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How to Write a Research Hypothesis: Good & Bad Examples

What is a research hypothesis?

A research hypothesis is an attempt at explaining a phenomenon or the relationships between phenomena/variables in the real world. Hypotheses are sometimes called “educated guesses”, but they are in fact (or let’s say they should be) based on previous observations, existing theories, scientific evidence, and logic. A research hypothesis is also not a prediction—rather, predictions are ( should be) based on clearly formulated hypotheses. For example, “We tested the hypothesis that KLF2 knockout mice would show deficiencies in heart development” is an assumption or prediction, not a hypothesis. 

The research hypothesis at the basis of this prediction is “the product of the KLF2 gene is involved in the development of the cardiovascular system in mice”—and this hypothesis is probably (hopefully) based on a clear observation, such as that mice with low levels of Kruppel-like factor 2 (which KLF2 codes for) seem to have heart problems. From this hypothesis, you can derive the idea that a mouse in which this particular gene does not function cannot develop a normal cardiovascular system, and then make the prediction that we started with. 

What is the difference between a hypothesis and a prediction?

You might think that these are very subtle differences, and you will certainly come across many publications that do not contain an actual hypothesis or do not make these distinctions correctly. But considering that the formulation and testing of hypotheses is an integral part of the scientific method, it is good to be aware of the concepts underlying this approach. The two hallmarks of a scientific hypothesis are falsifiability (an evaluation standard that was introduced by the philosopher of science Karl Popper in 1934) and testability —if you cannot use experiments or data to decide whether an idea is true or false, then it is not a hypothesis (or at least a very bad one).

So, in a nutshell, you (1) look at existing evidence/theories, (2) come up with a hypothesis, (3) make a prediction that allows you to (4) design an experiment or data analysis to test it, and (5) come to a conclusion. Of course, not all studies have hypotheses (there is also exploratory or hypothesis-generating research), and you do not necessarily have to state your hypothesis as such in your paper. 

But for the sake of understanding the principles of the scientific method, let’s first take a closer look at the different types of hypotheses that research articles refer to and then give you a step-by-step guide for how to formulate a strong hypothesis for your own paper.

Types of Research Hypotheses

Hypotheses can be simple , which means they describe the relationship between one single independent variable (the one you observe variations in or plan to manipulate) and one single dependent variable (the one you expect to be affected by the variations/manipulation). If there are more variables on either side, you are dealing with a complex hypothesis. You can also distinguish hypotheses according to the kind of relationship between the variables you are interested in (e.g., causal or associative ). But apart from these variations, we are usually interested in what is called the “alternative hypothesis” and, in contrast to that, the “null hypothesis”. If you think these two should be listed the other way round, then you are right, logically speaking—the alternative should surely come second. However, since this is the hypothesis we (as researchers) are usually interested in, let’s start from there.

Alternative Hypothesis

If you predict a relationship between two variables in your study, then the research hypothesis that you formulate to describe that relationship is your alternative hypothesis (usually H1 in statistical terms). The goal of your hypothesis testing is thus to demonstrate that there is sufficient evidence that supports the alternative hypothesis, rather than evidence for the possibility that there is no such relationship. The alternative hypothesis is usually the research hypothesis of a study and is based on the literature, previous observations, and widely known theories. 

Null Hypothesis

The hypothesis that describes the other possible outcome, that is, that your variables are not related, is the null hypothesis ( H0 ). Based on your findings, you choose between the two hypotheses—usually that means that if your prediction was correct, you reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative. Make sure, however, that you are not getting lost at this step of the thinking process: If your prediction is that there will be no difference or change, then you are trying to find support for the null hypothesis and reject H1. 

Directional Hypothesis

While the null hypothesis is obviously “static”, the alternative hypothesis can specify a direction for the observed relationship between variables—for example, that mice with higher expression levels of a certain protein are more active than those with lower levels. This is then called a one-tailed hypothesis. 

Another example for a directional one-tailed alternative hypothesis would be that 

H1: Attending private classes before important exams has a positive effect on performance. 

Your null hypothesis would then be that

H0: Attending private classes before important exams has no/a negative effect on performance.

Nondirectional Hypothesis

A nondirectional hypothesis does not specify the direction of the potentially observed effect, only that there is a relationship between the studied variables—this is called a two-tailed hypothesis. For instance, if you are studying a new drug that has shown some effects on pathways involved in a certain condition (e.g., anxiety) in vitro in the lab, but you can’t say for sure whether it will have the same effects in an animal model or maybe induce other/side effects that you can’t predict and potentially increase anxiety levels instead, you could state the two hypotheses like this:

H1: The only lab-tested drug (somehow) affects anxiety levels in an anxiety mouse model.

You then test this nondirectional alternative hypothesis against the null hypothesis:

H0: The only lab-tested drug has no effect on anxiety levels in an anxiety mouse model.

How to Write a Hypothesis for a Research Paper

Now that we understand the important distinctions between different kinds of research hypotheses, let’s look at a simple process of how to write a hypothesis.

Writing a Hypothesis Step:1

Ask a question, based on earlier research. Research always starts with a question, but one that takes into account what is already known about a topic or phenomenon. For example, if you are interested in whether people who have pets are happier than those who don’t, do a literature search and find out what has already been demonstrated. You will probably realize that yes, there is quite a bit of research that shows a relationship between happiness and owning a pet—and even studies that show that owning a dog is more beneficial than owning a cat ! Let’s say you are so intrigued by this finding that you wonder: 

What is it that makes dog owners even happier than cat owners? 

Let’s move on to Step 2 and find an answer to that question.

Writing a Hypothesis Step 2:

Formulate a strong hypothesis by answering your own question. Again, you don’t want to make things up, take unicorns into account, or repeat/ignore what has already been done. Looking at the dog-vs-cat papers your literature search returned, you see that most studies are based on self-report questionnaires on personality traits, mental health, and life satisfaction. What you don’t find is any data on actual (mental or physical) health measures, and no experiments. You therefore decide to make a bold claim come up with the carefully thought-through hypothesis that it’s maybe the lifestyle of the dog owners, which includes walking their dog several times per day, engaging in fun and healthy activities such as agility competitions, and taking them on trips, that gives them that extra boost in happiness. You could therefore answer your question in the following way:

Dog owners are happier than cat owners because of the dog-related activities they engage in.

Now you have to verify that your hypothesis fulfills the two requirements we introduced at the beginning of this resource article: falsifiability and testability . If it can’t be wrong and can’t be tested, it’s not a hypothesis. We are lucky, however, because yes, we can test whether owning a dog but not engaging in any of those activities leads to lower levels of happiness or well-being than owning a dog and playing and running around with them or taking them on trips.  

Writing a Hypothesis Step 3:

Make your predictions and define your variables. We have verified that we can test our hypothesis, but now we have to define all the relevant variables, design our experiment or data analysis, and make precise predictions. You could, for example, decide to study dog owners (not surprising at this point), let them fill in questionnaires about their lifestyle as well as their life satisfaction (as other studies did), and then compare two groups of active and inactive dog owners. Alternatively, if you want to go beyond the data that earlier studies produced and analyzed and directly manipulate the activity level of your dog owners to study the effect of that manipulation, you could invite them to your lab, select groups of participants with similar lifestyles, make them change their lifestyle (e.g., couch potato dog owners start agility classes, very active ones have to refrain from any fun activities for a certain period of time) and assess their happiness levels before and after the intervention. In both cases, your independent variable would be “ level of engagement in fun activities with dog” and your dependent variable would be happiness or well-being . 

Examples of a Good and Bad Hypothesis

Let’s look at a few examples of good and bad hypotheses to get you started.

Good Hypothesis Examples

Bad Hypothesis Examples

Tips for Writing a Research Hypothesis

If you understood the distinction between a hypothesis and a prediction we made at the beginning of this article, then you will have no problem formulating your hypotheses and predictions correctly. To refresh your memory: We have to (1) look at existing evidence, (2) come up with a hypothesis, (3) make a prediction, and (4) design an experiment. For example, you could summarize your dog/happiness study like this:

(1) While research suggests that dog owners are happier than cat owners, there are no reports on what factors drive this difference. (2) We hypothesized that it is the fun activities that many dog owners (but very few cat owners) engage in with their pets that increases their happiness levels. (3) We thus predicted that preventing very active dog owners from engaging in such activities for some time and making very inactive dog owners take up such activities would lead to an increase and decrease in their overall self-ratings of happiness, respectively. (4) To test this, we invited dog owners into our lab, assessed their mental and emotional well-being through questionnaires, and then assigned them to an “active” and an “inactive” group, depending on… 

Note that you use “we hypothesize” only for your hypothesis, not for your experimental prediction, and “would” or “if – then” only for your prediction, not your hypothesis. A hypothesis that states that something “would” affect something else sounds as if you don’t have enough confidence to make a clear statement—in which case you can’t expect your readers to believe in your research either. Write in the present tense, don’t use modal verbs that express varying degrees of certainty (such as may, might, or could ), and remember that you are not drawing a conclusion while trying not to exaggerate but making a clear statement that you then, in a way, try to disprove . And if that happens, that is not something to fear but an important part of the scientific process.

Similarly, don’t use “we hypothesize” when you explain the implications of your research or make predictions in the conclusion section of your manuscript, since these are clearly not hypotheses in the true sense of the word. As we said earlier, you will find that many authors of academic articles do not seem to care too much about these rather subtle distinctions, but thinking very clearly about your own research will not only help you write better but also ensure that even that infamous Reviewer 2 will find fewer reasons to nitpick about your manuscript. 

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On the Wordvice academic resources website , you can also find many more articles and other resources that can help you with writing the other parts of your research paper , with making a research paper outline before you put everything together, or with writing an effective cover letter once you are ready to submit.

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• How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Steps & Examples

How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Steps & Examples

Published on May 6, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection .

Example: Hypothesis

Daily apple consumption leads to fewer doctor’s visits.

Table of contents

What is a hypothesis, developing a hypothesis (with example), hypothesis examples, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about writing hypotheses.

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.

A hypothesis is not just a guess – it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).

Variables in hypotheses

Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more types of variables .

• An independent variable is something the researcher changes or controls.
• A dependent variable is something the researcher observes and measures.

If there are any control variables , extraneous variables , or confounding variables , be sure to jot those down as you go to minimize the chances that research bias  will affect your results.

In this example, the independent variable is exposure to the sun – the assumed cause . The dependent variable is the level of happiness – the assumed effect .

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Step 1. Ask a question

Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.

Step 2. Do some preliminary research

Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what your research will find.

At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to ensure that you’re embarking on a relevant topic . This can also help you identify which variables you will study and what you think the relationships are between them. Sometimes, you’ll have to operationalize more complex constructs.

Step 3. Formulate your hypothesis

Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.

4. Refine your hypothesis

You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain:

• The relevant variables
• The specific group being studied
• The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis

5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in  if…then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.

In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.

If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find between them.

6. Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing , you will also have to write a null hypothesis . The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H 0 , while the alternative hypothesis is H 1 or H a .

• H 0 : The number of lectures attended by first-year students has no effect on their final exam scores.
• H 1 : The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their final exam scores.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

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A hypothesis is not just a guess — it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).

Null and alternative hypotheses are used in statistical hypothesis testing . The null hypothesis of a test always predicts no effect or no relationship between variables, while the alternative hypothesis states your research prediction of an effect or relationship.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

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What is the Correct Way to Write a Hypothesis? Expert Tips and Examples

Crafting a solid hypothesis is a crucial step in the scientific research process. A well-formulated hypothesis not only guides your research but also provides a clear focus for your study. This article delves into expert tips and examples to help you write a strong hypothesis, ensuring your research is grounded in a solid theoretical framework.

Key Takeaways

• A hypothesis should be clear and precise, providing a specific prediction that can be tested.
• Preliminary research is essential to formulate a well-informed hypothesis based on existing literature and data.
• A strong hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable, meaning it can be proven or disproven through experimentation or observation.
• It is important to differentiate between null and alternative hypotheses, as both play crucial roles in scientific research.
• Avoid common pitfalls such as overly broad statements and ambiguous language to ensure your hypothesis is effective and meaningful.

Understanding the Fundamentals of a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a foundational element in scientific research, serving as a preliminary answer to a research question. Understanding its fundamentals is crucial for any researcher. A well-crafted hypothesis not only guides the direction of your study but also provides a basis for statistical storytelling: understanding and applying key stats in experimental research .

