a case study on taj mahal

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Taj mahal: construction of its invincible foundation.

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The Taj Mahal is a perfectly symmetrical monument representing the finest architectural and artistic achievements through excellent craftsmanship and perfect harmony in the design. Its foundation, in particular, was a herculean task to build as in those days clayey soil was usually avoided for construction due to its unpredictable nature.

The mausoleum is located on the southern bank of the river Yamuna in the city of Agra, India.  It was constructed by the emperor Shah Jahan as a homage to his partner Mumtaz Mahal. The construction began in the year 1632 and was completed in 1653.

The Taj Mahal is one of the seven wonders of the world and was recognized as a world heritage site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1983.

Owing to the age of the structure, initial drawings used for the construction of the Taj Mahal are no longer available. Also, with time, conditions around the site have altered significantly. Therefore, the exact construction details of the foundation are not known. However, the information provided in this article is based on previous research studies.

The structure still stands tall and intact even after so many centuries essentially because of the construction technique adopted for its foundation. This article explains the design and construction sequence of the foundation along with the materials used in its construction.

1. Location of Taj Mahal

The monument exhibits exemplary designs of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. To add to the aesthetics, a moonlight garden and elegant trees were integrated into the design. The fusion of these elements made it an ideal site for the construction of the monument. The site is near to the point where the river makes a sharp bend far from the monolith, ensuring enough supply of water for the gardens.

Figure-3 illustrates the sloping landscape on the riverside with Mehtab Bagh on the other side.

2. Geology of Taj Mahal

The following points describe the geology of the Taj Mahal:

• Clay of low to intermediate compressibility (CL- CI) is available from reduced level (RL) 149 to 133 m.
• The non-plastic to silty sand (SP- SM) is available from RL 133 to 123.8 m.
• A thicker clay layer of intermediate compressibility is available from RL 123.8 to 60.2 m.
• Fine to medium-grained quartzitic sandstone is available below 60.2 m.
• The depth of the groundwater table is located at 5.25 m.

2.1 Settlement

Based upon the consolidation test result, 99.4 % of the total settlement had taken place during the construction of the Taj Mahal.

2.2 Groundwater

The observation well closest to the Taj Mahal is the Shahganj Prithvi Nath well in the Bichpuri area of Agra. Figure-5 shows the groundwater information for four different seasons throughout the year.

3. Foundation of Taj Mahal

The information of the superstructure should be known before constructing the foundation of any structure. The superstructure of the Taj Mahal is huge and loads due to its weight are very high. The following points describe the superstructure of the Taj Mahal:

• The main structure of the Taj Mahal is made up of white marble.
• Its height above the garden level is 74.4 m.
• Weight of the dome is 12,000 tons.
• Inner diameter of the dome is 17.6 m with a thickness of 4.3 m.
• Pressure intensity due to dome of the Taj Mahal is around 218 KPa (evenly dispersed load) and 397 KPa (concentrated load).
• Pressure intensity due to the walls is around 766 KPa.

3.1 Foundation Details

The loads acting on the foundation due to the superstructure were very high. Therefore, special attention was given towards the construction of the foundation. The techniques and details for the construction of foundation are discussed below:

• The excavation for the foundation of the Taj Mahal was very deep. Researchers have figured out the precise depth of the foundation, to be 17.5 m, using the ground penetration radar method.
• After the excavation, the well foundation was constructed over the excavated stratum.
• In addition, the wells were filled with stone debris. Strong masonry of stone and lime were used as filling material.
• Furthermore, a structural system was built on top of the wells. This system consists of piers and arches. Arches were connected to piers so that the superstructure load can be distributed evenly on the well foundation.
• After that, a big sandstone base was created on top of the structural system.

3.2 Materials Used in the Foundation

Bricks, stones, mortar, iron, and wood were used in the foundation construction of the Taj Mahal.

3.2.1 Brick

Bricks were extensively used in the construction of domes and arches. For preparing bricks, clay and sand were mixed, shaped, and baked at the site of the construction. Mughal paintings of the construction work show the brick kilns set up on the worksite of Taj Mahal.

The common brick size of 203.2 mm × 190.5 mm × 44.5 mm was brought down to 177.8 mm × 114.3 mm × 25.4 mm to make the bricks lighter and bricklaying faster.

3.2.2 Mortar

Mortar is a vital element for foundation construction . The significance of mortar is rather apparent from Mughal-era paintings of building and construction.

For the foundation of the Taj Mahal, a unique water-resistant mortar called “Sarooj” was prepared. The basic contents of Sarooj were lime, clay, and sand. In addition, ash obtained from different sources such as wood and animal dung was added in the Sarooj mortar. Further, local ingredients such as jaggery, pulse, sugar bubbles, gram flour, resin, jute, and gum were also added. This helped in manufacturing a strong bonding agent. Local ingredients and fibers made the Sarooj mortar impenetrable.

The use of iron in the foundation was limited to the external works, such as iron nails used to secure the stones to the links of the vertical arches. Iron nails were also used in splitting the stones.

3.2.4 Timber

Mughal houses utilized wood in various parts of the foundation, such as circular braces in the wells. The parts made of wood were used on the riverside wall of the foundation to reduce the river’s scouring. Mostly, Sagwan wood (teak) and bamboo were used for this function. Bamboo was used to make large scaffolding structures, while Sagwan wood was used to build wheels to support the core of the well foundation.

4. Construction Sequence of Taj Mahal's Foundation

The Taj Mahal’s massive weight needed a very robust foundation, as any soil displacement would have been disastrous for the superstructure. A possible construction sequence of its foundation is discussed in two segments.

4.1 Construction of Wells

The following points describe a possible construction sequence of well foundation:

• Prior to construction, the builders used their surveying tools to find any modifications to the site. Measurements were done using bamboo and jute ropes.
• The first construction operation was the excavation for the well foundation.
• During excavation, the walls of the well were secured with wood. This process continued till workers reached a strong ground bed.
• Wood axles with spokes were used for the bracing of the wells. The bracing was provided at a suitable interval along the well core. Figure-10 illustrates this process.
• Further, the well core was filled with stone debris and bounded with leak-proof mortar. Figure-11(a) illustrates this process.
• In a similar style, a series of wells were constructed close by so that the base of the foundation can be set upon them.
• Lastly, the debris of stone blended with lime mortar and sand were filled in the area between the wells. Figure-11(b) demonstrates this process.

4.2 Construction of Piers and Arches

Arches and piers were constructed so that the load of the superstructure can be distributed evenly on the well foundation. A possible construction sequence for piers and arches is discussed below:

• After the construction of the well foundation, the next step was to raise the piers. The bricks mixed with lime mortar were used for constructing the piers. Moreover, Sarooj mortar was used to make the piers waterproof. Figure-11(c) illustrates this process.
• The next step involved the construction of arches and linking them to the piers. Figure-11(d) illustrates this process.
• Following this, the area between arches was filled with sand, mortar, and debris of stones. Sarooj mortar was extensively used for this purpose. Figure-11(e) illustrates this process.
• The resulting arches enabled a well-balanced distribution of the load to the series of wells located underneath it.
• To avoid any kind of differential settlement, the construction of a big red sandstone base was carried out on top of the arches.
• Since the entire structure was constructed on a natural slope, the thickness of the sandstone base was provided as 13 m on the riverside and 1.8 m on the garden side. Figure-11(f) illustrates the final version of the Taj Mahal’s foundation.

The parts made of wood were used on the riverside wall of the well foundation to reduce the river's scouring. Mostly, Sagwan wood (teak) and bamboo were utilized for this purpose.

Various kinds of stones were used to construct the Taj Mahal's foundation. Stones were used in the walls of well foundation. Also, stone debris was used to fill the areas around the piers, wells, and arches. Red sandstone was used for constructing the foundation base. Sang-I-Gwalior (yellow and grey sandstone) and Sang-I-Surkh (red sandstone) were used in the Taj Mahal's foundation.

