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The Future of Solar Energy

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The Future of Solar Energy considers only the two widely recognized classes of technologies for converting solar energy into electricity — photovoltaics (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP), sometimes called solar thermal) — in their current and plausible future forms. Because energy supply facilities typically last several decades, technologies in these classes will dominate solar-powered generation between now and 2050, and we do not attempt to look beyond that date. In contrast to some earlier Future of studies, we also present no forecasts — for two reasons. First, expanding the solar industry dramatically from its relatively tiny current scale may produce changes we do not pretend to be able to foresee today. Second, we recognize that future solar deployment will depend heavily on uncertain future market conditions and public policies — including but not limited to policies aimed at mitigating global climate change.

As in other studies in this series, our primary aim is to inform decision-makers in the developed world, particularly the United States. We concentrate on the use of grid-connected solar-powered generators to replace conventional sources of electricity. For the more than one billion people in the developing world who lack access to a reliable electric grid, the cost of small-scale PV generation is often outweighed by the very high value of access to electricity for lighting and charging mobile telephone and radio batteries. In addition, in some developing nations it may be economic to use solar generation to reduce reliance on imported oil, particularly if that oil must be moved by truck to remote generator sites. A companion working paper discusses both these valuable roles for solar energy in the developing world.

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MIT Energy Initiative Director Robert Armstrong shares perspectives on past successes and ongoing and future energy projects at the Institute.

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Solar thermal energy articles within Scientific Reports

Article 08 May 2023 | Open Access

A novel dual feedwater circuit for a parabolic trough solar power plant

• Wisam Abed Kattea Al-Maliki
• , Sajda S. Alsaedi
•  &  Bernd Epple

Article 31 October 2022 | Open Access

Parametric study for optimizing double-layer microchannel heat sink for solar panel thermal management

• Hesham I. Elqady
• , A. H. El-Shazly
•  &  M. F. Elkady

Article 27 October 2022 | Open Access

Highly efficient, perfect, large angular and ultrawideband solar energy absorber for UV to MIR range

• Shobhit K. Patel
• , Arun Kumar Udayakumar
•  &  Juveriya Parmar

Article 13 October 2022 | Open Access

Effect of passive solar drying on food security in rural Mozambique

• Custodio Matavel
• , Harald Kächele
•  &  Klaus Müller

Article 01 March 2022 | Open Access

Photothermal conversion of biodegradable fluids and carbon black nanofluids

• Anna Kosinska
• , Boris V. Balakin
•  &  Pawel Kosinski

Article 28 December 2021 | Open Access

Flux profile at focal area of concentrating solar dishes

• M. Ebrahim Foulaadvand
• , Amir Aghamohammadi
•  &  Hadi Borzouei

Article 24 November 2020 | Open Access

High-efficiency solar thermoelectric conversion enabled by movable charging of molten salts

• , Zongyu Wang
•  &  Yulong Ji

Article 29 September 2020 | Open Access

Copper microsphere hybrid mesoporous carbon as matrix for preparation of shape-stabilized phase change materials with improved thermal properties

•  &  Zhi Han

Article 22 July 2019 | Open Access

Efficient Volumetric Absorption Solar Thermal Platforms Employing Thermally Stable - Solar Selective Nanofluids Engineered from Used Engine Oil

• Nirmal Singh
•  &  Vikrant Khullar

Article 26 March 2019 | Open Access

A High Energy Density Azobenzene/Graphene Oxide Hybrid with Weak Nonbonding Interactions for Solar Thermal Storage

• Wenhui Pang
• , Jijun Xue
•  &  Pang Hua

Article 18 March 2019 | Open Access

Coffee-based colloids for direct solar absorption

• Matteo Alberghini
• , Matteo Morciano
•  &  Pietro Asinari

Article 20 September 2017 | Open Access

Efficient steam generation by inexpensive narrow gap evaporation device for solar applications