Steps to Formulating a Strong Hypothesis

Identifying the research question.

The first step in formulating a strong hypothesis is to identify the main research question . This involves recognizing a pattern or phenomenon that piques your interest and then asking a specific question that your hypothesis will aim to answer. This step is crucial as it sets the direction for your targeted research .

Conducting Preliminary Research

Before you can formulate a hypothesis, you need to conduct preliminary research. This involves gathering as much information as possible about your topic. By reviewing existing literature and studies, you can gain insights into what is already known and identify gaps that your research could fill. This step ensures that your hypothesis is grounded in existing knowledge and is relevant to the field.

Formulating the Hypothesis Statement

Once you have identified your research question and conducted preliminary research, the next step is to formulate your hypothesis statement. A well-crafted hypothesis should be clear, specific, and testable. It should propose a relationship between variables that can be examined through experimentation or observation. Remember, a strong hypothesis not only predicts an outcome but also provides a basis for further investigation.

Characteristics of a Well-Written Hypothesis

A well-written hypothesis is essential for guiding your research and ensuring that your study is both meaningful and scientifically valid. Clarity and precision are paramount; your hypothesis should be articulated in a way that leaves no room for ambiguity. This means using specific language and clearly defining any terms or variables involved. A hypothesis must also be testable and falsifiable, meaning it should be structured in a way that allows for empirical testing and the possibility of being proven wrong. This is crucial for maintaining the scientific integrity of your research. Lastly, your hypothesis should be directly relevant to your research question, providing a focused direction for your study. By adhering to these characteristics, you can formulate a hypothesis that is both robust and reliable.

Types of Hypotheses in Research

Understanding the various types of hypotheses is crucial for any researcher. Each type serves a unique purpose and is used in different contexts to address the research question effectively.

Examples of Effective Hypotheses

Hypotheses in natural sciences.

In the natural sciences, hypotheses often predict relationships between variables based on empirical evidence. For instance, a hypothesis might state, "Plants exposed to higher levels of sunlight will grow faster than those in shaded areas." This hypothesis is clear and testable , making it a strong candidate for scientific investigation.

Hypotheses in Social Sciences

Social science hypotheses frequently address human behavior and societal trends. An example could be, "Individuals who engage in regular physical activity report higher levels of happiness compared to those who do not." This hypothesis is relevant to the research question and can be tested through surveys and observational studies.

Hypotheses in Applied Research

Applied research often focuses on practical problems and solutions. A typical hypothesis might be, "Implementing a four-day workweek will increase employee productivity." This hypothesis is specific and actionable , providing a clear direction for research and potential policy changes.

Common Pitfalls and How to Avoid Them

When crafting a hypothesis, it's crucial to be aware of common pitfalls that can undermine your research. Avoiding these mistakes will enhance the quality and reliability of your study.

Expert Tips for Writing a Hypothesis

Consulting existing literature.

Before you start formulating your hypothesis, it's crucial to delve into existing literature. This step helps in demystifying the concept of a thesis statement and provides a foundation for your research. By reviewing previous studies, you can identify gaps in the research and build upon them. This not only strengthens your hypothesis but also ensures its relevance in the academic community.

Peer Review and Feedback

Engaging with peers and mentors for feedback is an invaluable part of the hypothesis-writing process. Constructive criticism can help you refine your hypothesis, making it more precise and testable. Don't hesitate to share your drafts and be open to suggestions. This collaborative approach can significantly reduce thesis anxiety and improve the quality of your work.

Iterative Refinement

Writing a hypothesis is not a one-time task; it requires iterative refinement. Start with a broad idea and gradually narrow it down through multiple revisions. This process involves continuously testing and tweaking your hypothesis to ensure it aligns with your research objectives. Remember, a well-crafted hypothesis is the result of meticulous planning and constant improvement.

Crafting a solid hypothesis is crucial for the success of your thesis. Our experts at Research Rebels have compiled essential tips to guide you through this process. Don't let uncertainty hold you back. Visit our website to explore our comprehensive Thesis Action Plan and claim your special offer now !

In conclusion, writing a hypothesis is a fundamental step in the scientific research process that requires careful consideration and precision. By following the expert tips and examples provided in this article, researchers can craft hypotheses that are clear, testable, and relevant to their studies. A well-formulated hypothesis not only guides the direction of the research but also provides a framework for analyzing results and drawing meaningful conclusions. As such, mastering the art of hypothesis writing is essential for any researcher aiming to contribute valuable insights to their field of study.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a hypothesis.

A hypothesis is a tentative statement predicting a relationship between variables, which can be tested through scientific research.

Why is a hypothesis important in scientific research?

A hypothesis provides a focused direction for research, allowing scientists to make predictions and test their validity through experimentation.

What are the key characteristics of a well-written hypothesis?

A well-written hypothesis should be clear, precise, testable, falsifiable, and relevant to the research question.

What is the difference between a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis?

A null hypothesis states that there is no effect or relationship between variables, while an alternative hypothesis suggests that there is an effect or relationship.

How can I ensure my hypothesis is testable?

To ensure your hypothesis is testable, it should be specific and measurable, with clearly defined variables and a methodology for testing.

What are common mistakes to avoid when writing a hypothesis?

Common mistakes include making hypotheses that are too broad, using ambiguous language, and failing to ensure the hypothesis is testable.

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How To Write A Hypotheses – Guide For Students

The word “hypothesis” might conjure up images of scientists in white coats, but crafting a solid hypothesis is a crucial skill for students in any field. Whether you are analyzing Shakespeare’s sonnets or conducting a science experiment, a well-defined research hypothesis sets the stage for your dissertation or thesis and fuels your investigation. 

Table of Contents

Writing a hypothesis is a crucial step in the research process. A hypothesis serves as the foundation of your research paper because it guides the direction of your study and provides a clear framework for investigation. But how to write a hypothesis? This blog will help you craft one. Let’s get started.

What Is A Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a clear and testable thesis statement or prediction that serves as the foundation of a research study. It is formulated based on existing knowledge, observations, and theoretical frameworks. 

A hypothesis articulates the researcher’s expectations regarding the relationship between variables in a study.

Hypothesis Example

Students exposed to multimedia-enhanced teaching methods will demonstrate higher retention of information compared to those taught using traditional methods.

The formulation of a hypothesis is crucial for guiding the research process and providing a clear direction for data collection and analysis. A well-crafted research hypothesis not only makes the research purpose explicit but also sets the stage for drawing meaningful conclusions from the study’s findings.

What Is A Null Hypothesis And Alternative Hypothesis

There are two main types of hypotheses: the null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative hypothesis (H1 or Ha). 

The null hypothesis posits that there is no significant effect or relationship, while the alternative hypothesis suggests the presence of a significant effect or relationship.

For example, in a study investigating the effect of a new drug on blood pressure, the null hypothesis might state that there is no difference in blood pressure between the control group (not receiving the drug) and the experimental group (receiving the drug). The alternative hypothesis, on the other hand, would propose that there is a significant difference in blood pressure between the two groups.

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How To Write A Good Research Hypothesis

Writing a hypothesis involves a systematic process that guides your research and provides a clear and testable statement about the expected relationship between variables. Go through the MLA vs. APA guidelines before writing. Here are the steps to help you how to write a hypothesis:

Step 1: Identify The Research Topic

Clearly define the research topic or question that you want to investigate. Ensure that your research question is specific and focused, providing a clear direction for your study.

Step 2: Conduct A Literature Review

Review existing literature related to your research topic. A thorough literature review helps you understand what is already known in the field, identify gaps, and build a foundation for formulating your hypothesis.

Step 3: Define Variables

Identify the variables involved in your study. The independent variable is the factor you manipulate, and the dependent variable is the one you measure. Clearly define the characteristics or conditions you are studying.

Step 4: Establish The Relationship

Determine the expected relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Will a change in the independent variable lead to a change in the dependent variable? Specify whether you anticipate a positive, negative, or no relationship.

Step 5: Formulate The Null Hypothesis (H0)

The null hypothesis represents the default position, suggesting that there is no significant effect or relationship between the variables you are studying. It serves as the baseline to be tested against. The null hypothesis is often denoted as H0.

Step 6: Formulate The Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha)

The alternative hypothesis articulates the researcher’s expectation about the existence of a significant effect or relationship. It is what you aim to support with your research paper . The alternative hypothesis is denoted as H1 or Ha.

For example, if your research topic is about the effect of a new fertilizer on plant growth:

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in plant growth between plants treated with the traditional fertilizer and those treated with the new fertilizer.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference in plant growth between plants treated with the traditional fertilizer and those treated with the new fertilizer.

Step 7: Ensure Testability And Specificity

Confirm that your research hypothesis is testable and can be empirically investigated. Ensure that it is specific, providing a clear and measurable statement that can be validated or refuted through data collection and analysis.

Hypothesis Examples

What Makes A Good Hypothesis

• Clear Statement: A hypothesis should be stated clearly and precisely. It should be easily understandable and convey the expected relationship between variables.
• Testability: A hypothesis must be testable through empirical observation or experimentation. This means that there should be a feasible way to collect data and assess whether the expected relationship holds true.
• Specificity: The research hypothesis should be specific in terms of the variables involved and the nature of the expected relationship. Vague or ambiguous hypotheses can lead to unclear research outcomes.
• Measurability: Variables in a hypothesis should be measurable, meaning they can be quantified or observed objectively. This ensures that the research can be conducted with precision.
• Falsifiability: A good research hypothesis should be falsifiable, meaning there should be a possibility of proving it wrong. This concept is fundamental to the scientific method, as hypotheses that cannot be tested or disproven lack scientific validity.

Frequently Asked Questions

How to write a hypothesis.

• Clearly state the research question.
• Identify the variables involved.
• Formulate a clear and testable prediction.
• Use specific and measurable terms.
• Align the hypothesis with the research question.
• Distinguish between the null hypothesis (no effect) and alternative hypothesis (expected effect).
• Ensure the hypothesis is falsifiable and subject to empirical testing.

How to write a hypothesis for a lab?

• Identify the purpose of the lab.
• Clearly state the relationship between variables.
• Use concise language and specific terms.
• Make the hypothesis testable through experimentation.
• Align with the lab’s objectives.
• Include an if-then statement to express the expected outcome.
• Ensure clarity and relevance to the experimental setup.

What Is A Null Hypothesis?

A null hypothesis is a statement suggesting no effect or relationship between variables in a research study. It serves as the default assumption, stating that any observed differences or effects are due to chance. Researchers aim to reject the null hypothesis based on statistical evidence to support their alternative hypothesis.

How to write a null hypothesis?

• State there is no effect, difference, or relationship between variables.
• Use clear and specific language.
• Frame it in a testable manner.
• Align with the research question.
• Specify parameters for statistical testing.
• Consider it as the default assumption to be tested and potentially rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis.

What is the p-value of a hypothesis test?

The p-value in a hypothesis test represents the probability of obtaining observed results, or more extreme ones, if the null hypothesis is true. A lower p-value suggests stronger evidence against the null hypothesis, often leading to its rejection. Common significance thresholds include 0.05 or 0.01.

How to write a hypothesis in science?

• Clearly state the research question
• Identify the variables and their relationship.
• Formulate a testable and falsifiable prediction.
• Use specific, measurable terms.
• Distinguish between the null and alternative hypotheses.
• Ensure clarity and relevance to the scientific investigation.

How to write a hypothesis for a research proposal?

• Clearly define the research question.
• Identify variables and their expected relationship.
• Formulate a specific, testable hypothesis.
• Align the hypothesis with the proposal’s objectives.
• Clearly articulate the null hypothesis.
• Use concise language and measurable terms.
• Ensure the hypothesis aligns with the proposed research methodology.

How to write a good hypothesis psychology?

• Formulate a specific and testable prediction.
• Use precise and measurable terms.
• Align the hypothesis with psychological theories.
• Articulate the null hypothesis.
• Ensure the hypothesis guides empirical testing in psychological research.

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• How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples

How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Shona McCombes .

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection.

Table of contents

What is a hypothesis, developing a hypothesis (with example), hypothesis examples, frequently asked questions about writing hypotheses.

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.

A hypothesis is not just a guess – it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).

Variables in hypotheses

Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more variables . An independent variable is something the researcher changes or controls. A dependent variable is something the researcher observes and measures.

In this example, the independent variable is exposure to the sun – the assumed cause . The dependent variable is the level of happiness – the assumed effect .

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Step 1: ask a question.

Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.

Step 2: Do some preliminary research

Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what your research will find.

At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to identify which variables you will study and what you think the relationships are between them. Sometimes, you’ll have to operationalise more complex constructs.

Step 3: Formulate your hypothesis

Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.

Step 4: Refine your hypothesis

You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain:

• The relevant variables
• The specific group being studied
• The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis

Step 5: Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if … then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.

In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.

If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find between them.

Step 6. Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing , you will also have to write a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H 0 , while the alternative hypothesis is H 1 or H a .

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

A hypothesis is not just a guess. It should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (‘ x affects y because …’).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses. In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

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The Craft of Writing a Strong Hypothesis

Table of Contents

Writing a hypothesis is one of the essential elements of a scientific research paper. It needs to be to the point, clearly communicating what your research is trying to accomplish. A blurry, drawn-out, or complexly-structured hypothesis can confuse your readers. Or worse, the editor and peer reviewers.

A captivating hypothesis is not too intricate. This blog will take you through the process so that, by the end of it, you have a better idea of how to convey your research paper's intent in just one sentence.

What is a Hypothesis?

The first step in your scientific endeavor, a hypothesis, is a strong, concise statement that forms the basis of your research. It is not the same as a thesis statement , which is a brief summary of your research paper .

The sole purpose of a hypothesis is to predict your paper's findings, data, and conclusion. It comes from a place of curiosity and intuition . When you write a hypothesis, you're essentially making an educated guess based on scientific prejudices and evidence, which is further proven or disproven through the scientific method.

The reason for undertaking research is to observe a specific phenomenon. A hypothesis, therefore, lays out what the said phenomenon is. And it does so through two variables, an independent and dependent variable.

The independent variable is the cause behind the observation, while the dependent variable is the effect of the cause. A good example of this is “mixing red and blue forms purple.” In this hypothesis, mixing red and blue is the independent variable as you're combining the two colors at your own will. The formation of purple is the dependent variable as, in this case, it is conditional to the independent variable.

Different Types of Hypotheses‌

Types of hypotheses

Some would stand by the notion that there are only two types of hypotheses: a Null hypothesis and an Alternative hypothesis. While that may have some truth to it, it would be better to fully distinguish the most common forms as these terms come up so often, which might leave you out of context.

Apart from Null and Alternative, there are Complex, Simple, Directional, Non-Directional, Statistical, and Associative and casual hypotheses. They don't necessarily have to be exclusive, as one hypothesis can tick many boxes, but knowing the distinctions between them will make it easier for you to construct your own.

1. Null hypothesis

A null hypothesis proposes no relationship between two variables. Denoted by H 0 , it is a negative statement like “Attending physiotherapy sessions does not affect athletes' on-field performance.” Here, the author claims physiotherapy sessions have no effect on on-field performances. Even if there is, it's only a coincidence.

2. Alternative hypothesis

Considered to be the opposite of a null hypothesis, an alternative hypothesis is donated as H1 or Ha. It explicitly states that the dependent variable affects the independent variable. A good  alternative hypothesis example is “Attending physiotherapy sessions improves athletes' on-field performance.” or “Water evaporates at 100 °C. ” The alternative hypothesis further branches into directional and non-directional.

• Directional hypothesis: A hypothesis that states the result would be either positive or negative is called directional hypothesis. It accompanies H1 with either the ‘<' or ‘>' sign.
• Non-directional hypothesis: A non-directional hypothesis only claims an effect on the dependent variable. It does not clarify whether the result would be positive or negative. The sign for a non-directional hypothesis is ‘≠.'

3. Simple hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation between exactly two variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example, “Smoking is a prominent cause of lung cancer." The dependent variable, lung cancer, is dependent on the independent variable, smoking.

4. Complex hypothesis

In contrast to a simple hypothesis, a complex hypothesis implies the relationship between multiple independent and dependent variables. For instance, “Individuals who eat more fruits tend to have higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism.” The independent variable is eating more fruits, while the dependent variables are higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism.

5. Associative and casual hypothesis

Associative and casual hypotheses don't exhibit how many variables there will be. They define the relationship between the variables. In an associative hypothesis, changing any one variable, dependent or independent, affects others. In a casual hypothesis, the independent variable directly affects the dependent.

6. Empirical hypothesis

Also referred to as the working hypothesis, an empirical hypothesis claims a theory's validation via experiments and observation. This way, the statement appears justifiable and different from a wild guess.

Say, the hypothesis is “Women who take iron tablets face a lesser risk of anemia than those who take vitamin B12.” This is an example of an empirical hypothesis where the researcher  the statement after assessing a group of women who take iron tablets and charting the findings.

7. Statistical hypothesis

The point of a statistical hypothesis is to test an already existing hypothesis by studying a population sample. Hypothesis like “44% of the Indian population belong in the age group of 22-27.” leverage evidence to prove or disprove a particular statement.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

Writing a hypothesis is essential as it can make or break your research for you. That includes your chances of getting published in a journal. So when you're designing one, keep an eye out for these pointers:

• A research hypothesis has to be simple yet clear to look justifiable enough.
• It has to be testable — your research would be rendered pointless if too far-fetched into reality or limited by technology.
• It has to be precise about the results —what you are trying to do and achieve through it should come out in your hypothesis.
• A research hypothesis should be self-explanatory, leaving no doubt in the reader's mind.
• If you are developing a relational hypothesis, you need to include the variables and establish an appropriate relationship among them.
• A hypothesis must keep and reflect the scope for further investigations and experiments.

Separating a Hypothesis from a Prediction

Outside of academia, hypothesis and prediction are often used interchangeably. In research writing, this is not only confusing but also incorrect. And although a hypothesis and prediction are guesses at their core, there are many differences between them.

A hypothesis is an educated guess or even a testable prediction validated through research. It aims to analyze the gathered evidence and facts to define a relationship between variables and put forth a logical explanation behind the nature of events.

Predictions are assumptions or expected outcomes made without any backing evidence. They are more fictionally inclined regardless of where they originate from.

For this reason, a hypothesis holds much more weight than a prediction. It sticks to the scientific method rather than pure guesswork. "Planets revolve around the Sun." is an example of a hypothesis as it is previous knowledge and observed trends. Additionally, we can test it through the scientific method.

Whereas "COVID-19 will be eradicated by 2030." is a prediction. Even though it results from past trends, we can't prove or disprove it. So, the only way this gets validated is to wait and watch if COVID-19 cases end by 2030.

Finally, How to Write a Hypothesis

Quick tips on writing a hypothesis

1.  Be clear about your research question

A hypothesis should instantly address the research question or the problem statement. To do so, you need to ask a question. Understand the constraints of your undertaken research topic and then formulate a simple and topic-centric problem. Only after that can you develop a hypothesis and further test for evidence.

2. Carry out a recce

Once you have your research's foundation laid out, it would be best to conduct preliminary research. Go through previous theories, academic papers, data, and experiments before you start curating your research hypothesis. It will give you an idea of your hypothesis's viability or originality.

Making use of references from relevant research papers helps draft a good research hypothesis. SciSpace Discover offers a repository of over 270 million research papers to browse through and gain a deeper understanding of related studies on a particular topic. Additionally, you can use SciSpace Copilot , your AI research assistant, for reading any lengthy research paper and getting a more summarized context of it. A hypothesis can be formed after evaluating many such summarized research papers. Copilot also offers explanations for theories and equations, explains paper in simplified version, allows you to highlight any text in the paper or clip math equations and tables and provides a deeper, clear understanding of what is being said. This can improve the hypothesis by helping you identify potential research gaps.

3. Create a 3-dimensional hypothesis

Variables are an essential part of any reasonable hypothesis. So, identify your independent and dependent variable(s) and form a correlation between them. The ideal way to do this is to write the hypothetical assumption in the ‘if-then' form. If you use this form, make sure that you state the predefined relationship between the variables.

In another way, you can choose to present your hypothesis as a comparison between two variables. Here, you must specify the difference you expect to observe in the results.

4. Write the first draft

Now that everything is in place, it's time to write your hypothesis. For starters, create the first draft. In this version, write what you expect to find from your research.

Clearly separate your independent and dependent variables and the link between them. Don't fixate on syntax at this stage. The goal is to ensure your hypothesis addresses the issue.

5. Proof your hypothesis

After preparing the first draft of your hypothesis, you need to inspect it thoroughly. It should tick all the boxes, like being concise, straightforward, relevant, and accurate. Your final hypothesis has to be well-structured as well.

Research projects are an exciting and crucial part of being a scholar. And once you have your research question, you need a great hypothesis to begin conducting research. Thus, knowing how to write a hypothesis is very important.

Now that you have a firmer grasp on what a good hypothesis constitutes, the different kinds there are, and what process to follow, you will find it much easier to write your hypothesis, which ultimately helps your research.

Now it's easier than ever to streamline your research workflow with SciSpace Discover . Its integrated, comprehensive end-to-end platform for research allows scholars to easily discover, write and publish their research and fosters collaboration.

It includes everything you need, including a repository of over 270 million research papers across disciplines, SEO-optimized summaries and public profiles to show your expertise and experience.

If you found these tips on writing a research hypothesis useful, head over to our blog on Statistical Hypothesis Testing to learn about the top researchers, papers, and institutions in this domain.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. what is the definition of hypothesis.

According to the Oxford dictionary, a hypothesis is defined as “An idea or explanation of something that is based on a few known facts, but that has not yet been proved to be true or correct”.

2. What is an example of hypothesis?

The hypothesis is a statement that proposes a relationship between two or more variables. An example: "If we increase the number of new users who join our platform by 25%, then we will see an increase in revenue."

3. What is an example of null hypothesis?

A null hypothesis is a statement that there is no relationship between two variables. The null hypothesis is written as H0. The null hypothesis states that there is no effect. For example, if you're studying whether or not a particular type of exercise increases strength, your null hypothesis will be "there is no difference in strength between people who exercise and people who don't."

4. What are the types of research?

• Fundamental research

• Applied research

• Qualitative research

• Quantitative research

• Mixed research

• Exploratory research

• Longitudinal research

• Cross-sectional research

• Field research

• Laboratory research

• Fixed research

• Flexible research

• Action research

• Policy research

• Classification research

• Comparative research

• Causal research

• Inductive research

• Deductive research

5. How to write a hypothesis?

• Your hypothesis should be able to predict the relationship and outcome.

• Avoid wordiness by keeping it simple and brief.

• Your hypothesis should contain observable and testable outcomes.

• Your hypothesis should be relevant to the research question.

6. What are the 2 types of hypothesis?

• Null hypotheses are used to test the claim that "there is no difference between two groups of data".

• Alternative hypotheses test the claim that "there is a difference between two data groups".

7. Difference between research question and research hypothesis?

A research question is a broad, open-ended question you will try to answer through your research. A hypothesis is a statement based on prior research or theory that you expect to be true due to your study. Example - Research question: What are the factors that influence the adoption of the new technology? Research hypothesis: There is a positive relationship between age, education and income level with the adoption of the new technology.

8. What is plural for hypothesis?

The plural of hypothesis is hypotheses. Here's an example of how it would be used in a statement, "Numerous well-considered hypotheses are presented in this part, and they are supported by tables and figures that are well-illustrated."

9. What is the red queen hypothesis?

The red queen hypothesis in evolutionary biology states that species must constantly evolve to avoid extinction because if they don't, they will be outcompeted by other species that are evolving. Leigh Van Valen first proposed it in 1973; since then, it has been tested and substantiated many times.

10. Who is known as the father of null hypothesis?

The father of the null hypothesis is Sir Ronald Fisher. He published a paper in 1925 that introduced the concept of null hypothesis testing, and he was also the first to use the term itself.

11. When to reject null hypothesis?

You need to find a significant difference between your two populations to reject the null hypothesis. You can determine that by running statistical tests such as an independent sample t-test or a dependent sample t-test. You should reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is less than 0.05.

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How to Write a Hypothesis: The Ultimate Guide with Examples

Hypotheses aren’t about science, experiments, and creating new theories only. While students in science classes formulate a hypothesis every second day, others from non-science fields may find it challenging to write it for an essay or a research paper.

This article is here to reveal the nature of hypothesis writing and help you learn how to write a hypothesis for essays, reports, studies, and any paper type you may need to compose.

We’ve researched all the guides, invited  our top writers  to answer all the FAQs students have on hypothesis writing, gathered hypothesis examples, and put first things first.

