a research paper with abstract

Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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How To Write A Research Paper Abstract | Steps And Examples

Published by Alvin Nicolas at September 23rd, 2024 , Revised On October 24, 2024

An abstract is written to pique a reader’s interest and if necessary, motivate them to leave the comfort of their home and get the full article or paper.

In simpler words, an abstract is a well-structured summary of your academic work, such as an article, research paper , thesis or dissertation. It outlines the most important aspects of your work and is about 300-500 words. Although the structure may vary from discipline to discipline, it is still a necessary part of academic writing.

Abstract Research Paper Definition

A research paper abstract is the face of the research paper. This means that it is what creates the first impression of the paper. It is the summary of the research paper and communicates the content quality and relevance. They exist with one vital purpose, and that is to sell your research. A reader quickly scrutinises and scans the abstract to gain an idea of your research, the problem statement addressed, the methodologies used and the results gained from it.

An abstract most commonly has the following parts:

• Introduction

Types of Abstracts In Research Paper

One of the main purposes of an abstract is to describe your paper. It can either be informative, descriptive, structured or unstructured. Let’s develop a common understanding of how research paper abstracts are written based on content and writing style.

Structured Abstract

Structured abstracts are mostly written in journals and have a separate paragraph for each section. Each part is organised and has distinct headings such as introduction/background, objective, design, methodologies, material, results and conclusion.

Unstructured Abstract

An unstructured abstract is mostly used in social sciences and humanities disciplines and does not have separate paragraphs for each section. It consists of one whole paragraph that serves as the face of the research paper.

Descriptive Abstract

A descriptive abstract only outlines the crucial details of the researcher’s publication. They are mostly short, consisting of 75-105 words. They briefly explain the background, mission statement, purpose and objective but omit the research methodologies, results and conclusions.

Informative Abstract

This abstract can be both structured and unstructured and provides detailed information on the research paper. This means that it is an extensive paragraph on each aspect of research and provides accurate data on each section, especially results.

How to Make Abstract In Research Paper

The abstract part of the research paper summarises the main points of the article. Whether you are applying for research grants, writing a thesis or dissertation or studying a research problem , it is necessary to know how to make a good abstract for a research paper. Here are some of the details on how to write a research paper abstract.

General Topic In Study

This section serves as the introduction to the research paper. It answers the questions of what is being studied or what problem statement is being addressed here. The hypothesis and purpose are highlighted within this section, setting the context for the rest of the research paper.

It is recommended to never go into detailed information as this part only offers initial information regarding the research. Also, this part is always written in the present or past tense, and never in the future as the research has been completed.

Our study’s main objective was to assess the photoprotective capability of chocolate consumption, by contrasting a simple dark chocolate with a specifically made chocolate with preserved high flavanol. According to the study’s hypothesis, eating chocolate induced with HF can provide nutritional defence against skin damage by the sun.

Research/Analytical Methods

Next, it is important to write the research methods used in the research. Either qualitative or quantitative methods, every aspect of them should be mentioned to give the reader a good idea of what scale, survey and sample was used within the research. Some questions that need to be answered in this paragraph are:

• What was the research setting?
• What was the sample size, and how were the participants sampled?
• What was the research method used?
• What was the primary outcome of the initial test?
• What questions or treatments were administered to the participants?

A double-blinded in vivo study was carried out, where 30 healthy adults participated in it. It included 8 males and 22 females between the age of 10 years to 43 years. Fifteen subjects each were given either an HF or LF chocolate and were divided based on their skin phototypes.

Results/ Arguments

This section can be both in present and past tense and must include the main findings of the study. It should be detailed and lengthy, giving all relevant results. These are the following questions this section of the abstract research paper must answer:

• What did the study yield?
• What were the results in comparison to the hypothesis ?
• What were the predictions and were the outcomes similar to it?

In conclusion, our research revealed that eating chocolate high in flavanol shields humans from damaging UV rays, mainly because of its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The research indicates that HF chocolate lessens the acute inflammatory response to UV rays, by regulating the synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide.

Discussions

Finally, you should discuss the conclusions and the author’s thoughts on the research. Whether the hypothesis proved to be right or not is mostly discussed here, along with the limitations or complications encountered during the research. It is necessary to mention this as a reader must be aware of the credibility and generalisability of the research.

Our research concludes by showing that cocoa flavanols have the potential to be a safe natural method of shielding skin from UV damage.

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Research Paper Abstract Example

Here is an abstract example for research papers to help you understand how abstracts are written:

Does the lockdown have a role in stopping COVID-19?