What is Foundation in Construction? Purpose and the Functions of Foundation

Shifting and Tilting of Well Foundations

Wood as Construction Material – Types, Structure, Processing

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The Taj Mahal is a mausoleum complex in Agra , western Uttar Pradesh state, northern India . It is considered the finest example of Mughal architecture (a blend of Indian, Persian, and Islamic styles). The Taj Mahal is also one of the world’s most iconic monuments, visited by millions of tourists each year. The complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.

Who was the Taj Mahal built for?

The Taj Mahal was built as a tomb for Mumtaz Mahal (“Chosen One of the Palace”) by her husband, the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān (reigned 1628–58). She died in childbirth in 1631, after having been the emperor’s inseparable companion since their marriage in 1612.

Is the Taj Mahal a tomb?

The Taj Mahal is a mausoleum complex that houses the tombs of Mumtaz Mahal (“Chosen One of the Palace”) and her husband, the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān (reigned 1628–58).

When was the Taj Mahal built?

Building of the Taj Mahal began about 1632. The mausoleum itself was completed by about 1638–39. The adjunct buildings were finished by 1643, and decoration work continued until at least 1647. In total, construction of the 42-acre (17-hectare) complex spanned 22 years.

Why does the Taj Mahal change colours?

The Taj Mahal is built of white marble that reflects hues according to the intensity of the sunlight or the moonlight.

Taj Mahal , mausoleum complex in Agra , western Uttar Pradesh state, northern India . The Taj Mahal was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān (reigned 1628–58) to immortalize his wife Mumtaz Mahal (“Chosen One of the Palace”), who died in childbirth in 1631, having been the emperor’s inseparable companion since their marriage in 1612. India’s most famous and widely recognized building, it is situated in the eastern part of the city on the southern (right) bank of the Yamuna (Jumna) River . Agra Fort (Red Fort), also on the right bank of the Yamuna, is about 1 mile (1.6 km) west of the Taj Mahal.

The Taj Mahal is one of the new Seven Wonders of the World. What are the other six?

In its harmonious proportions and its fluid incorporation of decorative elements, the Taj Mahal is distinguished as the finest example of Mughal architecture , a blend of Indian, Persian , and Islamic styles. Other attractions include twin mosque buildings (placed symmetrically on either side of the mausoleum), lovely gardens, and a museum. One of the most beautiful structural compositions in the world, the Taj Mahal is also one of the world’s most iconic monuments, visited by millions of tourists each year. The complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.

The plans for the complex have been attributed to various architects of the period, though the chief architect was probably Ustad Aḥmad Lahawrī, an Indian of Persian descent. The five principal elements of the complex—main gateway, garden, mosque , jawāb (literally “answer”; a building mirroring the mosque), and mausoleum (including its four minarets)—were conceived and designed as a unified entity according to the tenets of Mughal building practice, which allowed no subsequent addition or alteration. Building commenced about 1632. More than 20,000 workers were employed from India, Persia , the Ottoman Empire , and Europe to complete the mausoleum itself by about 1638–39; the adjunct buildings were finished by 1643, and decoration work continued until at least 1647. In total, construction of the 42-acre (17-hectare) complex spanned 22 years.

A tradition relates that Shah Jahān originally intended to build another mausoleum across the river to house his own remains. That structure was to have been constructed of black marble, and it was to have been connected by a bridge to the Taj Mahal. He was deposed in 1658 by his son Aurangzeb , however, and was imprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra Fort.

Resting in the middle of a wide plinth 23 feet (7 metres) high, the mausoleum proper is of white marble that reflects hues according to the intensity of sunlight or moonlight. It has four nearly identical facades, each with a wide central arch rising to 108 feet (33 metres) at its apex and chamfered (slanted) corners incorporating smaller arches. The majestic central dome, which reaches a height of 240 feet (73 metres) at the tip of its finial , is surrounded by four lesser domes. The acoustics inside the main dome cause the single note of a flute to reverberate five times. The interior of the mausoleum is organized around an octagonal marble chamber ornamented with low-relief carvings and semiprecious stones ( pietra dura ). Therein are the cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahān. Those false tombs are enclosed by a finely wrought filigree marble screen. Beneath the tombs, at garden level, lie the true sarcophagi. Standing gracefully apart from the central building, at each of the four corners of the square plinth, are elegant minarets.

Flanking the mausoleum near the northwestern and northeastern edges of the garden, respectively, are two symmetrically identical buildings—the mosque, which faces east, and its jawāb , which faces west and provides aesthetic balance. Built of red Sikri sandstone with marble-necked domes and architraves , they contrast in both colour and texture with the mausoleum’s white marble.

The garden is set out along classical Mughal lines—a square quartered by long watercourses (pools)—with walking paths, fountains, and ornamental trees. Enclosed by the walls and structures of the complex, it provides a striking approach to the mausoleum, which can be seen reflected in the garden’s central pools.

The southern end of the complex is graced by a wide red sandstone gateway with a recessed central arch two stories high. White marble paneling around the arch is inlaid with black Qurʾānic lettering and floral designs. The main arch is flanked by two pairs of smaller arches. Crowning the northern and southern facades of the gateway are matching rows of white chattri s ( chhattri s; cupola-like structures), 11 to each facade, accompanied by thin ornamental minarets that rise to some 98 feet (30 metres). At the four corners of the structure are octagonal towers capped with larger chattri s.

Two notable decorative features are repeated throughout the complex: pietra dura and Arabic calligraphy . As embodied in the Mughal craft, pietra dura (Italian: “hard stone”) incorporates the inlay of semiprecious stones of various colours, including lapis lazuli , jade , crystal , turquoise , and amethyst, in highly formalized and intertwining geometric and floral designs. The colours serve to moderate the dazzling expanse of the white Makrana marble. Under the direction of Amānat Khan al-Shīrāzī, verses from the Qurʾān were inscribed across numerous sections of the Taj Mahal in calligraphy, central to Islamic artistic tradition. One of the inscriptions in the sandstone gateway is known as Daybreak (89:28–30) and invites the faithful to enter paradise. Calligraphy also encircles the soaring arched entrances to the mausoleum proper. To ensure a uniform appearance from the vantage point of the terrace, the lettering increases in size according to its relative height and distance from the viewer.

Over the centuries the Taj Mahal has been subject to neglect and decay. A major restoration was carried out at the beginning of the 20th century under the direction of Lord Curzon , then the British viceroy of India. More recently, air pollution caused by emissions from foundries and other nearby factories and exhaust from motor vehicles has damaged the mausoleum, notably its marble facade. A number of measures have been taken to reduce the threat to the monument, among them the closing of some foundries and the installation of pollution-control equipment at others, the creation of a parkland buffer zone around the complex, and the banning of nearby vehicular traffic. A restoration and research program for the Taj Mahal was initiated in 1998. Progress in improving environmental conditions around the monument has been slow, however.

From time to time the Taj Mahal has been subject to India’s political dynamics . Night viewing was banned there between 1984 and 2004 because it was feared that the monument would be a target of Sikh militants. In addition, it increasingly has come to be seen as an Indian cultural symbol. Some Hindu nationalist groups have attempted to diminish the importance of the Muslim influence in accounting for the origins and design of the Taj Mahal.

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Polluted Yamuna, not industrial emission, main reason behind Taj Mahal decay: study

• Yamuna pollution was identified as a threat to the Taj five years ago, blaming the formation of phosphorous in the river water for the breeding of insects whose excreta was leaving patches on the marbles.
• Now, a new study offers a different perspective, identifying hydrogen sulphide emitted from the polluted Yamuna as more corrosive than sulphur dioxide that comes from industrial pollution that has been largely blamed for the decay in the Taj’s marble.
• While this study to identify the principal corrosion agent was conducted on exposed metals in Taj premises over four years, the authors recommended similar experimentation on marbles for a 10-year-period for a definitive understanding.