Yes, we are ready to make it loud and clear with our essay maker !

Table of Contents:

• Hypothesis vs. prediction
• Theory vs. hypothesis
• Hypothesis characteristics
• Thesis statement vs. hypothesis in an essay
• Main hypothesis sources
• 7 types of hypotheses you may need to write
• Ask a question
• Conduct research
• Write a null hypothesis
• Define variables
• State it using an if-then format
• What is a hypothesis in a research paper?
• How to write a hypothesis: example
• Frequently asked questions

What is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is an assumption you make based on existing data and knowledge, stating your predictions about what your research will find. It’s a tentative answer to your research question; it needs to be testable so you could later support or refuse it through further experiments, observations, and any other scientific research methods.

Example of a hypothesis:

Teenagers who get sex education lessons in high school will have lower rates of unplanned pregnancy than those who did not get any sex education.

Your research question here is,  “How effective is high school sex education at reducing teen pregnancies?”  and you formulate a hypothesis to check and explain in your paper.

A hypothesis always proposes a relationship between several variables. As a rule, variables are two – independent and dependent – but it’s also possible to state more variables in your hypothesis essay, to address different aspects of your research question.

• An independent variable  is the one you, as a researcher, can change or control.
• A dependent variable  is the one you, as a researcher, observe and measure based on how an independent variable changes.

In the above example, we can see that an independent variable is “sex education lessons at school” (you assume it is a cause). And a dependent variable here is “lower rates of unplanned pregnancy” (you consider it’s an effect).

Please note that there’s a difference between theory and hypothesis. Also, some guides may tell you that a hypothesis equals a  thesis statement  in essay writing, though a slight difference between these two is yet in place.

More on that below.

Hypothesis vs. Prediction

Given they both are a kind of guess, many people get a hypothesis and a prediction confused. But while a difference is slight, it’s yet critical:

• A hypothesis  explains  why something happens based on  scientific methods  (testing, experiments, data analysis, etc.).
• A prediction  suggests  that something will happen based on  observations .

You write a hypothesis using a statement with variables, while a prediction consists of “if-then” schemes stating about future happenings.

We can also say that a prediction is something you expect to happen if your hypothesis statement is true.

Theory vs. Hypothesis

• A hypothesis states a  suggested  explanation of a phenomenon, which you’ll later support or refuse through testing and other scientific methods.
• A theory is an  already tested , well-substantiated explanation backed by evidence.

You write a hypothesis using a statement with variables, while a theory represents a phenomenon that is already widely accepted and supported by data.

Examples of theories include Einstein’s theory of relativity, the Big Bang theory, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, and many others.

For your hypothesis to become a theory, you need to test all the aspects under various circumstances and prove it with well-substantiated facts. You can also use theories to make predictions about something unexplained and then turn those predictions into hypotheses to test and support (or refuse).

It’s worth noting that testings don’t stop once a hypothesis becomes a theory: Science is ongoing, and any theory can become disproved one day.

Hypothesis Characteristics

And now it’s high time to reveal the characteristics of your statement to become a reasonable hypothesis.

They are five:

• A cause-effect relationship between variables . When writing a hypothesis, make sure your one variable causes another one to change (or not change.) There should always be a cause-effect relationship between them.
• Testable nature.  Formulate a hypothesis that you can  test  to support or refuse. You should be able to conduct experiments and control your thesis when working on it.
• Precise and accurate variables.  Your hypothesis’s independent and dependent variables need to be specific and clear for the audience to understand.
• Explained in simple language.   Research papers  and academic writing, in general, are often challenging to understand for an average reader, so do your best to write a hypothesis so there would be no confusion or ambiguity.
• Ethical.  We can test many things, but there’s always a question about  what  we should test or make a subject to experiments. Avoid questionable or taboo topics when thinking about your hypothesis outline.

Thesis Statement vs. Hypothesis in an Essay

When looking for information on writing a hypothesis essay, you can find guides telling that it’s the same with writing a thesis statement for your  argumentative essay . This notion is not entirely true, and there’s still a slight difference between these two:

• A thesis statement is a sentence or two in your essay introduction that summarizes a central claim you’ll  discuss and prove  in the essay body. You’ll use arguments, evidence, and examples for that. 
• A hypothesis is a one-sentence prediction based on the relationships between reliables that you’ll  test   and then  prove or disprove  in the essay body. You’ll use experiments, observation, and quantitative research for that.

Writing a research study should have a thesis statement; if your research intends to prove/disprove something, it will also contain a hypothesis statement.

Feel free to try our  online thesis statement generator  to get a better idea of writing strong thesis statements for your essays.

Main Hypothesis Sources

Once they ask you to write a hypothesis essay, it would be great to have some sources for inspiration at hand, wouldn’t it?

Where to go for  creative ideas ? Where to research hypothesis and come up with new statements for your essay? What sources do science students use?

The primary hypothesis sources are four:

• Scientific theories that already exist
• Some general patterns affecting our thinking process
• Analogies between different phenomena we observe
• The previous knowledge and observations from studies and our experience

Depending on the niche and type of hypothesis you need to cover, you’ll use corresponding sources for research and further hypothesis  outline .

Below you’ll learn what types of hypotheses exist and how to write a hypothesis statement so it would sound scientific.

7 Types of Hypotheses You May Need to Write

So many sources, so many hypothesis classifications they offer. Some specify eight, ten, and even 13  types of hypotheses, depending on the factors like the number of variables you use and the experiment stage you’re in. Some insist that only two significant kinds of hypotheses exist: alternative and null; others call them directional and non-directional hypotheses, respectively.

Let’s put things straight and explain the types of hypotheses you may need to write in essays . They are seven, with examples for you to get a better idea of “who is who,” as they say.

1) Simple hypothesis

It’s the most common type of hypothesis to use in college papers, predicting the direct relationship between two variables in your experiment: a single dependent and a single independent one.

How to write a simple hypothesis? Use an “if-then” format.

For example:

• Everyday smoking leads to lung cancer.  ( If  you smoke every day,  then  you’ll get lung cancer.)
• Covering wounds with a bandage heals with fewer scars.  ( If  you bandage an injury,  then  it will heal with less scarring.)

2) Complex hypothesis

This one also predicts the relationship between variables but has more than two dependent and independent variables to check for supporting or refusing.

• Overweight people who eat junk food have higher chances of getting excessive cholesterol and heart disease.  (Two independent variables are  extra weight  and  junk food consumption ; two dependent variables are  heart disease  and  high cholesterol level .)
• The higher illiteracy in a society, the higher is poverty and crime rate.  (One independent variable is higher  illiteracy , and two dependent variables are higher  poverty  and higher  crime rate .)

3) Null hypothesis

How to write a null hypothesis? It’s the default position stating there’s no relationship between variables, i.e., there will be no difference in the experiment’s results. 

Scientists use null hypotheses to disapprove or reaffirm given statements.

• A person’s productivity doesn’t suffer from getting six instead of eight hours of sleep.
• All daisies are equal in the number of their petals.
• Sex education in high school doesn’t affect unplanned pregnancy rates.

4) Alternative hypothesis

When searching for information on how to write a hypothesis online, you might see queries like “how to write a null and alternative hypothesis.” That’s because alternative hypothesis statements come in place when someone tries to  disprove  a null hypothesis, so these two go hand in hand.

In other words, an alternative hypothesis  directly contradicts  a null one.

Also, an alternative hypothesis is one you may want to develop when the experiment on your initial statement doesn’t bring any result.

• H0 (a null hypothesis): Light color does not affect plant growth.
• H1 (an alternative hypothesis): Light color affects plant growth.
• H0: Cats have no preference for food based on shape.
• H1: Cats prefer round kibbles to other food shapes.

5) Logical hypothesis

This one is a hypothesis you can verify logically, though there’s little to no substantial evidence for it. Here you use reasoning and logical connections instead of proven facts, statistics, or background research.

Logical hypotheses remain assumptions until you put them to the test and support/refuse them after experiments.

• Dogs won’t survive without water.  (Here, you make an assumption based on the fact humans can’t live without water, so dogs, as mammals, won’t do that, either.)
• Creatures from Mars won’t breathe in the Earth’s atmosphere.  (Here, you assume that they won’t because we humans can’t breathe on Mars.)

6) Empirical hypothesis

In plain English, it’s a currently-tested hypothesis that can yet be changed or adjusted according to the results of experiments. It’s a working hypothesis that’s yet to confirm or refuse:

Empirical hypotheses are those going through tests, trials, or errors via observation and experiments right now and can be changed later around the independent variables. As a rule, it’s the opposite of a logical hypothesis.

• Women taking vitamin E grow hair faster than those taking vitamin K.
• Mushrooms grow faster at 22 degrees Celsius than 27 degrees Celsius.

7) Statistical hypothesis

This one is a hypothesis you can test and verify statistically based on data and quantitative research methods.

How to write a statistical hypothesis?

Statistical hypotheses have quantifiable variables and are usually about the nature of a population. It comes in handy when it’s impossible to test or survey every single person in a group. To write such a hypothesis, you’ll need to state the data about your topic using a portion of people.

• 35% of the poor in the USA are illiterate.
• 60% of people talking on the phone while driving have been in at least one car accident.
• 56% of marriages end in divorce.

How to Write a Hypothesis: 5 Steps

First and foremost, it’s worth mentioning that hypothesis writing is the third step of the scientific method scholars, researchers, and science students use to test theories, answer questions, and solve problems.

The steps are six, and they are as follows:

• Observation:  Decide on an issue to solve or a phenomenon to explain. 
• Question:  Develop a research question you’d like to check.
• Hypothesis (we are here!):  Formulate a hypothesis that answers your question and that you can test.
• Prediction:  Determine the experiment’s outcome based on your hypothesis.
• Test:  Do your experiments to test your prediction.
• Analyze:  Review the results to see if your hypothesis was correct. If it wasn’t, you could revise it by formulating another one and going through the whole process again.

In academic writing, hypotheses come as something relating to thesis statements: It’s a sentence or two summarizing a central claim you’ll discuss and prove in your essay.

It stands to reason that hypothesis writing is more common for STEM disciplines like math, chemistry, biology, physics, or economics. Here’s how to craft it, step by step:

1) Ask a Question

This stage is about choosing an  argumentative topic for your essay . Except as assigned by a teacher or a thesis tutor, you can start with an issue of your interest, so your curiosity and questions on it come naturally.

Why is it the way it is?

Why does it happen the way it goes?

What causes this factor you see around?

Your question needs to be  clear ,  specific , and  manageable  so you can research it, test it, and analyze the results. Also, ensure it’s not too broad so you can focus on its particular aspect to formulate your hypothesis.

For example:   How does eating apples affect human dental health?

2) Conduct Research

Now you’ll need to check and collect some information on your question to understand if it’s possible to formulate a research hypothesis. It’s so-called initial research to find an answer to your question.

This stage is not about proving or disproving your hypothesis. Here you’ll collect facts, theories, past studies, and any other information that will help prove or disprove it so that you can make an apparent assumption: Based on the gathered information, you’ll be able to make a logical guess.

Depending on your question, this initial research can  take some time  from you. You may need to read a few books on the topic, find and compare some scientific materials, etc. Or, it may be enough to perform a quick web search to find the answer.

3) Write a Null Hypothesis

To ease the process of hypothesis writing, start with a null hypothesis. As you already know, it’s the default position stating no relationship between variables. (And that’s why it’s so easy to formulate.)

So, take your initial question and write it as a negative statement. In our example with eating apples and dental health, the null hypothesis would sound like that:

Eating apples do not affect a human’s dental health.

(Which means your teeth condition will be the same, whether you eat apples or not.)

4) Define Variables

And now, for your hypothesis to become testable so you can do experiments, make predictions, and analyze the results, think of dependent and independent variables for it.

As you already know, independent variables are the factors you, as a researcher, can control during experiments to check the hypothesis. 

Example:   Eating one apple a day will positively affect a human’s dental health.

“One apple” is the independent variable, and “dental health” is the dependent variable here.

You’ll come up with variables based on your initial research. With some facts and studies already in place, you can predict how your experiment may go and what its results may be. Use this knowledge to shape variables into a clear and concise hypothesis.

And remember:

The way you’ll frame a hypothesis into one sentence depends on a few factors: the type of your project and the type of hypothesis you want to use. 