• Matteo Morciano
• , Matteo Fasano

Article 06 April 2017 | Open Access

Lanthanum hexaboride for solar energy applications

• , Luca Mercatelli
•  &  Diletta Sciti

Article 16 March 2017 | Open Access

High photon-to-heat conversion efficiency in the wavelength region of 250–1200 nm based on a thermoelectric Bi 2 Te 3 film structure

•  &  Liang-Yao Chen

Article 27 July 2016 | Open Access

Water droplet impact on elastic superhydrophobic surfaces

• Patricia B. Weisensee
• , Junjiao Tian
•  &  William P. King

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Solar thermal technologies deployed in around 400 million dwellings by 2030

Part of Technology and innovation pathways for zero-carbon-ready buildings by 2030

About this report

This analysis is part of a series from our new report, Technology and innovation pathways for zero-carbon-ready buildings by 2030 , and provides the strategic vision of experts from the IEA Technology Collaboration Programmes (TCPs) on how to help achieve some of the most impactful short-term milestones for the buildings sector outlined in the IEA’s Net Zero by 2050 Roadmap ; each report’s title reflects one of these milestones. Learn more about the report and explore the TCPs .

Worldwide, dwellings using solar thermal technologies for water heating reached 250 million in 2020. To achieve the milestone of 400 million dwellings by 2030 in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario (NZE Scenario), 290 million new solar thermal systems will need to be installed this decade. This deployment target takes into account the expected decommissioning of solar thermal systems which will happen during 2020s. According to the IEA Solar Heating and Cooling (SHC) TCP , 170 million new solar thermal systems using standard technologies and 120 million new solar thermal systems using emerging technologies will need to be installed by 2030.

Therefore, the deployment of solar thermal technologies in the 2020s will need to at least match the total deployment from the previous two decades for the 2030 milestone to be met. The contribution from emerging solar thermal technologies will be critical to meet this goal. Targeted innovation (technology, regulatory, and market) directed towards bringing these emerging technologies into their growth phase will be necessary in the next five years.

To achieve the 400 million dwelling target, a hybrid approach of deploying standard and emerging solar thermal technologies by 2030 will be required. Government support for large-scale pilot projects of the emerging smart solar-powered heat storage systems in the 2020s could direct this technology towards the 9 th  Technological Readiness Level (TRL) internationally by the end of the decade. 

Penetration of solar thermal technologies under current trends with respect to the Net Zero Scenario deployment target to 2030

Solar thermal technologies can provide high fractions of water heating demand at low capital cost, even in cold climates. They can be used stand-alone or integrated into virtually any type of heating system, regardless of the primary heat source (direct electricity, heat pumps, district heating, biomass, or clean fuels). Exemplary uses of standard solar thermal technologies (evacuated tube and flat plate) with water-based heat storage include: 

• High-density housing developments because standard collectors, including hybrid photovoltaic-thermal collectors , have a high useful heat output per meter square of collector.
• District heating networks (with and without seasonal storage) can provide a very low levelised cost of heat using centralised MW-scale solar thermal plants .
• Rural low heat demand housing in low- and middle-income countries as low-cost solar thermosiphon and solar swimming pool heaters can provide quicker financial payback than other water heating technologies.
• Very high solar fraction combi systems (space heating and hot water) for single-family buildings are particularly suitable for rural houses in middle- and high-income countries.

Many of the 100 million households targeted in the NZE Scenario to rely on rooftop solar PV by 2030 could have power-to-heat related technologies installed that work intelligently to optimise self-consumption. These emerging solar thermal technologies are:

• Electrical heat storage (including hot water tanks and compact heat stores , both residential scale and district heating scale) using the power from solar photovoltaics (on-site and/or off-site). These types of smart solar-powered heat storage systems are suitable for rural and urban housing in middle- and high-income countries and are currently at the 7 th TRL in Europe.
• Heat pumps (heating, cooling and dehumidification) and direct electric heating using the power from solar photovoltaics (on-site and/or off-site). These are particularly suitable for rural houses in middle- and high-income countries.
• Centralised solar power combined with air conditioning is particularly suitable for high-density housing in the sunbelt regions (±10ᵒ from both the Northern and Southern Tropic).