Over the years, visitors to the Taj Mahal have been complaining of foul smell that’s ruining their experiences at the majestic 17th-century Mughal architecture listed as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World. The gas responsible for the odour may in fact be doing greater harm – it is likely the culprit behind the discolouration of the Taj’s glorious white marbles.

The stink coming from the black waters of the Yamuna river that flows prompted a group of scientists to explore if the gas that was responsible for the odour – hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S) – also had corrosive effects. They found that H 2 S released from polluted Yamuna water had a more corrosive impact than sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) released by industrial pollution in Agra city.

The findings assume significance, as initiatives around protecting the Taj from being affected by pollution have largely been concerned with tackling industrial and vehicular pollution, while Yamuna pollution has not got as much attention until five years ago.

For over three decades now , sulphur dioxide has been considered to be the main pollutant behind the decay in the glorious white marbles. Yamuna pollution was also blamed for the impact on the marble structure, in a 2016 report of the Archaeological Survey of India submitted before the Supreme Court of India, but from a different perspective – it highlighted the growth of the insect of the genus Goeldichironomus, in stagnant Yamuna water devoid of aquatic life and blamed the insect excreta for the green and brownish patches on the Taj marbles.

The recent study, however, indicates that the polluted Yamuna might be harming the Taj in more than one ways.

“We tried corrosion deformation studies using various air pollutants like SO 2 , NO 2 (nitrogen dioxide), NH 3 (ammonia), CO (Carbon monoxide), CO 2 (carbon dioxide) and H 2 S. Most interestingly, H 2 S was found to be the most problematic among all. Our preliminary investigation establishes that river Yamuna, which carries untreated wastewater of the entire Agra, was responsible for the generation of H 2 S,” Dipankar Saha , a former additional director of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and one of the co-authors of the paper, told Mongabay-India.

“H 2 S gas is acidic and corrosive therefore much attention is needed to clean river Yamuna,” added Saha, who had also served as head of the CPCB’s air laboratory for 12 years.

Published recently in the International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology , the study also noted, “The wind rose diagram developed during the period of the study suggests that the direction of the wind opposed the industrial pollutants moving towards the monument” and that “hydrogen sulphide emitted from the polluted Yamuna River… has a dominant role.”

The study titled Role of air pollutant for deterioration of Taj Mahal by identifying corrosion products on the surface of metals , is co-written by four others, apart from Saha – Achal Pandya, head of the conservation unit at Indira Gandhi National Center for Arts, New Delhi; and Jitendra Kumar Singh, Sharma Paswan and DDN Singh from the Corrosion and Surface Engineering Division of the National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur.

Pandya told Mongabay-India that it was necessary, for the protection of the Taj from discolouration, that the Yamuna is cleaned and the city’s sewage is allowed into the river only after treatment. “It’s no longer a river, its water is unusable. But we should remember that the Yamuna included the original Taj Mahal landscape. The river was very much part of the planning of the entire premises.”

The corrosion deformation study was conducted on metals – samples of carbon steel, zinc and copper left exposed at the Taj Mahal premises – and the report concluded that “all evidence suggests that hydrogen sulphide emitted from the polluted Yamuna river flowing very close to the exposure site (the premise of Taj Mahal) has a dominant role on the corrosion rate of metals.”

“The finding of this study leads to the conclusion that the fading of white marbles of the Taj Mahal may be due to the corrosive effect of hydrogen sulphide emitted from the polluted Yamuna River,” the report said.

According to Agra-based environmentalist Sharad Gupta, the findings of the study are not surprising.

“The whole city’s sewage and industrial waste, including solid waste, flow into the Yamuna mostly untreated. There are 90 nullahs in Agra, of which the water of only 25 get treated by 4 plants but these plants do not function at night. The sewage of 65 other drains flows into Yamuna untreated. The materials include leather and synthetic leather waste from about 3,000 shoe factories and these leather wastes help form many gases,” he told Mongabay-India.

He added that acids used for washing in the imitation jewellery industry of Agra are also released into the drains untreated.

Not acid rain?

The impact of Yamuna pollution on the Taj has remained little discussed, though not entirely ignored. The focus of Taj-protection initiatives has mostly been on the industrial units, resulting in a series of measures since the 1980s to curb Agra’s industrial pollution, including the relocation and closure of some polluting industrial units.

The battle to save the Taj from the impact of pollution has been ongoing since the 1970s, and particularly since 1984 when environmentalist M. C. Mehta approached the Supreme Court of India, drawing its attention to the yellowing and blackening of the Taj marbles in several places, suspected to have been a result of ‘acid rains’ caused by sulphur dioxide emissions.

“It is inside the Taj that the decay is more apparent. Yellow pallor pervades the entire monument. In places the yellow hue is magnified by ugly brown and black spots. Fungal deterioration is worst in the inner chamber where the original graves of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal lie,” the petitioner told the court. This case resulted in the apex court’s landmark judgment of 1996 and many other orders over the next two and a half decades.

The recent paper on corrosion questioned the popular theory that blames sulphuric acid-induced “acid rain” – caused by the SO 2 emitted by the Mathura refinery and the local industries in and around Agra and Firozabad – for the corrosion on the gleaming white marbles. It cited a 2008 paper that revealed that the corrosion rate of steel exposed at Agra recorded an almost similar rate of corrosion as recorded at the other distant places considered to be free from industrial pollution and added, “Had the SO 2 evolved from refineries and foundries a dominant role, the steel exposed at Agra should have shown a much higher rate of corrosion than at the other locations having comparatively lower industrial pollution in the atmosphere.”

The analysis presented in the paper is based on a study conducted at the Taj Mahal site between 2006 and 2010 and, subsequently, an analysis of the retrieved samples was performed at the National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur.

The corrosion products on the metals were analysed using Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction and oxides and sulphides were found to be the main constituents. The researchers argued that reaction with acid rain would have formed sulphates and nitrates, but not sulphides. Agra’s climatic data for the period was also taken into consideration.

The authors, however, said the study needed to be further extended, “Exposing the samples of marble having similar composition, structure and porosity as used for the erection of the monument at the premise of the Taj Mahal.” Since the process of the formation of tarnished patina on the surface of marbles is very slow, it is recommended that the duration of exposure should be long enough – about 10 years – to have meaningful findings and reach a definitive conclusion.

Study co-author Pandya said that since the Taj Mahal is quite tall (73 metres), metallic samples should also be placed at a higher elevation while conducting further studies to estimate the impact of the gas at different heights.

“If a scientific study claims Yamuna pollution is affecting the Taj Mahal, then it’s a serious claim and this needs to be thoroughly investigated with further studies,” said Anurag Sharma of water conservation group, Jaladhikar Foundation, Agra.

While answering a question in the Lok Sabha in February 2021, Prahlad Singh Patel, who at that time was the Minister of State (Independent Charge) for Culture and Tourism, said  that the ASI’s recommendations for ending the insect menace included scientific cleaning and preservation of the monument fabric, de-silting of Yamuna river, increase the water flow, prevent stagnation of the water and cleaning and removal of vegetation growth from the river banks.

Read more: [Video] Rampant sand mining damaging Yamuna’s ecology

Banner image: The Yamuna river flowing next to the Taj Mahal.  Photo by David Castor/Wikimedia Commons.

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The Ordinary Heroes of the Taj

• Rohit Deshpande
• Anjali Raina

How an Indian hotel chain’s organizational culture nurtured employees who were willing to risk their lives to save their guests

Reprint: R1112J

When terrorists attacked the Indian city of Mumbai in 2008, employees of the Taj Mumbai hotel displayed uncommon valor. They placed the safety of guests over their own well-being, thereby risking—and, in some cases, sacrificing—their lives. Deshpandé, of Harvard Business School, and Raina, of the HBS India Research Center in Mumbai, demonstrate that this behavior was not merely a crisis response. It was instead a manifestation of the Taj Group’s deeply rooted customer-centric culture that, the authors argue, other companies can emulate, both in extreme circumstances and during periods of normalcy.