Simple hypotheses are most common for student research papers , so we use them as examples here. With that in mind, the final stage of hypothesis writing comes:

5) State It Using an If-Then Format

To formulate a hypothesis the best way possible, try framing it with an “if-then” format. Like this:

If a human eats one apple per day, then he gets healthier teeth.

This format becomes tricky when working with complex hypotheses with multiple variables, but it’s reliable when expressing the cause-and-effect relationship. 

The “if-then” format allows you to refine a hypothesis and ensure its final version:

• is clear, specific, and testable;
• has relevant variables;
• identifies the relationship between variables;
• suggests a predicted result of the experiment.

Another way to check if you’ve shaped a hypothesis properly is using the “PICOT” model, best explained via  visual examples . According to this model, a hypothesis should have five components:

P –  population: the specific group or individual of your research

I –  interest: the primary concern of your study

C –  comparison: the leading alternative group

O –  outcome: the expected result

T – time: the length of your experimen t

Always write a hypothesis in  the present tense  because it refers to research that’s currently being conducted.

What is a Hypothesis in a Research Paper?

A hypothesis in a research paper is a statement demonstrating a prediction you believe may happen based on research, evidence, and experimentation.

Often used and associated with science, hypotheses are assumptions (or guesses) for researchers and scholars to prove or disprove via tests and experiments. And they later write a hypothesis essay to analyze and report the experiments’ results to the scientific community.

When writing a hypothesis for a research paper, you should still describe an experiment to prove or disprove it. However, hypothesis essays don’t necessarily have to be on STEM disciplines and tests taken in a lab:

• You can  write a book critique  and state a hypothesis on its or its author’s impact on literature. 
• Or, your hypothesis essay can be about how demographics change a country’s language.
• Or, you’ll  write an autobiography  with a focus on the hypothesis that one particular event influenced your further deeds. 

In such essays, you won’t spend hours in labs to prove that your hypothesis is true; you’ll do that through research, arguments, data, interviews, or previous studies.

Is a thesis statement a hypothesis?

As we already mentioned, there’s a slight difference between these two. While  thesis statements  in essays are about  summarizing  a central claim you’ll discuss,  hypotheses  are about  predictions  or  assumptions  you’ll prove (or disprove) in the essay body.

You don’t have to prove that your hypothesis is correct. The point is to research, test, and experiment to see if you’re right. Even if your hypothesis appears incorrect in  conclusion , it doesn’t mean the quality of your essay is poor.

How to Write a Hypothesis: Example

And now, let’s go to even more hypothesis examples for you to understand the nature of this writing better.

Here goes another example of a hypothesis:

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a hypothesis in an essay.

A hypothesis in an essay is a statement demonstrating a prediction you believe may happen based on research, evidence, and experimentation. As a rule, it predicts the relationship between a few variables; and you can prove or disprove it by the end of your tests and experiments on it.

How long is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is one-sentence long. It should be clear, direct, and testable through experimentation, predicting a possible outcome.

How to write a hypothesis statement?

First of all, you need to state a problem you’re trying to solve, do some initial research on it to learn the background and predict an outcome, and then think of both dependent and independent variables for your hypothesis. For that, research or brainstorm ideas for your stated problem’s solution. Finally, write your hypothesis as an “if-then” statement, using your variables.

How to write a null hypothesis?

A null hypothesis is the default position stating no relationship between variables. To write it, you need to assume an experiment has no effect regardless of variables; use denying. 

For example, you want to learn whether teens are better at math than adults. In this case, your null hypothesis will be, “ Age does not affect math ability.”

How to write an alternative hypothesis?

An alternative hypothesis directly contradicts   a null one, trying to disprove it. To write it, you need to assume there’s enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis; but never state your claim is already proven true or false.

In contrast with a null hypothesis, typically marked as H0, an alternative one gets an H1 mark. For example:

H0: If I put Mentos into a Coke bottle, there will be no reaction.

H1: If I put Mentos into a Coke bottle, there will be a big explosion.

How to write a simple hypothesis?

A simple hypothesis is the most common one to use in college papers. It predicts the direct relationship between two variables — one dependent and one independent, — so write a simple hypothesis with an “if-then” format.

For example: 

If a postpartum woman has low hemoglobin, then she gets higher risk of infection.

A statistical hypothesis claims the value of a single population characteristic or relationship between several population characteristics. To write it, you first need to specify null and alternative hypotheses, set the significance level, calculate the statistics, and draw a conclusion. Ensure that your variables are quantifiable. For example: 

A population mean is equal to 10.

How to write a hypothesis for a lab report?

To write a hypothesis for a lab report, you should state the issue, predict its outcome based on tests and experiments, define the variables, and formulate a hypothesis as an if-then statement. For example:

If one puts Mentos in a bottle with Coke, there will be an explosion.

How to write a hypothesis for a research paper?

• Decide on a question/problem you want to check/solve.
• Conduct initial research to collect as much background information and observation about your topic as you can.
• Evaluate this information to assume possible causes and possible explanations.
• Define variables you’ll use to confirm or disprove your hypothesis through experimentation.
• Write down a one-sentence hypothesis using the present tense.

Now that you know how to write a hypothesis, it’s high time to give it a try:

• Address your curiosity.
• Ask questions.
• Conduct some initial research.
• Come up with a type of hypothesis that fits your expectations most.

Think of variables for your hypothesis, and ensure it’s clear, concise, and measurable (testable). Then write it in the present tense — and you’ve got it!

Any questions left? Don’t hesitate to write in the comments (yes, we read them and reply!) or ask  Bid4Papers writers  directly!

Related posts

• Harvard Referencing Style: A Comprehensive Guide
• What Is the Difference between Primary and Secondary Sources
• Common Types of Plagiarism with Examples

Our Writing Guides

How to Use Tenses within Scientific Writing

Written by: Chloe Collier

One’s tense will vary depending on what one is trying to convey within their paper or section of their paper. For example, the tense may change between the methods section and the discussion section.

Abstract --> Past tense

• The abstract is usually in the past tense due to it showing what has already been studied.

Example: “This study was conducted at the Iyarina Field School, and within the indigenous Waorani community within Yasuni National Park region.”

Introduction --> Present tense

• Example: “ Clidemia heterophylla and Piperaceae musteum are both plants with ant domata, meaning that there is an ant mutualism which protects them from a higher level of herbivory.”

Methods --> Past tense

• In the methods section one would use past tense due to what they have done was in the past.
• It has been debated whether one should use active or passive voice. The scientific journal Nature states that one should use active voice as to convey the concepts more directly.
• Example: “In the geographic areas selected for the study, ten random focal plants were selected as points for the study.”

Results --> Past tense

• Example: “We observed that there was no significant statistical difference in herbivory on Piperaceae between the two locations, Yasuni National Park, Ecuador (01° 10’ 11, 13”S and 77° 10’ 01. 47 NW) and Iyarina Field School, Ecuador (01° 02’ 35.2” S and 77° 43’ 02. 45” W), with the one exception being that there was found to be a statistical significance in the number count within a one-meter radius of Piperaceae musteum (Piperaceae).”

Discussion --> Present tense and past tense

• Example: “Symbiotic ant mutualistic relationships within species will defend their host plant since the plant provides them with food. In the case of Melastomataceae, they have swellings at the base of their petioles that house the ants and aid to protect them from herbivores.”
• One would use past tense to summarize one’s results
• Example: “In the future to further this experiment, we would expand this project and expand our sample size in order to have a more solid base for our findings.”

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A Guide for Writing in the Scientific Forum

Sandra v. kotsis.

1 Section of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Health System

Kevin C. Chung

2 Section of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Health System

When considering the importance of scientific writing in disseminating new discoveries and ideas, it is quite remarkable that few physicians have received any formal instruction in this essential process.

This paper focuses on the fundamental principles of scientific writing that also include a “style and grace” component.

The art of good scientific writing is to convey scientific materials in a clear and interesting way, while avoiding incomprehensible sentences that only serve to disguise marginal contents within the article.

Conclusions

The goal of this paper is to encourage authors and readers to critically examine the art of scientific writing to overcome the barrier to effective communication.

Scientific writing is often considered a “necessary evil” in order to ascend the academic ladder. After all, the phrase “publish or perish” is still commonly used. Academic promotion, improving knowledge of a subject, establishing professional contacts, disseminating knowledge, 1 and obtaining grant funding are a few reasons why physicians choose to publish.

Physicians may feel the pressure to publish, but scientific writing is a learned process and one in which few academic physicians have received any formal instruction. 2 - 6 Although scientific writing often has a reputation for being dense or unreadable, 7 - 11 we hope to assist physicians to develop a manuscript that is enjoyable to write and read.

Getting Started

We will assume that you have already completed a well-conducted scientific study and are ready to write up your findings for a peer-reviewed scientific journal. If you are new to scientific writing, it is helpful to have a mentor, particularly an experienced writer in your field who can guide you. If you are writing about a research project, you should have formed a hypothesis to your research question before analyzing any of the data. You will want to do a thorough literature search of your topic so that you are familiar with all published work. Writing an outline may seem elementary, but it can be an important tool to organize your thoughts. 12 Think about what journals you may want to publish in and follow their publication guidelines as far as word count and paper structure. Choosing your journal early on will help you to write for the readers of a specific journal. You do not want to “write down to” your readers or include details that have been published previously, such as an established surgical technique. You also want to think about the conclusions of your paper before you begin to write—the “so what?” question. Why is this project novel? What makes it different from other published studies on this topic? Why is it clinically relevant? Table 1 gives a list of “dos” and “don'ts” for scientific manuscript writing.

Dos and Don'ts for Scientific Manuscript Writing

Writing the Abstract

Although the abstract is the first writing component of a scientific manuscript, it should actually be written last. You should check the format of the journal that you are submitting to, but a structured abstract generally has four sections: Background/Purpose, Methods, Results, and Conclusions. After the rest of the paper has been completed, you can select a sentence or two from the appropriate areas (Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion) to include in the aforementioned abstract sections. However, the abstract is not the introduction and should not be cut and pasted from the introduction. An abstract that is identical to the introduction in any paper or grant will be summarily rejected because of the perceived lack of effort to construct a thoughtful synthesis of the materials in the paper. You should be concise and state the purpose usually in one sentence. The emphasis should be placed on the methods and results, which should each be written in three to four sentences. The conclusion can typically be written in two sentences—the first summarizes your findings and the second makes a conclusion. 12 Only data contained in the paper should be included in the abstract—it should not contain any new data. Care should be taken in writing the abstract. Many physicians will not read past the abstract if it is not well-written. Similarly, many readers only need to scan through an abstract to determine whether a manuscript is pertinent to their topic of interest.

Writing the Introduction

Before any writing begins, it is important to perform a thorough literature search. You should be familiar with all the recent advances in your field of study as well as important historical references. “Incomplete, inaccurate, or outdated review of the literature” is one of the common reasons for manuscript rejection. 13 - 15 The Introduction should be written in the present tense. 16 You can begin in the first paragraph by mentioning the most important references and stating the research problem. The second paragraph can elaborate on the magnitude of the problem and unresolved issues. The final paragraph describes the rationale for your study and should end with the purpose: a hypothesis of what you are expecting to find. 12 Examples of elements to include in a well-written manuscript are shown in Table 2 . Of course, before you begin writing or even analyzing your data, you should have developed a hypothesis. Your observed results may not match your expected results when you analyze your data, but we will discuss that in the Discussion section.

Examples of Elements to Include in a Well-Written Scientific Manuscript 41

Writing the Materials and Methods

The traditional sequence of a manuscript is Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion, which has been referred to by the acronym IMRAD. Pollock et al. have suggested drafting the manuscript in the sequence MRDAI. 17 The Methods section should be written in enough detail that another researcher would be able to duplicate your study. 12 In fact, the Methods section is most often responsible for outright rejection of a manuscript 18 because the lack of detail is a common problem. 19 This is the section where you want to state everything you did (controlling for biases, validating research tools) to increase the reliability of your results.