Current state

Deployment growth rates for standard solar thermal technologies have generally declined globally in recent years, however, 2021 did show a change in this downward trend with a positive growth rate of 3%. Some markets in 2021 have demonstrated that significant year-on-year deployment growth rates of standard solar thermal are still achievable, with Italy, Brazil and the United States posting growth rates of 83%, 28% and 19%, respectively.

Data is scarce on the current deployment of emerging solar thermal technologies (e.g. solar photovoltaic to heat), however markets such as South Africa have already reached 10 MWp since the start of data collection in 2018.

The major challenges to achieving the 2030 milestone are the certification and installation standards for solar thermal technologies (standard and emerging), which are currently not sufficiently harmonised across all regions. The discontinuous deployment and promotion policies are not conducive to the efficient development of the solar thermal industry; and innovation spending is often not aligned with industrial strategy, leading to poor allocation of research funding and weak internal markets for solar thermal technologies. 

Innovation themes covered by the IEA TCPs

• Advancing solar thermal support schemes towards achieving the 2030 deployment milestone, whilst also securing prosperity and creating sustainable employment opportunities.
• Enabling the comprehensive integration of solar energy considerations into local planning and buildings energy codes (new building and renovation of existing buildings).
• Research and demonstration that would result in the lowering of capital cost, improving the technical performance, enhancing the installation experience , and removing the market barriers of emerging and standard solar thermal technologies.

Policy recommendations

Cite report

IEA (2022), Solar thermal technologies deployed in around 400 million dwellings by 2030 , IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/solar-thermal-technologies-deployed-in-around-400-million-dwellings-by-2030, Licence: CC BY 4.0

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Article Contents

Introduction, 1 installed capacity and application of solar energy worldwide, 2 the role of solar energy in sustainable development, 3 the perspective of solar energy, 4 conclusions, conflict of interest statement.

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Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development

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Ali O M Maka, Jamal M Alabid, Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development, Clean Energy , Volume 6, Issue 3, June 2022, Pages 476–483, https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkac023

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Solar energy is environmentally friendly technology, a great energy supply and one of the most significant renewable and green energy sources. It plays a substantial role in achieving sustainable development energy solutions. Therefore, the massive amount of solar energy attainable daily makes it a very attractive resource for generating electricity. Both technologies, applications of concentrated solar power or solar photovoltaics, are always under continuous development to fulfil our energy needs. Hence, a large installed capacity of solar energy applications worldwide, in the same context, supports the energy sector and meets the employment market to gain sufficient development. This paper highlights solar energy applications and their role in sustainable development and considers renewable energy’s overall employment potential. Thus, it provides insights and analysis on solar energy sustainability, including environmental and economic development. Furthermore, it has identified the contributions of solar energy applications in sustainable development by providing energy needs, creating jobs opportunities and enhancing environmental protection. Finally, the perspective of solar energy technology is drawn up in the application of the energy sector and affords a vision of future development in this domain.

With reference to the recommendations of the UN, the Climate Change Conference, COP26, was held in Glasgow , UK, in 2021. They reached an agreement through the representatives of the 197 countries, where they concurred to move towards reducing dependency on coal and fossil-fuel sources. Furthermore, the conference stated ‘the various opportunities for governments to prioritize health and equity in the international climate movement and sustainable development agenda’. Also, one of the testaments is the necessity to ‘create energy systems that protect and improve climate and health’ [ 1 , 2 ].

The Paris Climate Accords is a worldwide agreement on climate change signed in 2015, which addressed the mitigation of climate change, adaptation and finance. Consequently, the representatives of 196 countries concurred to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions [ 3 ]. The Paris Agreement is essential for present and future generations to attain a more secure and stable environment. In essence, the Paris Agreement has been about safeguarding people from such an uncertain and progressively dangerous environment and ensuring everyone can have the right to live in a healthy, pollutant-free environment without the negative impacts of climate change [ 3 , 4 ].