The key ingredients of this Taj-style customer centricity include:

• a values-driven recruitment system that emphasizes integrity and duty over talent and skills;
• training of customer ambassadors who serve the guest first and the company second; and
• a recognition-as-reward system that values well-earned plaudits—from customers, colleagues, and immediate supervisors—over money and advancement.

Each of the three elements has important features and nuances, which the authors explore in detail so that your company can take its cues.

On November 26, 2008, Harish Manwani, chairman, and Nitin Paranjpe, CEO, of Hindustan Unilever hosted a dinner at the Taj Mahal Palace hotel in Mumbai (Taj Mumbai, for short). Unilever’s directors, senior executives, and their spouses were bidding farewell to Patrick Cescau, the CEO, and welcoming Paul Polman, the CEO-elect. About 35 Taj Mumbai employees, led by a 24-year-old banquet manager, Mallika Jagad, were assigned to manage the event in a second-floor banquet room. Around 9:30, as they served the main course, they heard what they thought were fireworks at a nearby wedding. In reality, these were the first gunshots from terrorists who were storming the Taj.

• RD Rohit Deshpande is Sebastian S. Kresge Professor of Marketing at the Harvard Business School.
• AR Anjali Raina is the executive director of the HBS India Research Center in Mumbai.

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MC Mehta vs Union of India

MC Mehta is a lawyer by profession and an enthusiastic environmentalist by choice. He seeks to make India’s environment a non-polluted and healthy one. Mehta is the only Supreme Court Lawyer who has stood up against polluting Indian Industries and achieved victory against them. He has fought numerous cases, out of which a few are discussed below.

MC Mehta vs Union of India is an important topic for UPSC exam aspirants. This is why having a thorough knowledge of the cases under this topic is crucial for efficient preparation.

To learn about the important judgements by supreme court of the country at the linked article.

MC Mehta vs Union of India – Cases

The cases MC Mehta fought are as follows-

The Taj Mahal Case-

The Taj Mahal Case, also known as the Taj Trapezium Case, was fought between M.C. Mehta and the Union of India. He filed a writ petition in 1986.

Background- Taj Mahal is considered one of India’s most epic Mughal structures. The Taj Trapezium zone, which is of 10,400 sq. km., is built to protect it from pollution. Mehta visited Taj in 1984 and noticed the white marble of Taj turning yellow. To bring this matter into limelight, he filed a petition in the Supreme Court .

Facts of the case-

• The petitioner stated pollution as the main cause of the yellow colour. Emission of pollutant gases like sulphur dioxide and oxygen turned into acid rain. This rain was harmful to the monument and caused the marbles to turn yellow.
• Therefore, the petitioner asked for the protection of the monument.
• As a result, the Central Board for Prevention and Control of Water published “Inventory and Assessment of Pollution Emission in and Around Agra-Mathura Region”.
• The report declared the pollution levels as high and measures to reduce them.
• One of the measures was to shut down thermal power stations. Another step was to reduce emissions of Sulphur Dioxide by 50%.

Judgements- the Supreme Court observed that other than chemicals, socio-economic factors too influenced the degradation of Taj. The people living in the Trapezium Zone were at risk due to air pollution. The court ordered 292 industries to operate using safe fuels like propane instead of coke/coal, otherwise they would have to relocate. The Gas Authority of India Limited was in charge of applications of gas. The court also gave few fundamental rights to workers of these industries and demanded payment of their wages during the time taken for relocation.

Also, refer to the following links:

The Oleum Gas Leak Case

Background- The case took place between MC Mehta and Union of India in 1985. This was a year after the Bhopal Gas tragedy took place. Mehta demanded that Shriram Industries, located in a congested place in Delhi, needed to close down. On 4 th and 6 th December, the industry leaked petroleum gas.

Facts of the Case-

• Social activist lawyer M.C. Mehta filed a writ petition for the closure of Shriram Food and Fertiliser Industry as it posed a hazardous risk to people’s lives because of its location.
• The Assistant Commissioner of Factories and the Inspector of Factories issued two orders to shut down the plant under the Factories Act (1948) on 7th and 24th December.

Judgements- The court observed that these hazardous industries contributed to people’s economic development and advancement. For example, these produce chlorine which helps in water disinfection. These industries also support employment of people. Thus, the final decision taken by the judges was to relocate such factories to less populated areas so that they would not pose a threat to human life. The court suggested the government adopt a national policy for the location of such toxic plants. It should be thoroughly checked if the plants are causing any risk to the community.

Ganga Pollution Case

Background- River Ganga is the lifeline to many civilizations. But along with domestic waste, industrial waste is also polluting this river. M.C. Mehta filed a PIL under article 32 of constitution in the Supreme Court. It has been stated that the water of this river is Holy, and many people consume it. Thus protecting it is vital for human life.

• Tanneries discharged the maximum industrial waste in Kanpur.
• The tanneries defended themselves by stating that they are not directly discharging this waste into Ganges. Instead, they discharge into municipal drains and it is the Municipality’s responsibility not to mix the two.
• In addition, they stated that the equipment required for regulatory mechanisms is too expensive and shutdown of these tanneries would lead to unemployment.

Judgement- The court declared that unemployment and revenue is a matter that is incomparable to public health. The court also blamed the Municipality for being a total failure and asked the Municipality to take proper action against this. The court demanded an adequate drainage and sewage system.

Hopefully, this article on M.C. Mehta vs Union of India will help UPSC aspirants. For more information, candidates can check the official website of M.C. Mehta.

For the best preparation strategy for competitive exams candidates can visit the linked article and get detailed study material and preparation tips to excel in the examination.

To get the latest exam updates, study material and preparation tips, visit BYJU’S.

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Frequently Asked Questions on MC Mehta vs Union of India

Name two cases fought by m.c. mehta.

Two cases fought by M.C. Mehta are The Antop Hill case and Delhi Monuments Case.

Who is the Green Avenger of India?

M.C. Mehta is the Green Avenger of India.

What is the full name of M.C. Mehta?

The full name of M.C. Mehta is Mahesh Chander Mehta.

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• Description

An immense mausoleum of white marble, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by order of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favourite wife, the Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Le Taj Mahal

Immense mausolée funéraire de marbre blanc édifiée entre 1631 et 1648 à Agra sur l'ordre de l'empereur moghol Shah Jahan pour perpétuer le souvenir de son épouse favorite, le Taj Mahal, joyau le plus parfait de l'art musulman en Inde, est l'un des chefs-d'œuvre universellement admirés du patrimoine de l'humanité.

إنّ تاج محل هو ضريح جنائزي هائل شُيّد من الرخام الأبيض بين عامي 1631 و1648 في أغرا بناءً على أوامر الإمبراطور المغولي شاه جهان بهدف تخليد ذكرى زوجته المفضّلة. ويشكّل تاج محل الذي يُعتبر أفضل جوهرة في الفن الإسلامي في الهند إحدى أبرز تُحف التراث البشري التي هي محطّ إعجاب العالم بأسره.

source: UNESCO/CPE Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

泰姬陵是一座由白色大理石建成的巨大陵墓清真寺，是莫卧儿皇帝沙贾汗(Shah Jahan)为纪念他心爱的妃子于1631年至1648年在阿格拉修建的。泰姬陵是印度穆斯林艺术的瑰宝奇葩，是世界遗产中令世人赞叹的经典杰作之一。

Outstanding Universal Value

Brief synthesis

The Taj Mahal is located on the right bank of the Yamuna River in a vast Mughal garden that encompasses nearly 17 hectares, in the Agra District in Uttar Pradesh. It was built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal with construction starting in 1632 AD and completed in 1648 AD, with the mosque, the guest house and the main gateway on the south, the outer courtyard and its cloisters were added subsequently and completed in 1653 AD. The existence of several historical and Quaranic inscriptions in Arabic script have facilitated setting the chronology of Taj Mahal. For its construction, masons, stone-cutters, inlayers, carvers, painters, calligraphers, dome builders and other artisans were requisitioned from the whole of the empire and also from the Central Asia and Iran. Ustad-Ahmad Lahori was the main architect of the Taj Mahal.