The Methods section should be written in the past tense. 16 To avoid any confusion by the readers, you may want to start by describing the type of study you performed: randomized, prospective, retrospective, case-control, etc. If it is a study involving human subjects, you should state that you obtained Institutional Review Board approval and include the subject inclusion and exclusion criteria. Include how and from where subjects were recruited as well as randomization and blinding procedures. Including patient characteristics such as disease stage or severity and comorbid conditions can help the readers to determine whether the findings of the paper are applicable to their patients of interest. 16 It may be helpful to include a diagram of the number of subjects recruited, how many were excluded, losses to follow-up, or withdrew, and your final sample size. Figure 1 shows an example of a similar diagram from a meta-analysis. Details of the sample are included in the Results, but most journals will require that the previously stated information is included in the Methods. Likewise, preliminary experiments or pilot studies can be included in the Methods section if they helped you to arrive at the methods used in your study. 2 If equipment was used, the equipment manufacturer, model, and calibration methods should be included. It may also be helpful to include a timeline that shows how and when different aspects of the study protocol took place. 12 The final paragraph of the Methods section should describe the statistical analysis. You may need assistance writing this paragraph from your statistician, if you did not perform the analysis yourself. You should include the tests used, the p-value that determined statistical significance, and whether an a priori power analysis was conducted to decide your necessary sample size. The power and sample size calculation is often a neglected area of scientific presentation and should always be performed prior to conducting a study.

A study attrition diagram from a meta-analysis showing the number of references retrieved and excluded from review. 42

(Adapted from Margaliot Z, Haase SC, Kotsis SV, et al. A meta-analysis of outcomes of external fixation versus plate osteosynthesis for unstable distal radius fractures. J Hand Surg. 2005;30A:1185-1201 with permission from Elsevier)

Writing the Results

In writing the Results section, it is important to “only state the facts!” The Results section is not a place to include citations or your interpretation of the data. “Make your point with data, not arguments.” 20 The Results section should be written in the past tense. 12 You should begin by describing the study sample demographic data, which can be done in a simple table. The data reported in a table should not be repeated in the text. Furthermore, tables and figures should stand on their own. You should include a title, legend, and labels for the axes. The readers should be able to determine what the table is about by only looking at it and not having to read any text. Any percentages should include raw numbers so that the readers are not misled by a large percentage (such as 25%) that only came from 1/4 subjects.

It should be noted that the word “significance” only be used to describe statistical significance. You should avoid using significant as a synonym for importance. General phrases such as “showed a trend toward” when results are not statistically significant often tend to signal a poor study design and should be avoided. 2 Also, the word “data” is plural. Thus, it is correct to state, “Our data are…” rather than “Our data is…”

Writing the Discussion

You should begin writing the Discussion by discussing the major findings and relating them to your hypothesis. Did you reject your null hypothesis with your findings or were you unable to reject it? Although being unable to reject your null hypothesis (for example, seeing no significant change between your treatment groups) may seem like a “crash and burn” situation, you can still publish your paper. It has been stated that “Manuscripts describing studies with negative findings are especially tough to get accepted by medical journals, with publication rates generally less than one-third that of manuscripts describing studies with positive findings.” 21 You should describe whether you conducted an a priori power analysis to determine your necessary sample size in order to avoid a beta error (concluding that there is no difference between treatment groups when there is in fact a difference). Chung et al. found that 82% of negative studies in a major hand surgery journal had inadequate statistical power (probability to detect a true difference, if a difference is present) to support their conclusions. 22

Previous studies have shown that physicians, particularly those with no formal education in epidemiology and biostatistics have a limited ability to interpret study results. 23 - 25 However, more than 58% of medical residents use statistical information in the published literature in forming opinions or when making medical decisions. 26 Thus, it is important in the Discussion to spell out the meaning of your statistical findings without appearing condescending to your readers. When describing your study, past tense should be used, but present tense should be used for established knowledge from other investigators. 16

In addition to the meaning of your data, you want to discuss the importance. You should compare and contrast your results to those found in the literature. Care should be taken not to criticize other published work. Similar findings will strengthen your results, but you should still point out how your study differs from previous similar studies. When explaining the study results, it is important to consider all possible explanations rather than just those that fit your preconceived biases. However, you should avoid coming to conclusions that are not supported by your data. Some of the most common criticisms of the Discussion section by editors' and reviewers' involve “coming to erroneous or unsupported conclusions, drawing conclusions disproportionate to the results, uncritically accepting statistical results, and interpreting the findings in a manner not concordant with data reported.” 18 Unless you are absolutely sure that it is true, you should avoid statements such as, “This is the first study to demonstrate…” After all, there are few studies that change the course of scientific progress, but some authors are overly enthusiastic in advertising their study as a seminal contribution. 19 It is also important to discuss the clinical relevance of your findings and how patients or physicians may benefit from them. 27

In the Discussion section, it is essential to address the limitations and strengths of your study. We have stated them in this order rather than as strengths and limitations because it is nice to leave the readers on a good note when he/she finishes reading your paper. Thus, acknowledge your study's limitations first. One limitation may include a lack of generalizability, which often happens when trying to obtain a homogeneous sample. You may use your study's limitations to make suggestions for future research. If not, you should still include suggestions for further research, usually in your concluding section. This last paragraph or last few sentences can also be used to propose ideas for changes to medical practice. 27

Remembering Style and Grace

Throughout the writing and editing process, it is important to remember the style and grace that is needed in writing any good manuscript. First of all, do not make the readers and reviewers work unnecessarily! When reading through your paper, try to keep the reviewers in mind. When a question is left unanswered or is not answered until the Discussion, the readers can get frustrated and give up on your paper entirely. Make it easy on them by explaining early on (usually in the Methods) why you did what you did—whether it was by choice or not. On a similar note, consistently use the same word to describe the same thing in order to provide continuity and avoid confusion. 28 Of course, it is also helpful to have someone else read your manuscript—a colleague and maybe even a layperson. A different set of eyes and a different perspective can point out areas that need clarity.

A few grammatical considerations will assist your readers. Use transitions for flow. “Transitions let the reader know how each sentence relates to the story and how parts of sentences are related.” 28 You should also limit the use of passive language. Although scientists tend to use it because they think that it is objective and do not want to indicate who is conducting a certain action, 28 it becomes quite boring to continually read, “The sutures were removed…” and “The data were analyzed…”

Other grammatical points include writing with precision. Instead of saying that you observed a change, say that you measured an increase or a decrease. 28 Along this point, you should avoid wordiness and using long or unfamiliar words when a commonly used shorter one will convey the same message. 28 Words such as marked, revealed, and demonstrated are overused and have lost their intended meaning. 29 Although it is common for writers, especially inexperienced ones, to try to use “flowery” language, it is best to remember that “less is more.” You can delete unnecessary adjectives and adverbs such as fundamentally, very, and great. You should also examine your writing for wordy phrases such as, “It is often the case that…” 28 or “In our opinion…” If it is not your opinion, it should have a citation attached to it. The words while and since have primary temporal definitions, but while is often used as a synonym for although or whereas and since is commonly used instead of because. 28 Be mindful of these subtleties that can slow down your readers and cause them to misinterpret what you are trying to say.

Well-written paragraphs usually start with making a point in the first sentence and then developing that point throughout the paragraph. Focusing on a single major point in each paragraph allows the readers to follow the author's train of thought. 28

Grantsmanship

Although the focus of this paper has been how to write a scientific manuscript, we have decided to include a section on grant writing. After you have successfully written and published a few papers, you may hope to get funding to conduct your own research and compete in a different arena. An in-depth article on grant writing was written by Chung and Shauver, 30 but we will touch on the basics. In manuscript writing, you have already conducted the research whereas in grant writing, you have probably conducted preliminary research but want to obtain funding to study questions by expanding on that preliminary research. Of course, style and grace are also important in grant writing. The general formats of manuscripts and grants are similar. In manuscripts you have an Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Likewise, in a National Institutes of Health (NIH)-formatted grant, you have Specific Aims and Research Strategy (incorporating the Significance, Innovation, Approach, and Preliminary Studies/Progress Report). 31 The Introduction corresponds to the Specific Aims where the goals and hypotheses are presented. The research question is the most important section of the grant. 32 , 33 The impact (one of the new NIH review criteria) of your proposed research on the research field should be spelled out for the reviewers in the Specific Aims. The Methods section corresponds to the Approach section. New NIH page limitations have reduced the overall size of the grant, encouraging researchers to be less detail-oriented in describing their methods. The Results section corresponds to the Preliminary Studies/Progress Report. Although a grant does not have a Discussion section per se, your “so what?” question is extremely important to answer the significance of your proposal. The Innovation section should describe whether your proposal introduces novel concepts, approaches, or methodologies. 34

New NIH review criteria consist of an overall impact score that reflects reviewers' “…assessment of the likelihood for the project to exert a sustained, powerful influence on the research field(s) involved…” 34 The five core review criteria remain the same as before, but have been prioritized as Significance, Investigators, Innovation, Approach, and Environment. 34 Guidelines published by the NIH regarding how to prepare for grant writing are similar to manuscript writing, including finding a mentor, preparing an outline, and soliciting feedback from colleagues. 35 As described previously for manuscripts, it is best to make the grant reviewers' lives easy. One way this can be done is by separating each of the review criteria into identifiable sections. You can also get a feel for the questions reviewers might ask, depending on their research interests, by identifying the review committee that your proposal will be directed to and seeing who on that committee will most likely review your proposal. Although you should search the literature to obtain background and see if similar studies have been conducted, you should also search the NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tool (RePORT) to see if similar studies have been funded. 36

General Reminders

There are a few other general reminders to keep in mind. Follow the journal guidelines as far as formatting, line numbering, word limits, figures, and citations. This will save you the time and hassle of having the editor send the paper back to you before it can be sent out for review. Aesthetics is another item to keep in mind. Before submitting (especially when submitting online), preview your paper to be sure that you do not have a heading at the end of a page without text underneath it. If you have large blocks of text, it might be a good idea to add one or more subheadings. Make sure that your font is the same throughout and that you have not overused italics. Some reviewers do not like to see italics because the overuse of italics may signal to the reviewers that the authors consider the materials presented to be too complex for the reviewers to understand. Spell out abbreviations the first time you use them but do not try to avoid word count limitations by bombarding the readers with multiple abbreviations. Non-universal abbreviations force the readers to remember their meanings and substitute the full phrase each time they appear. 29 An abbreviation should be used often enough in the paper, preferably more than 10 times, so that the readers do not forget the meaning. 37

Of course, proofread, proofread, proofread, and use spell check! As previously mentioned, allow someone else to proofread, too. You should also look through your final manuscript and notice your citations. Are you continually citing the same author? If so, this can show bias. Make sure that you are citing a wide range of authors and not reiterating someone else's ideas.

If you have conducted a randomized, controlled clinical trial, you should follow the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement. 38 The CONSORT statement requires authors of a randomized, controlled clinical trial to fill out a checklist of the key information that should be included. 16 Figure 2 has a general manuscript checklist of items to include.

Manuscript checklist. 16 (Reprinted with permission from The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, copyright 2001, Harvey Whitney Books Company.)

Although you should be optimistic, you should also remember that there is a chance that your manuscript will be rejected by the journal you initially submit to. The acceptance rate of clinical research-based manuscripts submitted to major biomedical journals is 30-40%. 39 The acceptance rates for journals such as New England Journal of Medicine and JAMA is less than 10%. 16 Even if your manuscript is not accepted, the comments by the reviewers will most likely help you to identify your weaknesses and improve your paper. If your manuscript is accepted with revisions (major or minor) then congratulations! However, you may still have plenty of work to do. In revising, draft a response letter with each reviewer's comments typed out and how you have addressed them. Also state where in the paper the revision can be found (i.e. Methods section, paragraph 2, line 2). Remember to be polite; if you are choosing not to make a suggested revision, you should give a reason for doing so. Although it is not necessary to do every suggested edit, your manuscript will not be looked upon kindly if you choose to make a rebuttal for all or the majority of suggestions.

Although scientific writing can be a long and tedious process, your writing ability will continuously improve. Remember that, “Only the researcher who is competent in the art of written communication can play an active and effective role in contributing to science.” 40

Acknowledgments

Supported in part by a Midcareer Investigator Award in Patient-Oriented Research (K24 AR053120) from the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (to Dr. Kevin C. Chung).

Financial Disclosure: None of the authors has a financial interest in any of the products, devices, or drugs mentioned in this manuscript.

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

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APA Stylistics: Basics

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note:  This page reflects APA 6, which is now out of date. It will remain online until 2021, but will not be updated. There is currently no equivalent 7th edition page, but we're working on one. Thank you for your patience. Here is a link to our APA 7 "General Format" page .

Writing in APA is more than simply learning the formula for citations or following a certain page layout. APA also includes the stylistics of your writing, from point of view to word choice.