In recent decades, there has been an increase in demand for cleaner energy resources. Based on that, decision-makers of all countries have drawn up plans that depend on renewable sources through a long-term strategy. Thus, such plans reduce the reliance of dependence on traditional energy sources and substitute traditional energy sources with alternative energy technology. As a result, the global community is starting to shift towards utilizing sustainable energy sources and reducing dependence on traditional fossil fuels as a source of energy [ 5 , 6 ].

In 2015, the UN adopted the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and recognized them as international legislation, which demands a global effort to end poverty, safeguard the environment and guarantee that by 2030, humanity lives in prosperity and peace. Consequently, progress needs to be balanced among economic, social and environmental sustainability models [ 7 ].

Many national and international regulations have been established to control the gas emissions and pollutants that impact the environment [ 8 ]. However, the negative effects of increased carbon in the atmosphere have grown in the last 10 years. Production and use of fossil fuels emit methane (CH 4 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and carbon monoxide (CO), which are the most significant contributors to environmental emissions on our planet. Additionally, coal and oil, including gasoline, coal, oil and methane, are commonly used in energy for transport or for generating electricity. Therefore, burning these fossil fuel s is deemed the largest emitter when used for electricity generation, transport, etc. However, these energy resources are considered depleted energy sources being consumed to an unsustainable degree [ 9–11 ].

Energy is an essential need for the existence and growth of human communities. Consequently, the need for energy has increased gradually as human civilization has progressed. Additionally, in the past few decades, the rapid rise of the world’s population and its reliance on technological developments have increased energy demands. Furthermore, green technology sources play an important role in sustainably providing energy supplies, especially in mitigating climate change [ 5 , 6 , 8 ].

Currently, fossil fuels remain dominant and will continue to be the primary source of large-scale energy for the foreseeable future; however, renewable energy should play a vital role in the future of global energy. The global energy system is undergoing a movement towards more sustainable sources of energy [ 12 , 13 ].

Power generation by fossil-fuel resources has peaked, whilst solar energy is predicted to be at the vanguard of energy generation in the near future. Moreover, it is predicted that by 2050, the generation of solar energy will have increased to 48% due to economic and industrial growth [ 13 , 14 ].

In recent years, it has become increasingly obvious that the globe must decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, ideally towards net zero, if we are to fulfil the Paris Agreement’s goal to reduce global temperature increases [ 3 , 4 ]. The net-zero emissions complement the scenario of sustainable development assessment by 2050. According to the agreed scenario of sustainable development, many industrialized economies must achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. However, the net-zero emissions 2050 brought the first detailed International Energy Agency (IEA) modelling of what strategy will be required over the next 10 years to achieve net-zero carbon emissions worldwide by 2050 [ 15–17 ].

The global statistics of greenhouse gas emissions have been identified; in 2019, there was a 1% decrease in CO 2 emissions from the power industry; that figure dropped by 7% in 2020 due to the COVID-19 crisis, thus indicating a drop in coal-fired energy generation that is being squeezed by decreasing energy needs, growth of renewables and the shift away from fossil fuels. As a result, in 2020, the energy industry was expected to generate ~13 Gt CO 2 , representing ~40% of total world energy sector emissions related to CO 2 . The annual electricity generation stepped back to pre-crisis levels by 2021, although due to a changing ‘fuel mix’, the CO 2 emissions in the power sector will grow just a little before remaining roughly steady until 2030 [ 15 ].

Therefore, based on the information mentioned above, the advantages of solar energy technology are a renewable and clean energy source that is plentiful, cheaper costs, less maintenance and environmentally friendly, to name but a few. The significance of this paper is to highlight solar energy applications to ensure sustainable development; thus, it is vital to researchers, engineers and customers alike. The article’s primary aim is to raise public awareness and disseminate the culture of solar energy usage in daily life, since moving forward, it is the best. The scope of this paper is as follows. Section 1 represents a summary of the introduction. Section 2 represents a summary of installed capacity and the application of solar energy worldwide. Section 3 presents the role of solar energy in the sustainable development and employment of renewable energy. Section 4 represents the perspective of solar energy. Finally, Section 5 outlines the conclusions and recommendations for future work.