The Taj Mahal is considered to be the greatest architectural achievement in the whole range of Indo-Islamic architecture. Its recognised architectonic beauty has a rhythmic combination of solids and voids, concave and convex and light shadow; such as arches and domes further increases the aesthetic aspect. The colour combination of lush green scape reddish pathway and blue sky over it show cases the monument in ever changing tints and moods. The relief work in marble and inlay with precious and semi precious stones make it a monument apart. 

The uniqueness of Taj Mahal lies in some truly remarkable innovations carried out by the horticulture planners and architects of Shah Jahan. One such genius planning is the placing of tomb at one end of the quadripartite garden rather than in the exact centre, which added rich depth and perspective to the distant view of the monument. It is also, one of the best examples of raised tomb variety. The tomb is further raised on a square platform with the four sides of the octagonal base of the minarets extended beyond the square at the corners. The top of the platform is reached through a lateral flight of steps provided in the centre of the southern side. The ground plan of the Taj Mahal is in perfect balance of composition, the octagonal tomb chamber in the centre, encompassed by the portal halls and the four corner rooms. The plan is repeated on the upper floor. The exterior of the tomb is square in plan, with chamfered corners. The large double storied domed chamber, which houses the cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan, is a perfect octagon in plan. The exquisite octagonal marble lattice screen encircling both cenotaphs is a piece of superb workmanship. It is highly polished and richly decorated with inlay work. The borders of the frames are inlaid with precious stones representing flowers executed with wonderful perfection. The hues and the shades of the stones used to make the leaves and the flowers appear almost real. The cenotaph of Mumtaz Mahal is in perfect centre of the tomb chamber, placed on a rectangular platform decorated with inlaid flower plant motifs. The cenotaph of Shah Jahan is greater than Mumtaz Mahal and installed more than thirty years later by the side of the latter on its west. The upper cenotaphs are only illusory and the real graves are in the lower tomb chamber (crypt), a practice adopted in the imperial Mughal tombs.

The four free-standing minarets at the corners of the platform added a hitherto unknown dimension to the Mughal architecture. The four minarets provide not only a kind of spatial reference to the monument but also give a three dimensional effect to the edifice.

The most impressive in the Taj Mahal complex next to the tomb, is the main gate which stands majestically in the centre of the southern wall of the forecourt. The gate is flanked on the north front by double arcade galleries. The garden in front of the galleries is subdivided into four quarters by two main walk-ways and each quarters in turn subdivided by the narrower cross-axial walkways, on the Timurid-Persian scheme of the walled in garden. The enclosure walls on the east and west have a pavilion at the centre.

The Taj Mahal is a perfect symmetrical planned building, with an emphasis of bilateral symmetry along a central axis on which the main features are placed. The building material used is brick-in-lime mortar veneered with red sandstone and marble and inlay work of precious/semi precious stones. The mosque and the guest house in the Taj Mahal complex are built of red sandstone in contrast to the marble tomb in the centre. Both the buildings have a large platform over the terrace at their front. Both the mosque and the guest house are the identical structures. They have an oblong massive prayer hall consist of three vaulted bays arranged in a row with central dominant portal. The frame of the portal arches and the spandrels are veneered in white marble. The spandrels are filled with flowery arabesques of stone intarsia and the arches bordered with rope molding.

Criterion (i): Taj Mahal represents the finest architectural and artistic achievement through perfect harmony and excellent craftsmanship in a whole range of Indo-Islamic sepulchral architecture. It is a masterpiece of architectural style in conception, treatment and execution and has unique aesthetic qualities in balance, symmetry and harmonious blending of various elements.

Integrity is maintained in the intactness of tomb, mosque, guest house, main gate and the whole Taj Mahal complex. The physical fabric is in good condition and structural stability, nature of foundation, verticality of the minarets and other constructional aspects of Taj Mahal have been studied and continue to be monitored. To control the impact of deterioration due for atmospheric pollutants, an air control monitoring station is installed to constantly monitor air quality and control decay factors as they arise. To ensure the protection of the setting, the adequate management and enforcement of regulations in the extended buffer zone is needed. In addition, future development for tourist facilities will need to ensure that the functional and visual integrity of the property is maintained, particularly in the relationship with the Agra Fort.

Authenticity

The tomb, mosque, guest house, main gate and the overall Taj Mahal complex have maintained the conditions of authenticity at the time of inscription. Although an important amount of repairs and conservation works have been carried out right from the British period in India these have not compromised to the original qualities of the buildings. Future conservation work will need to follow guidelines that ensure that qualities such as form and design continue to be preserved.

Protection and management requirements

The management of Taj Mahal complex is carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India and the legal protection of the monument and the control over the regulated area around the monument is through the various legislative and regulatory frameworks that have been established, including the Ancient Monument and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act 1958 and Rules 1959 Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Amendment and Validation); which is adequate to the overall administration of the property and buffer areas. Additional supplementary laws ensure the protection of the property in terms of development in the surroundings.

An area of 10,400 sq km around the Taj Mahal is defined to protect the monument from pollution. The Supreme Court of India in December, 1996, delivered a ruling banning use of coal/coke in industries located in the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ) and switching over to natural gas or relocating them outside the TTZ. The TTZ comprises of 40 protected monuments including three World Heritage Sites - Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri.

The fund provided by the federal government is adequate for the buffer areas. The fund provided by the federal government is adequate for the overall conservation, preservation and maintenance of the complex to supervise activities at the site under the guidance of the Superintending Archaeologist of the Agra Circle. The implementation of an Integrated Management plan is necessary to ensure that the property maintains the existing conditions, particularly in the light of significant pressures derived from visitation that will need to be adequately managed. The Management plan should also prescribe adequate guidelines for proposed infrastructure development and establish a comprehensive Public Use plan.

• Moghal Gardens (World Heritage Review)
• World Heritage in India (Archaeological Survey of India)

The Nomination files produced by the States Parties are published by the World Heritage Centre at its website and/or in working documents in order to ensure transparency, access to information and to facilitate the preparations of comparative analysis by other nominating States Parties.

The sole responsibility for the content of each Nomination file lies with the State Party concerned. The publication of the Nomination file, including the maps and names, does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever of the World Heritage Committee or of the Secretariat of UNESCO concerning the history or legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its boundaries.

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Case Summary: M.C. Mehta vs. UOI (Taj Trapezium Case)

Case details of Taj Trapezium Case  

• Name of the Case: M.C. Mehta vs. Union of India & Ors. (Taj Trapezium Case)
• Court: Supreme Court of Indi a
• Date of Judgement: 30:12:1996
• Judgement in favour of: C. Mehta
• Citation: AIR 1997 2 SCC 353.

Facts of the Case

• Taj Mahal was one of the 100 most endangered sites in the World as per the list published by “World Monuments Fund”(WMF). It is an American Express Company, in 1996.
• The foundries, chemical/hazardous industries were the major sources of damage caused to the monument. Furthermore, the refinery at the Mathura also contribute to the same.
• The sulphur dioxide from the industries and refinery, combined with oxygen and moisture, leads to acid rain which has a corrosive effect on the white marble of Taj.
• The atmospheric pollution has led to decay of the marble and fungal deterioration in inner chamber of Taj.

Issue Raised

Whether or not usage of coke/coal as an industrial fuel by the industries/refinery located in TTZ is the cause of deteriorating conditions of Taj Mahal and the residents of that area?