Point of View and Voice

When writing in APA Style, you can use the first person point of view when discussing your research steps ("I studied ...") and when referring to yourself and your co-authors ("We examined the literature ..."). Use first person to discuss research steps rather than anthropomorphising the work. For example, a study cannot "control" or "interpret"; you and your co-authors, however, can.

In general, you should foreground the research and not the researchers ("The results indicate ... "). Avoid using the editorial "we"; if you use "we" in your writing, be sure that "we" refers to you and your fellow researchers.

It is a common misconception that foregrounding the research requires using the passive voice ("Experiments have been conducted ..."). This is inaccurate. Rather, you would use pronouns in place of "experiments" ("We conducted experiments ...").

APA Style encourages using the active voice ("We interpreted the results ..."). The active voice is particularly important in experimental reports, where the subject performing the action should be clearly identified (e.g. "We interviewed ..." vs. "The participants responded ..."). 

Consult the OWL handout for more on the distinction between  passive and active voice .

Switching verb tenses can cause confusion for your readers, so you should be consistent in the tense you use. When discussing literature reviews and experimental procedures that have already happened, use past tense ("Our study  showed" ) or present perfect tense ("studies  have proven" ). Also use past tense when discussing results ("students’ concentration increased" ), but use present tense when discussing what your results mean and what conclusions you can draw from them ("Our study illustrates" ).

Clarity and Conciseness

Clarity and conciseness in writing are important when conveying research in APA Style. You don't want to misrepresent the details of a study or confuse your readers with wordiness or unnecessarily complex sentences. 

For clarity, be specific rather than vague in descriptions and explanations. Unpack details accurately to provide adequate information to your readers so they can follow the development of your study.

Example: "It was predicted that marital conflict would predict behavior problems in school-aged children."

To clarify this vague hypothesis, use parallel structure to outline specific ideas:

"The first hypothesis stated that marital conflict would predict behavior problems in school-aged children. The second hypothesis stated that the effect would be stronger for girls than for boys. The third hypothesis stated that older girls would be more affected by marital conflict than younger girls."

To be more concise, particularly in introductory material or abstracts, you should eliminate unnecessary words and condense information when you can (see the OWL handout on  Conciseness  in academic writing for suggestions).

Example: The above list of hypotheses might be rephrased concisely as: "The authors wanted to investigate whether marital conflict would predict behavior problems in children and they wanted to know if the effect was greater for girls than for boys, particularly when they examined two different age groups of girls."

Balancing the need for clarity, which can require unpacking information, and the need for conciseness, which requires condensing information, is a challenge. Study published articles and reports in your field for examples of how to achieve this balance.

Word Choice

You should even be careful in selecting certain words or terms. Within the social sciences, commonly used words take on different meanings and can have a significant effect on how your readers interpret your reported findings or claims. To increase clarity, avoid bias, and control how your readers will receive your information, you should make certain substitutions:

• Use terms like "participants" or "respondents" (rather than "subjects") to indicate how individuals were involved in your research
• Use terms like "children" or "community members" to provide more detail about who was participating in the study
• Use phrases like "The evidence suggests ..." or "Our study indicates ..." rather than referring to "proof" or "proves" because no single study can prove a theory or hypothesis

As with the other stylistic suggestions here, you should study the discourse of your field to see what terminology is most often used.

Avoiding Poetic Language

Writing papers in APA Style is unlike writing in more creative or literary styles that draw on poetic expressions and figurative language. Such linguistic devices can detract from conveying your information clearly and may come across to readers as forced when it is inappropriately used to explain an issue or your findings.

Therefore, you should:

• Minimize the amount of figurative language used in an APA paper, such as metaphors and analogies unless they are helpful in conveying a complex idea,
• Avoid rhyming schemes, alliteration, or other poetic devices typically found in verse
• Use simple, descriptive adjectives and plain language that does not risk confusing your meaning.

Verbs are direct, vigorous communicators. Use a chosen verb tense consistently throughout the same and adjacent paragraphs of a paper to ensure smooth expression.

Use the following verb tenses to report information in APA Style papers.

Verb tense is covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 4.12 and the Concise Guide Section 2.12

From the APA Style blog

Check your tone: Keeping it professional

When writing an APA Style paper, present ideas in a clear and straightforward manner. In this kind of scholarly writing, keep a professional tone.

The “no second-person” myth

Many writers believe the “no second-person” myth, which is that there is an APA Style guideline against using second-person pronouns such as “you” or “your.” On the contrary, you can use second-person pronouns in APA Style writing.

The “no first-person” myth

Whether expressing your own views or actions or the views or actions of yourself and fellow authors, use the pronouns “I” and “we.”

Navigating the not-so-hidden treasures of the APA Style website

This post links directly to APA Style topics of interest that users may not even know exist on the website.

Welcome, singular “they”

This blog post provides insight into how this change came about and provides a forum for questions and feedback.

HOW TO WRITE A HYPOTHESIS

Writing a hypothesis

Frequently, when we hear the word ‘hypothesis’, we immediately think of an investigation in the form of a science experiment. This is not surprising, as science is the subject area where we are usually first introduced to the term.

However, the term hypothesis also applies to investigations and research in many diverse areas and branches of learning, leaving us wondering how to write a hypothesis in statistics and how to write a hypothesis in sociology alongside how to write a hypothesis in a lab report.

We can find hypotheses at work in areas as wide-ranging as history, psychology, technology, engineering, literature, design, and economics. With such a vast array of uses, hypothesis writing is an essential skill for our students to develop.

What Is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a proposed or predicted answer to a question. The purpose of writing a hypothesis is to follow it up by testing that answer. This test can take the form of an investigation, experiment, or writing a research paper that will ideally prove or disprove the hypothesis’s prediction.

Despite this element of the unknown, a hypothesis is not the same thing as a guess. Though the hypothesis writer typically has some uncertainty, the creation of the hypothesis is generally based on some background knowledge and research of the topic. The writer believes in the likelihood of a specific outcome, but further investigation will be required to validate or falsify the claim made in their hypothesis.

In this regard, a hypothesis is more along the lines of an ‘educated guess’ that has been based on observation and/or background knowledge.

A hypothesis should:

• Make a prediction
• Provide reasons for that prediction
• Specifies a relationship between two or more variables
• Be testable
• Be falsifiable
• Be expressed simply and concisely
• Serves as the starting point for an investigation, an experiment, or another form of testing

A COMPLETE TEACHING UNIT ON WRITING PROCEDURAL TEXTS

This HUGE BUNDLE  offers 97 PAGES of hands-on, printable, and digital media resources. Your students will be WRITING procedures with STRUCTURE, INSIGHT AND KNOWLEDGE like never before.

Hypothesis Examples for Students and Teachers

If students listen to classical music while studying, they will retain more information.

Mold growth is affected by the level of moisture in the air.

Students who sleep for longer at night retain more information at school.

Employees who work more than 40 hours per week show higher instances of clinical depression.

Time spent on social media is negatively correlated to the length of the average attention span.

People who spend time exercising regularly are less likely to develop a cardiovascular illness.

If people are shorter, then they are more likely to live longer.

What are Variables in a Hypothesis?

Variables are an essential aspect of any hypothesis. But what exactly do we mean by this term?

Variables are changeable factors or characteristics that may affect the outcome of an investigation. Things like age, weight, the height of participants, length of time, the difficulty of reading material, etc., could all be considered variables.

Usually, an investigation or experiment will focus on how different variables affect each other. So, it is vital to define the variables clearly if you are to measure the effect they have on each other accurately.

There are three main types of variables to consider in a hypothesis. These are:

• Independent Variables
• Dependent Variables

The Independent Variable

The independent variable is unaffected by any of the other variables in the hypothesis. We can think of the independent variable as the assumed cause .

The Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is affected by the other variables in the hypothesis. It is what is being tested or measured. We can think of the dependent variable as the assumed effect .

For example, let’s investigate the correlation between test scores across different age groups. The age groups will be the independent variable, and the test scores will be the dependent variable .

Now that we know what variables are let’s look at how they work in the various types of hypotheses.

Types of Hypotheses

There are many different types of hypotheses, and it is helpful to know the most common of these if the student selects the most suitable tool for their specific job.

The most frequently used types of hypotheses are:

The Simple Hypothesis

The complex hypothesis, the empirical hypothesis, the null hypothesis, the directional hypothesis, the non-directional hypothesis.

This straightforward hypothesis type predicts the relationship between an independent and dependent variable.

Example: Eating too much sugar causes weight gain.

This type of hypothesis is based on the relationship between multiple independent and/or dependent variables.

Example: Overeating sugar causes weight gain and poor cardiovascular health.

Also called a working hypothesis, an empirical hypothesis is tested through observation and experimentation. An empirical hypothesis is produced through investigation and trial and error. As a result, the empirical hypothesis may change its independent variables in the process.

Example: Exposure to sunlight helps lettuces grow faster.

This hypothesis states that there is no significant or meaningful relationship between specific variables.

Example: Exposure to sunlight does not affect the rate of a plant’s growth.

This type of hypothesis predicts the direction of an effect between variables, i.e., positive or negative.

Example: A high-quality education will result in a greater number of career opportunities.

Similar to the directional hypothesis, this type of hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect but not the direction that effect will go in.

Example: A high-quality education will affect the number of available career opportunities.

How to Write a Hypothesis : A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE

• Ask a Question

The starting point for any hypothesis is asking a question. This is often called the research question . The research question is the student’s jumping-off point to developing their hypothesis. This question should be specific and answerable. The hypothesis will be the point where the research question is transformed into a declarative statement.

Ideally, the questions the students develop should be relational, i.e., they should look at how two or more variables relate to each other as described above. For example, what effect does sunlight have on the growth rate of lettuce?

• Research the Question

The research is an essential part of the process of developing a hypothesis. Students will need to examine the ideas and studies that are out there on the topic already. By examining the literature already out there on their topic, they can begin to refine their questions on the subject and begin to form predictions based on their studies.

Remember, a hypothesis can be defined as an ‘educated’ guess. This is the part of the process where the student educates themself on the subject before making their ‘guess.’

• Define Your Variables

By now, your students should be ready to form their preliminary hypotheses. To do this, they should first focus on defining their independent and dependent variables. Now may be an excellent opportunity to remind students that the independent variables are the only variables that they have complete control over, while dependent variables are what is tested or measured.

• Develop Your Preliminary Hypotheses

With variables defined, students can now work on a draft of their hypothesis. To do this, they can begin by examining their variables and the available data and then making a statement about the relationship between these variables. Students must brainstorm and reflect on what they expect to happen in their investigation before making a prediction upon which to base their hypothesis. It’s worth noting, too, that hypotheses are typically, though not exclusively, written in the present tense.

Students revisit the different types of hypotheses described earlier in this article. Students select three types of hypotheses and frame their preliminary hypotheses according to each criteria. Which works best? Which type is the least suitable for the student’s hypothesis?

• Finalize the Phrasing

By now, students will have made a decision on which type of hypothesis suits their needs best, and it will now be time to finalize the wording of their hypotheses. There are various ways that students can choose to frame their hypothesis, but below, we will examine the three most common ways.

The If/Then Phrasing

This is the most common type of hypothesis and perhaps the easiest to write for students. It follows a simple ‘ If x, then y ’ formula that makes a prediction that forms the basis of a subsequent investigation.

If I eat more calories, then I will gain weight.

Correlation Phrasing

Another way to phrase a hypothesis is to focus on the correlation between the variables. This typically takes the form of a statement that defines that relationship positively or negatively.

The more calories that are eaten beyond the daily recommended requirements, the greater the weight gain will be.

Comparison Phrasing

This form of phrasing is applicable when comparing two groups and focuses on the differences that the investigation is expected to reveal between those two groups.

Those who eat more calories will gain more weight than those who eat fewer calories.

Questions to ask during this process include:

• What tense is the hypothesis written in?
• Does the hypothesis contain both independent and dependent variables?
• Is the hypothesis framed using the if/then, correlation, or comparison framework (or other similar suitable structure)?
• Is the hypothesis worded clearly and concisely?
• Does the hypothesis make a prediction?
• Is the prediction specific?
• Is the hypothesis testable?
• Gather Data to Support/Disprove Your Hypothesis

If the purpose of a hypothesis is to provide a reason to pursue an investigation, then the student will need to gather related information together to fuel that investigation.

While, by definition, a hypothesis leans towards a specific outcome, the student shouldn’t worry if their investigations or experiments ultimately disprove their hypothesis. The hypothesis is the starting point; the destination is not preordained. This is the very essence of the scientific method. Students should trust the results of their investigation to speak for themselves. Either way, the outcome is valuable information.