1.1 Installed capacity of solar energy

The history of solar energy can be traced back to the seventh century when mirrors with solar power were used. In 1893, the photovoltaic (PV) effect was discovered; after many decades, scientists developed this technology for electricity generation [ 18 ]. Based on that, after many years of research and development from scientists worldwide, solar energy technology is classified into two key applications: solar thermal and solar PV.

PV systems convert the Sun’s energy into electricity by utilizing solar panels. These PV devices have quickly become the cheapest option for new electricity generation in numerous world locations due to their ubiquitous deployment. For example, during the period from 2010 to 2018, the cost of generating electricity by solar PV plants decreased by 77%. However, solar PV installed capacity progress expanded 100-fold between 2005 and 2018. Consequently, solar PV has emerged as a key component in the low-carbon sustainable energy system required to provide access to affordable and dependable electricity, assisting in fulfilling the Paris climate agreement and in achieving the 2030 SDG targets [ 19 ].

The installed capacity of solar energy worldwide has been rapidly increased to meet energy demands. The installed capacity of PV technology from 2010 to 2020 increased from 40 334 to 709 674 MW, whereas the installed capacity of concentrated solar power (CSP) applications, which was 1266 MW in 2010, after 10 years had increased to 6479 MW. Therefore, solar PV technology has more deployed installations than CSP applications. So, the stand-alone solar PV and large-scale grid-connected PV plants are widely used worldwide and used in space applications. Fig. 1 represents the installation of solar energy worldwide.

Installation capacity of solar energy worldwide [ 20 ].

1.2 Application of solar energy

Energy can be obtained directly from the Sun—so-called solar energy. Globally, there has been growth in solar energy applications, as it can be used to generate electricity, desalinate water and generate heat, etc. The taxonomy of applications of solar energy is as follows: (i) PVs and (ii) CSP. Fig. 2 details the taxonomy of solar energy applications.

The taxonomy of solar energy applications.

Solar cells are devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity; typical semiconductor materials are utilized to form a PV solar cell device. These materials’ characteristics are based on atoms with four electrons in their outer orbit or shell. Semiconductor materials are from the periodic table’s group ‘IV’ or a mixture of groups ‘IV’ and ‘II’, the latter known as ‘II–VI’ semiconductors [ 21 ]. Additionally, a periodic table mixture of elements from groups ‘III’ and ‘V’ can create ‘III–V’ materials [ 22 ].

PV devices, sometimes called solar cells, are electronic devices that convert sunlight into electrical power. PVs are also one of the rapidly growing renewable-energy technologies of today. It is therefore anticipated to play a significant role in the long-term world electricity-generating mixture moving forward.

Solar PV systems can be incorporated to supply electricity on a commercial level or installed in smaller clusters for mini-grids or individual usage. Utilizing PV modules to power mini-grids is a great way to offer electricity to those who do not live close to power-transmission lines, especially in developing countries with abundant solar energy resources. In the most recent decade, the cost of producing PV modules has dropped drastically, giving them not only accessibility but sometimes making them the least expensive energy form. PV arrays have a 30-year lifetime and come in various shades based on the type of material utilized in their production.

The most typical method for solar PV desalination technology that is used for desalinating sea or salty water is electrodialysis (ED). Therefore, solar PV modules are directly connected to the desalination process. This technique employs the direct-current electricity to remove salt from the sea or salty water.

The technology of PV–thermal (PV–T) comprises conventional solar PV modules coupled with a thermal collector mounted on the rear side of the PV module to pre-heat domestic hot water. Accordingly, this enables a larger portion of the incident solar energy on the collector to be converted into beneficial electrical and thermal energy.

A zero-energy building is a building that is designed for zero net energy emissions and emits no carbon dioxide. Building-integrated PV (BIPV) technology is coupled with solar energy sources and devices in buildings that are utilized to supply energy needs. Thus, building-integrated PVs utilizing thermal energy (BIPV/T) incorporate creative technologies such as solar cooling [ 23 ].

A PV water-pumping system is typically used to pump water in rural, isolated and desert areas. The system consists of PV modules to power a water pump to the location of water need. The water-pumping rate depends on many factors such as pumping head, solar intensity, etc.