Arguments from plaintiff

• The counsel for plaintiffs argued that the sources of pollution in Agra region as per the report of Central Pollution Control Board are iron foundries, Ferro-alloyed industries, rubber processing, lime processing, engineering, chemical industry, brick refractory and vehicles. They further state that distant sources of pollution are the Mathura Refinery and Ferozabad Glass Industry. It is necessary to have a detailed survey done of the area to find out the actual industries and foundries which are working in the region.
• Furthermore, Mr. M.C. Mehta, the petitioner, however, suggested that instead of laying the pipe line from Bijapur to Dadri via Mathura, it would be economical and time saving exercise to lay down the lines from Auria or Babrala to Mathura. According to him, this would be in conformity to the Report already submitted by NEERI in this respect. he has further submitted that if the pipe- line is drawn from Auria, it would also serve the industries at Ferozabad and Agra.

Varadharajan Committee Report:

• The Expert Committee’s recommendation that steps may be taken to ensure that no new industry, including small industries or other units, which can cause pollution are located north-west of the Taj Mahal, has been enforced. However, efforts to relocate existing small industries, particularly the foundries, in an area south-east of Agra beyond the Taj Mahal, have not been successful. Also, the Report clearly shows that the level of Suspended Particulate Matters (SPM) in the Taj Mahal area is high.
• M.C. Mehta and Mr. Krishan Mahajan had taken the court through some parts of the report. There are now two major reports on the subject. There is a NEERI report to which we have referred to in our various orders from time to time. NEERI report was submitted sometime in July 1993. In its report, NEERI suggested that in order to preserve Taj it is necessary to re-locate various industries located in Taj Trapezium. The Vardharajan Committee Report now received also suggests the relocation of the industries situated in Taj Trapezium. The Vardharajan Committee has also given various other useful suggestions for improving the atmospheric environmental quality around Taj and also for preservation of Taj Mahal

Arguments from Respondent

• Venugopal, learned senior counsel appearing for the UPSIDC states that the UPSIDC would examine the demand of each of the industry and thereafter locate the requisite area outside the Taj Trapezium for shifting these industries. The court proposed to issue public/individual notices inviting objections/suggestions from the industries concerned. Mr. Venugopal stated that he would prepare & file the format of the said notice. This matter to come up for further consideration on 8.4.94.
• Sibal and Mr. Parekh, learned counsel appearing for most of the industries have informed the court that the industries are taking steps to approach the GAIL for gas connection. Mr. Parekh further states that most of them have already done it. This is a matter between the industries and GAIL. It is for their benefits that the industries should approach the GAIL for gas connection.”
• Finally , Mr. Kapil Sibal and Mr. Sanjay parikh, learned counsel for the industries have clearly stated that all the industries would accept gas as an industrial-fuel. The whole purpose is to stop air pollution by banishing coke/coal from TTZ.

Environmental Principles Applied and Analysis

• Precautionary Principle: [Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum vs. Union of India & Ors. (1996)] The State Government and statutory authorities must anticipate, prevent and attack the main causes of environmental pollution to prevent any further damage. In cases of serious threats and irreversible damage, lack of scientific certainty must not be a reason to prevent the authorities to take measures against environmental degradation. The onus of proof is on the actor/developer/industrialist that his action was environmentally benign.
• Polluter Pays Principle: [Indian Council for Enviro-legal Action vs. Union of India (1996)] Once the hazardous or inherently dangerous activity is carried on, the person carrying out the activity is liable to make good the loss irrespective of the fact that whether he took reasonable care while carrying out the activity.
• Article 21: Protection of life and personal liberty.
• Article 47: The article recognises the duty of State to raise the level of nutrition and standard of living and to improve public health.
• Article 51.A(g): The State must protect and improve the natural and environment including the forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and have compassion for the living creatures.

Apex Court’s Opinions in Taj Trapezium Case

• There has been usage of coke/coal by the identified 292 industries located in TTZ. It has led to atmospheric and environmental pollution causing deterioration of Taj. Article 21 protects the quality of life of affected people residing in TTZ . The Apex Court opined usage of coke/coal by the industries of TTZ as an industrial fuel must be stopped. The factors considered were:  taking cognizance of residents’ health in TTZ (Article 47) and sustainable development of the monument (Article 51.A.(g)).
• Applying the precautionary principle , the authorities must anticipate, prevent and attack the root cause deterioration of Taj (caused due to environmental degradation) to ensure sustainable development. The onus of proof was on the industries to prove that the usage of coke/coal is environmentally benign but they failed to do so and it is proved beyond doubt that the usage of these industrial fuels is main air pollutants causing degradation of Taj.

Rights and benefits for workmen employed in 292 Industries:

• Continuity of employment at the new town and place where the industry is shifted with same terms and conditions of employment.
• The period between the closure of the industry and its restart  would be treated as active employment. Hence, the workmen had to be paid their full wages with continuity of service.
• All those workmen who agreed to shift with the industry had to be given one year’s wages as ‘shifting bonus’ to help them settle at the new location.
• The workmen employed in the industries who did not intend to relocate/obtain natural gas and opt for closure, were deemed to have been retrenched by May 31, 1997, provided they have been in continuous service (as defined in Section 25-B of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947) for not less than one year in the industries concerned before the said date.
• The compensation paid within two months of the retrenchment of workmen.

Judgement in Taj Trapezium Case

• The court held that those pollution causing industries will shift from coke/coal to natural gas as their industrial fuel.
• The industries which fail to obtain for the gas connection must stop functioning in TTZ. Further, may relocate themselves in the alternative plot provided to them by GAIL away from TTZ.
• The workmen of these industries were provided with the assurance of continuance of their employment during relocation period . Moreover, ‘shifting bonus’ will be provided for their relocation.
• Workmen refusing to relocate will be retrenched. They would be provided with c ompensation as per S.25-F(b) Industries Disputes Act along with gratuity amount in addition.

Critical Analysis and Conclusion of Taj Trapezium Case

The judgment only covers only 292 industries out of the 510 names presented by the pollution control board. The rest of the industries also caused the pollution in some ways resulting in the yellowing of the marble. However, the court repositioned only those industries which refused to accept natural gas as a substitute fuel.

Nevertheless, this landmark judgement of Taj Trapezium Case helped recognize the issue of environmental damage around the Taj Mahal. It highlighted few causes for the depredation of the marbling of the monument along with recognizing other environmental problems. The Apex Court took a remarkable initiative by giving due consideration to various principles and concepts of environmental law.

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The Taj Mahal is turning yellow – and time's ticking to restore it

The marble in india’s once ivory-white mausoleum is undergoing a natural oxidation process – but pollution and acid rain are also robbing the building of its mystical sheen, article bookmarked.

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The saying goes that the Taj Mahal is pinkish in the morning, milky white in the evening and golden when the moon shines. Though this may once have been true for the famously pristine marble monument, a mixture of pollution and poor management has now burdened the Taj with a 24-hour layer of yellowy brown. Condemning the “lethargy” of restoration efforts, the Supreme Court of India recently told the government to restore the Taj or demolish it.

Located in Agra, in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, the Taj Mahal is one of the most iconically beautiful buildings in the world. Built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as a testament to his grief, following the death of his favourite wife Mumtaz Mahal, the poet Rabindranath Tagore called it “a tear running down the cheek of time”.

The Taj was constructed of translucent white marble, brought to Agra from the northwest Indian region of Rajasthan. It was then inlaid with semiprecious stones, including jasper, jade, turquoise, lapis lazuli, sapphire and carnelian. The whole riverside complex, including the gardens and surrounding sandstone walls, was finished in 1653.

A mausoleum in need of new life

Over the last four centuries the Taj has aged and darkened as a result of natural oxidation processes – the marble equivalent of rust – but it has been given no help by its hostile surroundings. It has been drenched in acid rain, coated in soot from industrial and domestic chimneys, and eroded by atmospheric pollutants.