Every day the coronavirus is spreading, with deaths and fatalities increasing day by day. This has led to a nationwide lockdown all over the world. Our study aims to study the effect of lockdown days on the spread of coronavirus in countries. COVID-19 data from 49 countries was gathered from www.worldometer.com. As of May 5, 2020, there were 1440776 approved active cases of COVID-19 from the countries included in this study. Data on COVID-19 days and lockdown days was obtained from the websites of the official institutions of these 49 countries. Moreover, the correlation test was used to analyse the associations between total COVID-19 cases and the lockdown days. The lockdown days were seen to be correlated to the COVID-19 pandemic. The social-isolation phenomenon; the lockdown has been seen to prevent COVID-19 and the spread of this deadly virus. There are several concerns about the ability of the national healthcare system to effectively manage COVID-19 patients. To slow down the spread of this virus, it is necessary to take the strictest of actions. Even though Italy and Spain have the highest death rates because of COVID-19, there has been a sudden drop in the rates because of the strict measures taken by the government.

Frequently Asked Questions

When should i write an abstract.

You should write an abstract when you are completing a thesis or dissertation, submitting a research design or applying for research grants. You can also write an abstract if you are writing a book

What are things to avoid while writing an abstract?

You should avoid using passive sentences and future tenses. Avoid detailed descriptions as an abstract is supposed to be just a summary. Complex jargon and complicated long sentences should also be avoided as they take away the reader’s interest. Lastly, always address your problem statement in a good way. 

Should I cite sources in an abstract?

You should try to focus on showcasing your original work, rather than cite other work. Try to make your work as comprehensive and understanding so that your work is highlighted better. 

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Writing an abstract - a six point checklist (with samples)

Posted in: abstract , dissertations

The abstract is a vital part of any research paper. It is the shop front for your work, and the first stop for your reader. It should provide a clear and succinct summary of your study, and encourage your readers to read more. An effective abstract, therefore should answer the following questions:

• Why did you do this study or project?
• What did you do and how?
• What did you find?
• What do your findings mean?

So here's our run down of the key elements of a well-written abstract.

• Size - A succinct and well written abstract should be between approximately 100- 250 words.
• Background - An effective abstract usually includes some scene-setting information which might include what is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question (a few short sentences).
• Purpose  - The abstract should also set out the purpose of your research, in other words, what is not known about the subject and hence what the study intended to examine (or what the paper seeks to present).
• Methods - The methods section should contain enough information to enable the reader to understand what was done, and how. It should include brief details of the research design, sample size, duration of study, and so on.
• Results - The results section is the most important part of the abstract. This is because readers who skim an abstract do so to learn about the findings of the study. The results section should therefore contain as much detail about the findings as the journal word count permits.
• Conclusion - This section should contain the most important take-home message of the study, expressed in a few precisely worded sentences. Usually, the finding highlighted here relates to the primary outcomes of the study. However, other important or unexpected findings should also be mentioned. It is also customary, but not essential, to express an opinion about the theoretical or practical implications of the findings, or the importance of their findings for the field. Thus, the conclusions may contain three elements:
• The primary take-home message.
• Any additional findings of importance.
• Implications for future studies.

Example Abstract 2: Engineering Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone.

Abstract from: Dalstra, M., Huiskes, R. and Van Erning, L., 1995. Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone. Journal of biomechanical engineering, 117(3), pp.272-278.

And finally...  A word on abstract types and styles

Abstract types can differ according to subject discipline. You need to determine therefore which type of abstract you should include with your paper. Here are two of the most common types with examples.

Informative Abstract

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgements about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarised. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less.

Adapted from Andrade C. How to write a good abstract for a scientific paper or conference presentation. Indian J Psychiatry. 2011 Apr;53(2):172-5. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.82558. PMID: 21772657; PMCID: PMC3136027 .

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Home » Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

The abstract of a research paper is a concise summary that provides an overview of the study’s purpose, methodology, results, and conclusions. Positioned at the beginning of the paper, the abstract serves as the first impression for readers, helping them quickly decide whether the research is relevant to their interests. Writing an effective abstract requires clarity, precision, and an understanding of the study’s key points.

This guide explores the purpose of a research abstract, offers a step-by-step writing process, and provides practical examples to illustrate best practices.

Research Paper Abstract

An abstract is a brief summary of a research paper that typically ranges from 150 to 300 words. It succinctly describes the key components of the study, including its objectives, methods, findings, and implications.

Key Characteristics of an Abstract:

• Concise: Provides a complete overview within a limited word count.
• Self-Contained: Can be understood independently of the full paper.
• Structured or Unstructured: May follow specific sections (structured) or flow as a single paragraph (unstructured).

Example: An abstract for a study on the effects of exercise on mental health might summarize the research question, methods used, results indicating reduced anxiety levels, and implications for mental health interventions.

Purpose of a Research Abstract

• Attracts Readers: Helps potential readers quickly determine the relevance of the study.
• Facilitates Indexing: Allows easy discovery in databases and search engines.
• Provides Overview: Summarizes the key elements of the research for quick understanding.
• Enhances Accessibility: Serves as a standalone summary for those unable to access the full paper.