A PV-powered cathodic protection (CP) system is designed to supply a CP system to control the corrosion of a metal surface. This technique is based on the impressive current acquired from PV solar energy systems and is utilized for burying pipelines, tanks, concrete structures, etc.

Concentrated PV (CPV) technology uses either the refractive or the reflective concentrators to increase sunlight to PV cells [ 24 , 25 ]. High-efficiency solar cells are usually used, consisting of many layers of semiconductor materials that stack on top of each other. This technology has an efficiency of >47%. In addition, the devices produce electricity and the heat can be used for other purposes [ 26 , 27 ].

For CSP systems, the solar rays are concentrated using mirrors in this application. These rays will heat a fluid, resulting in steam used to power a turbine and generate electricity. Large-scale power stations employ CSP to generate electricity. A field of mirrors typically redirect rays to a tall thin tower in a CSP power station. Thus, numerous large flat heliostats (mirrors) are used to track the Sun and concentrate its light onto a receiver in power tower systems, sometimes known as central receivers. The hot fluid could be utilized right away to produce steam or stored for later usage. Another of the great benefits of a CSP power station is that it may be built with molten salts to store heat and generate electricity outside of daylight hours.

Mirrored dishes are used in dish engine systems to focus and concentrate sunlight onto a receiver. The dish assembly tracks the Sun’s movement to capture as much solar energy as possible. The engine includes thin tubes that work outside the four-piston cylinders and it opens into the cylinders containing hydrogen or helium gas. The pistons are driven by the expanding gas. Finally, the pistons drive an electric generator by turning a crankshaft.

A further water-treatment technique, using reverse osmosis, depends on the solar-thermal and using solar concentrated power through the parabolic trough technique. The desalination employs CSP technology that utilizes hybrid integration and thermal storage allows continuous operation and is a cost-effective solution. Solar thermal can be used for domestic purposes such as a dryer. In some countries or societies, the so-called food dehydration is traditionally used to preserve some food materials such as meats, fruits and vegetables.

Sustainable energy development is defined as the development of the energy sector in terms of energy generating, distributing and utilizing that are based on sustainability rules [ 28 ]. Energy systems will significantly impact the environment in both developed and developing countries. Consequently, the global sustainable energy system must optimize efficiency and reduce emissions [ 29 ].

The sustainable development scenario is built based on the economic perspective. It also examines what activities will be required to meet shared long-term climate benefits, clean air and energy access targets. The short-term details are based on the IEA’s sustainable recovery strategy, which aims to promote economies and employment through developing a cleaner and more reliable energy infrastructure [ 15 ]. In addition, sustainable development includes utilizing renewable-energy applications, smart-grid technologies, energy security, and energy pricing, and having a sound energy policy [ 29 ].

The demand-side response can help meet the flexibility requirements in electricity systems by moving demand over time. As a result, the integration of renewable technologies for helping facilitate the peak demand is reduced, system stability is maintained, and total costs and CO 2 emissions are reduced. The demand-side response is currently used mostly in Europe and North America, where it is primarily aimed at huge commercial and industrial electricity customers [ 15 ].

International standards are an essential component of high-quality infrastructure. Establishing legislative convergence, increasing competition and supporting innovation will allow participants to take part in a global world PV market [ 30 ]. Numerous additional countries might benefit from more actively engaging in developing global solar PV standards. The leading countries in solar PV manufacturing and deployment have embraced global standards for PV systems and highly contributed to clean-energy development. Additional assistance and capacity-building to enhance quality infrastructure in developing economies might also help support wider implementation and compliance with international solar PV standards. Thus, support can bring legal requirements and frameworks into consistency and give additional impetus for the trade of secure and high-quality solar PV products [ 19 ].

Continuous trade-led dissemination of solar PV and other renewable technologies will strengthen the national infrastructure. For instance, off-grid solar energy alternatives, such as stand-alone systems and mini-grids, could be easily deployed to assist healthcare facilities in improving their degree of services and powering portable testing sites and vaccination coolers. In addition to helping in the immediate medical crisis, trade-led solar PV adoption could aid in the improving economy from the COVID-19 outbreak, not least by providing jobs in the renewable-energy sector, which are estimated to reach >40 million by 2050 [ 19 ].