Air pollution in Indian cities is legendary, and Agra is no exception. As in many Asian cities, increasing car ownership has caused traffic to surge, while dirty air seeps from Agra’s oil refinery and tannery chimneys. These pollutants – sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and mainly carbon-based particulates – have steadily weathered and eroded the Taj’s brilliant white facade, giving it a yellow sheen. Despite the establishment of a 4,000-square mile protective area around the site, (the Taj Trapezium Zone), within which emissions are supposedly strictly controlled, photographs show a marked deterioration in the Taj’s condition over the last few years.

Legal emission limits have been long contested by developers and are widely ignored. Smoky funeral pyres are lit, and piles of rubbish are regularly burned very close to the buildings. Pollution from the Yamuna river presents a further challenge. Untreated sewage and industrial waste pours in from the city, creating nutrient-rich waters. These nutrients are then picked up by the wind and deposited in the Taj’s increasingly porous stonework, allowing river-derived microorganisms to thrive on its surfaces, colouring them green.

Allegedly, excrement from the many insects that thrive in the contaminated river water has hastened the damage, but the effect is surely negligible compared to that of fossil fuel-derived sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.

Since 1998, a range of Indian research institutes have explored restoration methods, and millions have been spent trying to reverse the discolouration. One attempt involved smothering the Taj with damp clay poultices similar to face packs. It was hoped they would draw the damaging acids out of the surface layers of marble but if anything they seem to have made the situation worse.

A template for renewal

In London, some 50 years after the completion of the Taj Mahal, Sir Christopher Wren designed a structure of comparable ambition. St Paul’s Cathedral was finished around 1711, a resting place for the nation’s great and good, and was built from the light-coloured, calcerous rock: Portland stone.

St Paul’s has suffered many of the same problems as the Taj Mahal – acid rain, soot, atmospheric pollutants, darkening with age. But after 40 years of monitoring by teams of university geographers, employing scientific techniques such as repeated observation with microerosion meters, the extent of the weathering is far better understood

Older British readers may recall the infamous smogs that engulfed Britain’s cities in the 1940s and 1950s. Four-hundred years of coal-powered domestic heating, and latterly the fumes emanating from vehicles and coal-fired power stations, allowed sulphur dioxide and fine particles of carbon to reach toxic levels in London’s air.

On cold, still autumn evenings, dense chemical smog can do as much damage to calcerous or chalky stone as it can to people’s lungs. Combined with rainfall it creates weak sulphuric or nitric acid, which over centuries can erode calcareous stone. When St. Paul’s was closely examined in the 1980s, some of the parapets and carvings had crumbled away completely, leaving stone surfaces held together by black sooty crusts, hiding the voids beneath.

The worst excesses of soot and sulphur dioxide have been curbed by environmental legislation, though the atmospheric nitrogen produced by traffic, particularly diesel vehicles, still causes problems. Like Agra, London regularly breaks the World Health Organisation limits on air pollution.

However, the rate of weathering on St Paul’s seems to have halved with the fall in atmospheric sulphur dioxide. Concerns remain over microflora growing on stone surfaces, but sensitive cleaning and the odd replacement stone have largely protected Wren’s legacy. It remains to be seen whether the Taj can be similarly restored.

The Taj Mahal is a wonder of the modern world, but this national and international treasure needs swift and decisive action if it is not to lose its legendary lustre.

Carolyn Roberts is an entrepreneur in residence at the Mercia Centre for Innovation Leadership, Keele University. This article first appeared on The Conversation (theconversation.com)

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Case Study on Taj Mahal

Taj mahal case study:.

Taj Mahal is the mausoleum and mosque, which is situated in Agra, India on the banks of the river Yamuna. The mausoleum was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan to commemorate his wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died during the birth of her fourteenth child. Later there was buried the emperor himself.

Taj Mahal is considered to be the greatest example of the Mughal style in architecture, because it includes the elements of various architecture styles: Persian, Indian and Islamic, no wonder the mausoleum was made a World Heritage Site in 1983 and is protected by UNESCO. Taj Mahal is considered to be one of the greatest buildings in India and the whole world.Every year millions of tourists from different corners of the world come to see it.In spite of the fact, that the enormous white dome is the most recognizable component of Taj Mahal, the mausoleum is a great integrated complex of buildings. Taj Mahal was being built for 21 years and more than twenty thousand experts worked there under the severe control of the emperor himself.

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There are two mausoleums in Taj Mahal, the emperor’s and his wife’s and the whole complex is 74 meters high. The walls are decorated with the expensive white marble, which was transported 300 km far. The marble possesses a wonderful quality to look white in the morning, purple in the evening and silver at night. Not so long ago numerous cracks were discovered in the marble and the marble has lost its white colour because of the air pollution.It is interesting to get to know about such a famous architectural complex as Taj Mahal, so if one has got an assignment to prepare a case study on it, he will have to pay much attention to the history of the mausoleum and its structure.

When a student is asked to investigate the case connected with Taj Mahal, he will need to research the case site to catch the main idea of the problem and to understand the reasons of the problem from the professional point of view.Moreover, he is supposed to analyze the consequences of the problem and suggest effective solutions to the problem.Case study writing can cause many troubles to the inexperienced students who do not know how to compose a case study correctly. Such students definitely require good help of the professional, so a free sample case study on Taj Mahal marble cancer will be quite helpful for everyone. It is useful to look through a well­organized free example case study on Taj Mahal air pollution and observe the manner of the analysis of the problem and the standards of formatting on the direct sample paper.

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The Taj Mahal is wasting away, and it may soon hit the point of no return

Entrepreneur in Residence, Mercia Centre for Innovation Leadership, Keele University

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Carolyn Roberts does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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The saying goes that the Taj Mahal is pinkish in the morning, milky white in the evening, and golden when the moon shines. Though this may once have been true for the famously pristine marble monument, a mixture of pollution and poor management has now burdened the Taj with a 24-hour layer of yellowy-brown. Condemning the “lethargy” of restoration efforts, India’s Supreme Court recently told the government to restore the Taj or demolish it .

Located in Agra, in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, the Taj Mahal is one of the most iconically beautiful buildings in the world. Built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as a testament to his grief, following the death of his first wife Mumtaz Mahal, Rabindranath Tagore called it “a tear running down the cheek of time”.

The Taj was constructed of translucent white marble, brought to Agra from the north-west Indian region of Rajasthan. It was then inlaid with semiprecious stones, including jasper, jade, turquoise, lapis lazuli, sapphire and carnelian. The whole riverside complex, including the gardens and surrounding sandstone walls, was finished in 1653.

A mausoleum in need of new life

Over the last four centuries the Taj has aged and darkened as a result of natural oxidation processes – the marble equivalent of rust – but it has been given no help by its hostile surroundings. It has been drenched in acid rain, coated in soot from industrial and domestic chimneys, and eroded by atmospheric pollutants.

Air pollution in Indian cities is legendary, and Agra is no exception. As in many Asian cities, increasing car ownership has caused traffic to surge, while dirty air seeps from Agra’s oil refinery and tannery chimneys. These pollutants – sulphur dioxide, Nox gases , and mainly carbon-based particulates – have steadily weathered and eroded the Taj’s brilliant white façade, giving it a yellow sheen. Despite the establishment of a 4,000 square mile protective area around the site, ( the Taj Trapezium Zone ), within which emissions are supposedly strictly controlled, photographs show a marked deterioration in the Taj’s condition over the last few years.

Legal emission limits have been long contested by developers, and are widely ignored. Smoky funeral pyres are lit, and piles of rubbish are regularly burned very close to the buildings. Pollution from the Yamuna River presents a further challenge. Untreated sewage and industrial waste pours in from the city, creating nutrient-rich waters. These nutrients are then picked up by the wind and deposited in the Taj’s increasingly porous stonework, allowing river-derived microorganisms to thrive on its surfaces, colouring them green.

Allegedly, excrement from the many insects that thrive in the contaminated river water has hastened the damage, but the effect is surely negligible compared to that of fossil fuel-derived sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.