TOP 10 TIPS FOR WRITING A STRONG HYPOTHESIS

• Begin by asking a clear and compelling question. Your hypothesis is a response to the inquiry you are eager to explore.
• Keep it simple and straightforward. Avoid using complex phrases or making multiple predictions in one hypothesis.
• Use the right format. A strong hypothesis is often written in the form of an “if-then” statement.
• Ensure that your hypothesis is testable. Your hypothesis should be something that can be verified through experimentation or observation.
• Stay objective. Your hypothesis should be based on facts and evidence, not personal opinions or prejudices.
• Examine different possibilities. Don’t limit yourself to just one hypothesis. Consider alternative explanations for your observations.
• Stay open to the possibility of being wrong. Your hypothesis is just a prediction, and it may not always be correct.
• Search for evidence to support your hypothesis. Investigate existing literature and gather data that supports your hypothesis.
• Make sure that your hypothesis is pertinent. Your hypothesis should be relevant to the question you are trying to investigate.
• Revise your hypothesis as necessary. If new evidence arises that contradicts your hypothesis, you may need to adjust it accordingly.

HYPOTHESIS TEACHING STRATEGIES AND ACTIVITIES

When teaching young scientists and writers, it’s essential to remember that the process of formulating a hypothesis is not always straightforward. It’s easy to make mistakes along the way, but with a bit of guidance, you can ensure your students avoid some of the most common pitfalls like these.

• Don’t let your students be too vague. Remind them that when formulating a hypothesis, it’s essential to be specific and avoid using overly general language. Make sure their hypothesis is clear and easy to understand.
• Being swayed by personal biases will impact their hypothesis negatively. It’s important to stay objective when formulating a hypothesis, so avoid letting personal biases or opinions get in the way.
• Not starting with a clear question is the number one stumbling block for students, so before forming a hypothesis, you need to reinforce the need for a clear understanding of the question they’re trying to answer. Start with a question that is specific and relevant.

Hypothesis Warmup Activity: First, organize students into small working groups of four or five. Then, set each group to collect a list of hypotheses. They can find these by searching on the Internet or finding examples in textbooks . When students have gathered together a suitable list of hypotheses, have them identify the independent and dependent variables in each case. They can underline each of these in different colors.

It may be helpful for students to examine each hypothesis to identify the ‘cause’ elements and the ‘effect’ elements. When students have finished, they can present their findings to the class.

Task 1: Set your students the task of coming up with an investigation-worthy question on a topic that interests them. This activity works particularly well for groups.

Task 2: Students search for existing information and theories on their topic on the Internet or in the library. They should take notes where necessary and begin to form an assumption or prediction based on their reading and research that they can investigate further.

Task 3: When working with a talking partner, can students identify which of their partner’s independent and dependent variables? If not, then one partner will need to revisit the definitions for the two types of variables as outlined earlier.

Task 4: Organize students into smaller groups and task them with presenting their hypotheses to each other. Students can then provide feedback before the final wording of each hypothesis is finalized.

Perhaps due to their short length, learning how to create a well-written hypothesis is not typically afforded much time in the curriculum.

However, though they are brief in length, they are complex enough to warrant focused learning and practice in class, particularly given their importance across many curriculum areas.

Learning how to write a hypothesis works well as a standalone writing skill. It can also form part of a more comprehensive academic or scientific writing study that focuses on how to write a research question, develop a theory, etc.

As with any text type, practice improves performance. By following the processes outlined above, students will be well on their way to writing their own hypotheses competently in no time.

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Step-by-Step Guide: How to Craft a Strong Research Hypothesis

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Table of Contents

A research hypothesis is a concise statement about the expected result of an experiment or project. In many ways, a research hypothesis represents the starting point for a scientific endeavor, as it establishes a tentative assumption that is eventually substantiated or falsified, ultimately improving our certainty about the subject investigated.   

To help you with this and ease the process, in this article, we discuss the purpose of research hypotheses and list the most essential qualities of a compelling hypothesis. Let’s find out!  

How to Craft a Research Hypothesis  

Crafting a research hypothesis begins with a comprehensive literature review to identify a knowledge gap in your field. Once you find a question or problem, come up with a possible answer or explanation, which becomes your hypothesis. Now think about the specific methods of experimentation that can prove or disprove the hypothesis, which ultimately lead to the results of the study.   

Enlisted below are some standard formats in which you can formulate a hypothesis¹ :  

• A hypothesis can use the if/then format when it seeks to explore the correlation between two variables in a study primarily.  

Example: If administered drug X, then patients will experience reduced fatigue from cancer treatment.  

• A hypothesis can adopt when X/then Y format when it primarily aims to expose a connection between two variables  

Example: When workers spend a significant portion of their waking hours in sedentary work , then they experience a greater frequency of digestive problems.  

• A hypothesis can also take the form of a direct statement.  

Example: Drug X and drug Y reduce the risk of cognitive decline through the same chemical pathways  

What are the Features of an Effective Hypothesis?  

Hypotheses in research need to satisfy specific criteria to be considered scientifically rigorous. Here are the most notable qualities of a strong hypothesis:  

• Testability: Ensure the hypothesis allows you to work towards observable and testable results.  
• Brevity and objectivity: Present your hypothesis as a brief statement and avoid wordiness.  
• Clarity and Relevance: The hypothesis should reflect a clear idea of what we know and what we expect to find out about a phenomenon and address the significant knowledge gap relevant to a field of study.   

Understanding Null and Alternative Hypotheses in Research  

There are two types of hypotheses used commonly in research that aid statistical analyses. These are known as the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis . A null hypothesis is a statement assumed to be factual in the initial phase of the study.   

For example, if a researcher is testing the efficacy of a new drug, then the null hypothesis will posit that the drug has no benefits compared to an inactive control or placebo . Suppose the data collected through a drug trial leads a researcher to reject the null hypothesis. In that case, it is considered to substantiate the alternative hypothesis in the above example, that the new drug provides benefits compared to the placebo.  

Let’s take a closer look at the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis with two more examples:  

Null Hypothesis:  

The rate of decline in the number of species in habitat X in the last year is the same as in the last 100 years when controlled for all factors except the recent wildfires.  

In the next experiment, the researcher will experimentally reject this null hypothesis in order to confirm the following alternative hypothesis :  

The rate of decline in the number of species in habitat X in the last year is different from the rate of decline in the last 100 years when controlled for all factors other than the recent wildfires.  

In the pair of null and alternative hypotheses stated above, a statistical comparison of the rate of species decline over a century and the preceding year will help the research experimentally test the null hypothesis, helping to draw scientifically valid conclusions about two factors—wildfires and species decline.   

We also recommend that researchers pay attention to contextual echoes and connections when writing research hypotheses. Research hypotheses are often closely linked to the introduction ² , such as the context of the study, and can similarly influence the reader’s judgment of the relevance and validity of the research hypothesis.  

Seasoned experts, such as professionals at Elsevier Language Services, guide authors on how to best embed a hypothesis within an article so that it communicates relevance and credibility. Contact us if you want help in ensuring readers find your hypothesis robust and unbiased.  

References  

• Hypotheses – The University Writing Center. (n.d.). https://writingcenter.tamu.edu/writing-speaking-guides/hypotheses  
• Shaping the research question and hypothesis. (n.d.). Students. https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/graduate-research-services/writing-thesis-sections-part-2/shaping-the-research-question-and-hypothesis  

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Many people might not know what a hypothesis is, the purpose of a hypothesis or where a hypothesis is needed. A hypothesis is a statement that explains the research’s predictions and the reasons behind the research. It is an “educated guess” of the final result of the research problem and is written for an academic research paper. A good hypothesis is carefully stated as a key aspect of the scientific method, yet even the simplest ones can be difficult to explain.

If you are unaware of the process of writing a hypothesis, we are here to help you with all your queries. Read the article and learn how to write a hypothesis for your academic paper/thesis.

Table of Contents

What is a hypothesis.

• Simple Hypothesis
• Complex Hypothesis
• Null Hypothesis
• Alternative Hypothesis
• Logical Hypothesis
• Empirical Hypothesis
• Statistical Hypothesis

Writing a Good Hypothesis – Points to Remember

• How to Write a Hypothesis

Frequently Asked Questions on How to Write a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is prepared in the early stages of a research project. Based on the preliminary research observations, a hypothesis is framed. It is the prediction of the end result of the research problem. For example, suppose you have observed that the plants grow up better with regular watering. In that case, your hypothesis can be “Plants grow better with regular watering”. Once you have got your hypothesis, you can begin the experiments required to support and prove it.

A hypothesis must include variables. It can be some events, objects or concepts which are to be observed and tested for your research experiments. There are two kinds of variables – dependent variables and independent variables. The independent variables are the ones which can be modified in the experiment, and the dependent variables are the ones which can only be observed.

Hypotheses are a crucial part of the research paper since they influence the direction and arrangement of the research methods. The readers will want to know if the hypothesis was proven right or wrong, and therefore it must be mentioned clearly in the introduction or the abstract of the paper.

Types of Hypotheses

Depending on the nature of the research and the findings, the hypothesis can be categorised into one or more of the seven major categories.

1. Simple Hypothesis

A simple hypothesis states the relationship between the two variables (dependent and independent variables).

2. Complex Hypothesis

A complex hypothesis entails the existence of a relationship between two or more variables. It can be two dependent variables and one independent variable or vice versa.

3. Null Hypothesis

A null hypothesis is a statement that states that the variables have no relationship.

4. Alternative Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is the polar opposite of the alternative hypothesis. It states that the two variables under study have a link (one variable has an effect on the other).

5. Logical Hypothesis

In the absence of verifiable proof, a logical hypothesis indicates a relationship between variables. Assertions are based on inference or logic rather than evidence.

6. Empirical Hypothesis

An empirical hypothesis, often known as a “working hypothesis,” is one that is being researched right now. Empirical hypotheses, unlike logical assumptions, are supported by evidence.

7. Statistical Hypothesis

When you test a sample of a population and then use the collected statistical evidence to draw conclusions about the full population, you’ve generated a statistical hypothesis. You test a section of it and then make an educated guess about the rest based on the results.

A good hypothesis is written following the same format and guidelines. To write a good hypothesis, the below-mentioned information has to be added.

Causes and Effects: A hypothesis always includes a cause-and-effect relationship where one variable causes another to change or not change, depending on the type of hypothesis.

Measurable Prediction: Other than logical hypotheses, most hypotheses are designed to be tested. Before you commit to any hypothesis, make sure that it is experimented. Select a testable hypothesis involving an independent variable over which you can have complete control.

Dependent and Independent Variables: You can define the type of variables of your research for the readers.

Language used in a Hypothesis: Make sure to write the hypothesis in simple and clear language.

Adhere to Ethics: Before conducting your research, keep an eye on what you are experimenting with. Those hypotheses which are objectionable, questionable or taboo can be avoided unless they are absolutely necessary.

How to Write a Hypothesis?

A good hypothesis can be written in the following six steps.

Asking a Question

Arousing curiosity in the minds of the readers can be a good way to start a hypothesis. It would make the readers think about the topic critically.

Conducting a Preliminary Research

Before writing the hypothesis, it is essential to get background information regarding the topic. The preliminary research can be done through various web searches, reading books, etc.

Defining the Variables

After you have decided on your hypothesis, you can now decide on your variables. Keep in mind that the independent variables are the ones over which you have complete control and accordingly decide the limits of your hypothesis.

Writing the Hypothesis in the “if-then” Statement

While writing a hypothesis, keep in mind that it must be written in an “if-then” format statement which is a reliable method of expressing the causes and effects. A simple example would be, “If we water the plants daily, then they might grow really well.”

Collection of Adequate Data to Back the Hypothesis

A hypothesis is written to reach the conclusion of the research. After writing the hypothesis, the experiments can be conducted. See to it that you collect the adequate data needed to support the hypothesis.

Writing with Confidence

After you have collected enough data, you can start writing the hypothesis. Make sure you write confidently, without any errors. It would be good to get your writing counter-checked by an expert if you are not confident about it.

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a statement that explains the research’s predictions and the reasons behind the research. It is written based on various observations.

Why is a hypothesis important?

A hypothesis is important in an academic paper because it explains the result of the research problem. It will help the researcher, as well as the audience, to stay focused and not deviate from the main idea.

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