The framework for energy sustainability development, by the application of solar energy, is one way to achieve that goal. With the large availability of solar energy resources for PV and CSP energy applications, we can move towards energy sustainability. Fig. 3 illustrates plans for solar energy sustainability.

Framework for solar energy applications in energy sustainability.

The environmental consideration of such applications, including an aspect of the environmental conditions, operating conditions, etc., have been assessed. It is clean, friendly to the environment and also energy-saving. Moreover, this technology has no removable parts, low maintenance procedures and longevity.

Economic and social development are considered by offering job opportunities to the community and providing cheaper energy options. It can also improve people’s income; in turn, living standards will be enhanced. Therefore, energy is paramount, considered to be the most vital element of human life, society’s progress and economic development.

As efforts are made to increase the energy transition towards sustainable energy systems, it is anticipated that the next decade will see a continued booming of solar energy and all clean-energy technology. Scholars worldwide consider research and innovation to be substantial drivers to enhance the potency of such solar application technology.

2.1 Employment from renewable energy

The employment market has also boomed with the deployment of renewable-energy technology. Renewable-energy technology applications have created >12 million jobs worldwide. The solar PV application came as the pioneer, which created >3 million jobs. At the same time, while the solar thermal applications (solar heating and cooling) created >819 000 jobs, the CSP attained >31 000 jobs [ 20 ].

According to the reports, although top markets such as the USA, the EU and China had the highest investment in renewables jobs, other Asian countries have emerged as players in the solar PV panel manufacturers’ industry [ 31 ].

Solar energy employment has offered more employment than other renewable sources. For example, in the developing countries, there was a growth in employment chances in solar applications that powered ‘micro-enterprises’. Hence, it has been significant in eliminating poverty, which is considered the key goal of sustainable energy development. Therefore, solar energy plays a critical part in fulfilling the sustainability targets for a better plant and environment [ 31 , 32 ]. Fig. 4 illustrates distributions of world renewable-energy employment.

World renewable-energy employment [ 20 ].

The world distribution of PV jobs is disseminated across the continents as follows. There was 70% employment in PV applications available in Asia, while 10% is available in North America, 10% available in South America and 10% availability in Europe. Table 1 details the top 10 countries that have relevant jobs in Asia, North America, South America and Europe.

List of the top 10 countries that created jobs in solar PV applications [ 19 , 33 ]

Solar energy investments can meet energy targets and environmental protection by reducing carbon emissions while having no detrimental influence on the country’s development [ 32 , 34 ]. In countries located in the ‘Sunbelt’, there is huge potential for solar energy, where there is a year-round abundance of solar global horizontal irradiation. Consequently, these countries, including the Middle East, Australia, North Africa, China, the USA and Southern Africa, to name a few, have a lot of potential for solar energy technology. The average yearly solar intensity is >2800 kWh/m 2 and the average daily solar intensity is >7.5 kWh/m 2 . Fig. 5 illustrates the optimum areas for global solar irradiation.

World global solar irradiation map [ 35 ].

The distribution of solar radiation and its intensity are two important factors that influence the efficiency of solar PV technology and these two parameters vary among different countries. Therefore, it is essential to realize that some solar energy is wasted since it is not utilized. On the other hand, solar radiation is abundant in several countries, especially in developing ones, which makes it invaluable [ 36 , 37 ].

Worldwide, the PV industry has benefited recently from globalization, which has allowed huge improvements in economies of scale, while vertical integration has created strong value chains: as manufacturers source materials from an increasing number of suppliers, prices have dropped while quality has been maintained. Furthermore, the worldwide incorporated PV solar device market is growing fast, creating opportunities enabling solar energy firms to benefit from significant government help with underwriting, subsides, beneficial trading licences and training of a competent workforce, while the increased rivalry has reinforced the motivation to continue investing in research and development, both public and private [ 19 , 33 ].