Since 1998, a range of Indian research institutes have explored restoration methods, and millions have been spent trying to reverse the discolouration. One attempt involved smothering the Taj with damp clay poultices similar to face packs . It was hoped they would draw the damaging acids out of the surface layers of marble, but, if anything, they seem to have made the situation worse.

A template for renewal

In London, some 50 years after the completion of the Taj Mahal, Sir Christopher Wren designed a structure of comparable ambition. St Paul’s Cathedral was finished around 1711, a resting place for the nation’s great and good, and was built from the light-coloured, calcerous rock, Portland Stone .

St Paul’s has suffered many of the same problems as the Taj Mahal – acid rain, soot, atmospheric pollutants, darkening with age. But after 40 years of monitoring by teams of university geographers, employing scientific techniques such as repeated observation with microerosion meters , the extent of the weathering is far better understood

Older British readers may recall the infamous smogs that engulfed Britain’s cities in the 1940s and 50s. Four hundred years of coal-powered domestic heating, and latterly the fumes emanating from vehicles and coal-fired power stations, allowed sulphur dioxide and fine particles of carbon to reach toxic levels in London’s air.

On cold, still autumn evenings, dense chemical smog can do as much damage to calcerous or chalky stone as it can to people’s lungs. Combined with rainfall it creates weak sulphuric or nitric acid , which over centuries can erode calcareous stone. When St. Paul’s was closely examined in the 1980s, some of the parapets and carvings had crumbled away completely leaving stone surfaces held together by black sooty crusts , hiding the voids beneath.

The worst excesses of soot and sulphur dioxide have been curbed by environmental legislation, though the atmospheric nitrogen produced by traffic, particularly diesel vehicles, still causes problems. Like Agra, London regularly breaks the World Health Organisation limits on air pollution.

However, the rate of weathering on St Paul’s seems to have halved with the fall in atmospheric sulphur dioxide. Concerns remain over microflora growing on stone surfaces, but sensitive cleaning and the odd replacement stone have largely protected Wren’s legacy. It remains to be seen whether the Taj can be similarly restored.

The Taj Mahal is a wonder of the modern world, but this national and international treasure needs swift and decisive action if it is not to lose its legendary lustre.

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Air pollution causing discolouration of Taj Mahal: study

Air pollution is fast leading to the discolouration of the Taj Mahal, Agra’s famous white-marble monument of love, a study by two scientists at the Indian Institute of Technology (Kanpur) has claimed.

In a year-long programme, professor SN Tripathi of the civil engineering department at the institute and the coordinator at the Centre for Environmental Science and Engineering, professor Tarun Gupta, found that high levels of light absorbing particles including black carbon, light absorbing organic carbon (brown carbon) and dust was present in the area around the monument.

The study estimated the impact the deposited particles had on the perceived colour of the Taj Mahal by the human eye. Results indicated the light-absorbing dust, black carbon and the brown carbon generated from the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass were responsible for the discolouration, Tripathi said.

The two scientists also used several pre-cleaned white-marble deposition targets near the main dome of the monument to study the effect air pollution had on their colour. The targets were found covered with coarse particles and had become darker in colour, Tripathi said.

It was also noted that the ambient particulate concentration, which is an indicator of air pollution, was significantly higher than the annual world Health Organization guidelines.

The domed monument was built by the Mogul Emperor Shah Jahan between 1632 and 1654 for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It houses their graves and a mosque, as well as several other graves of Mogul royalty. Around 30 lakh tourists visit the site every year.

To cut back on pollution, cars and buses are not permitted to drive to the Taj Mahal but must be parked at a lot about 2km away, where visitors can take battery-run buses or horse-drawn carriages.

Tripathi, however, said the measures already being taken by the government were not enough and more stringent guidelines were needed to protect the heritage building.

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A beginner's guide to Taj Mahal in 10 essential videos

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The Grammy award-winning Taj Mahal counts Led Zeppelin amongst his support acts and Barack Obama amongst his fans. Here's ten important moments from a 40-year career.

Leaving Trunk

Taj Mahal’s big crossover moment should’ve been The Rolling Stones Rock And Roll Circus , an all-star event filmed for the BBC in December 1968. Taj lined up alongside the Stones, The Who , John Lennon , Eric Clapton , Marianne Faithfull and Jethro Tull .

Alas, Jagger & co. were unhappy with their own performance and opted to leave the footage on the shelf until 1996. This cover of Sleepy John Estes’ Leaving Trunk was one of four songs from Mahal and his band, the others being Checkin’ Up On My Baby, Corinna and Ain’t That A Lot Of Love .

Tomorrow May Not Be Your Day

By 1971 Taj was onto his fourth album - Happy Just To Be Like I Am – in as many years. Captured on German TV show Beat Club , this version of Tomorrow May Not Be Your Day features the band at its blues-buzzing best, with Mahal ably assisted by songwriting foil and guitarist Jesse Ed Davis.

December 1972 saw actress Cicely Tyson join Taj on American TV's Soul! , primarily to promote the movie Sounder , a Depression-era drama centred around the lives of black sharecroppers in Louisiana. Mahal played several selections from the soundtrack, along with the dazzling, banjo-driven Ricochet . The song can be found on Taj’s own album from that year, Recycling The Blues & Other Related Stuff .

She Caught The Katy

Co-written with Tennessee blues legend James ‘Yank’ Rachell, She Caught The Katy (And Left Me A Mule To Ride) , originally appeared on 1969’s The Natch’l Blues . In October 1989, Mahal fetched up on TV show Night Music , a showcase for jazz-centric musicians that aired for two seasons. Here he’s joined for a starry finale by, among others, Todd Rundgren and Pat Metheny.

Fishin’ Blues

Texan guitarist Henry Thomas laid down the blueprint for ragtime blues in the late ‘20s. His composition Fishin’ Blues , initially cut by the Lovin’ Spoonful in 1965, was one of the highlights of Taj’s De Old Folks At Home , which landed four years later. Here he is three decades or so further on, giving it the acoustic treatment at Amoeba Records in San Francisco.

Corinna Corinna

Taj first recorded the traditional folk-blues staple Corinna Corinna in the mid ‘60s, during his short-lived stint with Ry Cooder in The Rising Sons. It was a tune he was to revisit several times throughout his career, including on stage with The Rolling Stones in St. Louis in 1997 . This version, however, comes from the Second Annual Boulder Roots and Blues Festival in May 2012.

The recipient of his first Grammy Award for Señor Blues in 1998, Mahal and his trio were still on the up when they appeared on Later Live with Jools Holland in November 2010, performing a lively cover of Hank Ballard's The Hoochi Coochi Coo. For once, Jools Holland wasn't on piano, and we should all be thankful for that.

Just A Closer Walk With Thee

Album and film Play The Blues: Live From Jazz at Lincoln Centre, recorded in April 2011, was essentially a two-way showcase for Wynton Marsalis and Eric Clapton. Special guest, though, was one of Clapton’s late ‘60s heroes, Taj Mahal. Here he takes the reins for a smouldering rendition of an old New Orleans gospel hymn.

Six Days On The Road

In May 2013, having previously been guest on the Bridges To Babylon Tour, Taj was invited onto the stage by the Stones in Chicago. Cue hard-time blues and a very loud shirt. Six Days On The Road , made famous 50 years earlier by country star Dave Dudley, is a tribute to American truck-drivin’ tradition.

Statesboro Blues

Mahal’s skills for reinterpretation have perhaps never been better illustrated than on Statesboro Blues , originally by Blind Willie McTell. The song formed the central pillar of his 1968 debut LP and subsequent live act.

It’s hard to choose which of these 2014 versions is better, so why not enjoy them both? The first with Gregg Allman , comes from All My Friends: Celebrating The Songs And Voice of Gregg Allman . The second, from September’s Americana Music Awards in Nashville (where Taj won a Lifetime Achievement Award for Performance) features old buddy, Ry Cooder.