Types of Abstracts

1. descriptive abstract.

• Focuses on the purpose and scope of the research without detailed results.
• Example: Common in humanities and theoretical studies.

2. Informative Abstract

• Includes key details about methods, findings, and conclusions.
• Example: Widely used in scientific and technical research papers.

3. Critical Abstract

• Evaluates the study’s validity and reliability along with summarizing it.
• Example: Used in advanced reviews or critique papers.

4. Highlight Abstract

• Focuses on intriguing or unique aspects of the study to attract attention.
• Example: Found in conference proceedings or promotional materials.

How to Write a Research Paper Abstract

Step 1: understand the requirements.

• Review the target journal or institution’s guidelines for abstract length, format, and style.

Step 2: Identify Key Elements

• Background: What is the research about?
• Objective: What is the purpose or main question of the study?
• Methods: How was the research conducted?
• Results: What were the significant findings?
• Conclusion: What is the study’s implication or contribution?

Step 3: Write a Draft

• Create a rough draft summarizing each section of the paper.

Step 4: Refine for Clarity and Precision

• Use concise language to eliminate redundancy. Avoid technical jargon unless necessary.

Step 5: Verify Accuracy

• Ensure all details in the abstract accurately reflect the content of the paper.

Step 6: Edit for Style and Grammar

• Proofread to ensure clarity, coherence, and adherence to formatting requirements.

Best Practices for Writing an Abstract

• Write the Abstract Last: Compose the abstract after completing the full paper to ensure it captures all key points.
• Focus on Clarity: Avoid vague language or overly complex sentences.
• Use Keywords: Include relevant terms to improve discoverability in databases.
• Avoid References: Abstracts should be standalone and not rely on citations.
• Maintain Objectivity: Present findings neutrally without exaggeration.

Examples of Research Paper Abstracts

Example 1: scientific research.

Title: The Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Anxiety Levels Among College Students Abstract: This study examines the impact of aerobic exercise on anxiety levels among college students. A total of 150 participants were randomly assigned to either an exercise or a control group. Participants in the exercise group engaged in 30-minute aerobic sessions thrice weekly for eight weeks. Anxiety levels were measured using the Beck Anxiety Inventory before and after the intervention. Results indicated a significant reduction in anxiety scores among the exercise group compared to the control group (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that aerobic exercise may serve as an effective intervention for anxiety management.

Example 2: Social Sciences Research

Title: The Role of Social Media in Shaping Political Opinions Among Young Adults Abstract: This research investigates the influence of social media platforms on the political opinions of young adults aged 18–30. Using a mixed-methods approach, we conducted surveys (n = 500) and in-depth interviews (n = 20) to explore participants’ exposure to political content online. Findings revealed that 62% of respondents reported significant shifts in their political views due to social media interactions. Qualitative analysis highlighted the role of algorithm-driven content in reinforcing political biases. The study underscores the importance of critical digital literacy in mitigating the impact of social media on political polarization.

Example 3: Engineering Research

Title: Optimization of Solar Panel Efficiency Through Material Engineering Abstract: This paper explores advanced material engineering techniques to enhance solar panel efficiency. Experimental tests were conducted on polymer-based coatings to improve light absorption and minimize reflection. Results showed that panels with modified coatings exhibited a 12% increase in energy output compared to standard models. The findings demonstrate the potential of material innovation in advancing renewable energy technology.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Exceeding Word Limits: Adhere to the specified length guidelines.
• Including Unnecessary Details: Avoid adding minor or irrelevant information.
• Using Technical Jargon: Keep language accessible to a broad audience.
• Neglecting Results: Ensure the abstract highlights significant findings.
• Failing to Revise: Proofread carefully to eliminate errors and improve readability.

An abstract is a critical component of a research paper, summarizing its content in a concise and accessible way. Whether you are submitting your work to a journal, conference, or academic institution, following a clear structure and emphasizing clarity and precision will enhance the impact of your abstract. By adhering to best practices and learning from well-crafted examples, you can effectively communicate the essence of your research to a wider audience.

• Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . Sage Publications.
• American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).
• Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (2012). Academic Writing for Graduate Students . University of Michigan Press.
• Day, R. A., & Gastel, B. (2016). How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper . Cambridge University Press.
• Glasman-Deal, H. (2020). Science Research Writing for Non-Native Speakers of English . Imperial College Press.

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What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

• when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
• when applying for research grants
• when writing a book proposal
• when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
• when writing a proposal for a conference paper
• when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

• Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
• Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
• Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
• Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

• A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
• The most important information first.
• The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
• Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
• Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

• The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
• Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
• The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

• Do not refer extensively to other works.
• Do not add information not contained in the original work.
• Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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