And that’s simply not the case.”

Efficient Star Factories

Although they’ve settled the main dilemma, a less thorny problem remains: There are still roughly twice as many massive galaxies in Webb’s data of the early universe than expected from the standard model. One possible reason might be that stars formed more quickly in the early universe than they do today.

“Maybe in the early universe, galaxies were better at turning gas into stars,” Chworowsky said.

Star formation happens when hot gas cools enough to succumb to gravity and condense into one or more stars. But as the gas contracts, it heats up, generating outward pressure. In our region of the universe, the balance of these opposing forces tends to make the star formation process very slow. But perhaps, according to some theories, because the early universe was denser than today, it was harder to blow gas out during star formation, allowing the process to go faster.

More Evidence of Black Holes

Concurrently, astronomers have been analyzing the spectra of "little red dots" discovered with Webb, with researchers in both the CEERS team and others finding evidence of fast-moving hydrogen gas, a signature of black hole accretion disks. This supports the idea that at least some of the light coming from these compact, red objects comes from gas swirling around black holes, rather than stars – reinforcing Chworowsky and their team’s conclusion that they are probably not as massive as astronomers initially thought.  However, further observations of these intriguing objects are incoming, and should help solve the puzzle about how much light comes from stars versus gas around black holes.

Often in science, when you answer one question, that leads to new questions. While Chworowsky and their colleagues have shown that the standard model of cosmology likely isn’t broken, their work points to the need for new ideas in star formation.

“And so there is still that sense of intrigue,” Chworowsky said. “Not everything is fully understood. That’s what makes doing this kind of science fun, because it’d be a terribly boring field if one paper figured everything out, or there were no more questions to answer.” The James Webb Space Telescope is the world’s premier space science observatory. Webb is solving mysteries in our solar system, looking beyond to distant worlds around other stars, and probing the mysterious structures and origins of our universe and our place in it. Webb is an international program led by NASA with its partners, ESA (European Space Agency) and CSA (Canadian Space Agency).

Right click any image to save it or open a larger version in a new tab/window via the browser's popup menu.

View/Download all image products at all resolutions for this article from the Space Telescope Science Institute.

View/Download the research results from the Astronomical Journal .

Media Contacts

Laura Betz  -  [email protected] , Rob Gutro - [email protected] NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center , Greenbelt, Md.

Marc Airhart - [email protected] University of Texas at Austin

Christine Pulliam - [email protected] Space Telescope Science Institute , Baltimore, Md.

Related Information

VIDEO : CEERS Fly-through data visualization

ARTICLE : Webb Science - Galaxies Through Time

INFOGRAPHIC : Learn More about black holes

VIDEO : Webb Science Snippets Video: “The Early Universe”

INFOGRAPHIC : What is Cosmological Redshift?

More Webb News

More Webb Images

Webb Science Themes

Webb Mission Page

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'Mpox made my throat so painful I couldn’t sleep'

Egide Irambona, 40, sits bare-chested on his hospital bed, next to the window, in a treatment room that he shares with two other men.

The rays of the evening sun shining above Burundi’s main city, Bujumbura, filter in. His face, bathed in a soft light, is covered in blisters. His chest too, and his arms.

“I had swollen lymph nodes in my throat. It was so painful I couldn’t sleep. Then the pain subsided there and it moved to my legs,” he tells the BBC.

Mr Irambona has mpox.

He is one of the more than 170 confirmed cases recorded since last month in Burundi. One of the poorest countries in the world, it borders the Democratic Republic of Congo, the epicentre of several recent mpox outbreaks, which have led to at least 450 deaths and 14,000 suspected cases so far this year.

In Burundi, there have been no recorded deaths and it is not yet clear how deadly the current outbreak - of a new strain called Clade 1b - is because there is not enough capacity to carry out testing in the affected areas.

However, it has been declared a global health emergency because of fears it could spread quickly to previously unaffected countries and regions.

This is Mr Irambona’s ninth day of treatment at the King Khaled University Hospital. One way that the virus is spread is through close contact with someone infected and it seems that he passed it on to his wife.

She is also being looked after at the same facility.

“I had a friend who had blisters. I think I got it from him. I did not know it was mpox. Thankfully our seven children have not shown any signs of having it,” Mr Irambona says, his voice trailing off.

This hospital in Bujumbura is home to one of three mpox treatment centres in the city.

Fifty-nine of the 61 available beds are occupied by infected patients – a third are under the age of 15 and, according to the World health Organization, children are the worst-affected age group here.

Odette Nsavyimana is the doctor in charge at the hospital and says the number of patients is increasing.

“We are now setting up tents outside.” There are three so far – one for triage, one to hold suspected cases and one to take confirmed cases before they can be transferred to the wards.

"It is tough, especially when the babies come. They cannot stay alone, so I have to keep their mothers here as well. Even if they have no symptoms… It is such a tough situation,” Dr Nsavyimana says, her voice muffled by her protective face mask.

• How worried should we be about mpox?
• What is mpox and how is it spread?

Burundi is now seeing a surge in mpox cases.

"I am worried about the numbers. If they keep increasing, there is no capacity for us to handle that.”

A lot of effort is made to isolate those infected from the rest of the hospital’s population. There is red tape everywhere, and visitors, who are required to wear protective equipment, are physically distanced from those infected.

Medical officials are worried about limited resources. There is only one laboratory in the country where blood samples can be tested for the virus, there are insufficient testing kits and no vaccines.

Maintaining hygienic conditions across Bujumbura is also hard as access to basic resources like water is limited in the city. There is a shortage of running water and people can be seen queuing up at public taps.

Dr Liliane Nkengurutse, national director for the Centre for Public Health Emergency Operations, says she is really concerned about the coming days.

“This is a real challenge. The fact that diagnosis is only done in one place delays detecting new cases.

“Health centres are calling the laboratory saying they have suspected cases, but it takes time for teams from the lab to deploy to where the suspected cases are to take samples.

“And it takes much more time to release the test results. We need about $14m (£10.7m) to be able to at least take our response to the next level,” she says.

Despite talk of vaccines reaching DR Congo as early as next week, there are no reports of a similar move for Burundi.

Public awareness about mpox is limited.

Bujumbura is just 20 minutes from the border with DR Congo and is a hub for cross-border travel and trade. But there is no sense of the possible risks of an outbreak.

The city is abuzz with activity. People are still buying and selling goods as usual. Handshakes, hugs and very close contact are the norm. There are long queues at the bus stations, with people scrambling to get onto already crammed public service vehicles.

“Many people do not understand the gravity of this issue. Even where there have been cases, people still just mingle,” Dr Nkengurutse says.

The BBC spoke to several people in Bujumbura and the majority did not know what mpox was. And those that did were not aware that it was spreading in their country.

“I have heard about this disease, but I have never seen someone who suffers from it. I have only seen it on social media,” one person said.

“I know it affects babies and young people. I am scared of it, but that does not mean I will just stay at home. I have to work. My family has to eat,” said another.

Health workers know that persuading people to take more care may be hard among a sceptical population that is facing a host of economic challenges.

But they will continue to treat patients, make sure they get better and try and trace those that they have been in contact with in efforts to contain the spread of the virus.

More BBC stories on mpox:

• LISTEN: Inside Health on mpox
• Mpox not new Covid and can be stopped, expert says
• Thailand confirms first Asian case of new mpox strain

Go to BBCAfrica.com for more news from the African continent.

Follow us on Twitter @BBCAfrica , on Facebook at BBC Africa or on Instagram at bbcafrica

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