The global outbreak of COVID-19 has impacted ‘cross-border supply chains’ and those investors working in the renewable-energy sector. As a result, more diversity of solar PV supply-chain processes may be required in the future to enhance long-term flexibility versus exogenous shocks [ 19 , 33 ].

It is vital to establish a well-functioning quality infrastructure to expand the distribution of solar PV technologies beyond borders and make it easier for new enterprises to enter solar PV value chains. In addition, a strong quality infrastructure system is a significant instrument for assisting local firms in meeting the demands of trade markets. Furthermore, high-quality infrastructure can help reduce associated risks with the worldwide PV project value chain, such as underperforming, inefficient and failing goods, limiting the development, improvement and export of these technologies. Governments worldwide are, at various levels, creating quality infrastructure, including the usage of metrology i.e. the science of measurement and its application, regulations, testing procedures, accreditation, certification and market monitoring [ 33 , 38 ].

The perspective is based on a continuous process of technological advancement and learning. Its speed is determined by its deployment, which varies depending on the scenario [ 39 , 40 ]. The expense trends support policy preferences for low-carbon energy sources, particularly in increased energy-alteration scenarios. Emerging technologies are introduced and implemented as quickly as they ever have been before in energy history [ 15 , 33 ].

The CSP stations have been in use since the early 1980s and are currently found all over the world. The CSP power stations in the USA currently produce >800 MW of electricity yearly, which is sufficient to power ~500 000 houses. New CSP heat-transfer fluids being developed can function at ~1288 o C, which is greater than existing fluids, to improve the efficiency of CSP systems and, as a result, to lower the cost of energy generated using this technology. Thus, as a result, CSP is considered to have a bright future, with the ability to offer large-scale renewable energy that can supplement and soon replace traditional electricity-production technologies [ 41 ]. The DESERTEC project has drawn out the possibility of CSP in the Sahara Desert regions. When completed, this investment project will have the world’s biggest energy-generation capacity through the CSP plant, which aims to transport energy from North Africa to Europe [ 42 , 43 ].

The costs of manufacturing materials for PV devices have recently decreased, which is predicted to compensate for the requirements and increase the globe’s electricity demand [ 44 ]. Solar energy is a renewable, clean and environmentally friendly source of energy. Therefore, solar PV application techniques should be widely utilized. Although PV technology has always been under development for a variety of purposes, the fact that PV solar cells convert the radiant energy from the Sun directly into electrical power means it can be applied in space and in terrestrial applications [ 38 , 45 ].

In one way or another, the whole renewable-energy sector has a benefit over other energy industries. A long-term energy development plan needs an energy source that is inexhaustible, virtually accessible and simple to gather. The Sun rises over the horizon every day around the globe and leaves behind ~108–1018 kWh of energy; consequently, it is more than humanity will ever require to fulfil its desire for electricity [ 46 ].

The technology that converts solar radiation into electricity is well known and utilizes PV cells, which are already in use worldwide. In addition, various solar PV technologies are available today, including hybrid solar cells, inorganic solar cells and organic solar cells. So far, solar PV devices made from silicon have led the solar market; however, these PVs have certain drawbacks, such as expenditure of material, time-consuming production, etc. It is important to mention here the operational challenges of solar energy in that it does not work at night, has less output in cloudy weather and does not work in sandstorm conditions. PV battery storage is widely used to reduce the challenges to gain high reliability. Therefore, attempts have been made to find alternative materials to address these constraints. Currently, this domination is challenged by the evolution of the emerging generation of solar PV devices based on perovskite, organic and organic/inorganic hybrid materials.

This paper highlights the significance of sustainable energy development. Solar energy would help steady energy prices and give numerous social, environmental and economic benefits. This has been indicated by solar energy’s contribution to achieving sustainable development through meeting energy demands, creating jobs and protecting the environment. Hence, a paramount critical component of long-term sustainability should be investigated. Based on the current condition of fossil-fuel resources, which are deemed to be depleting energy sources, finding an innovative technique to deploy clean-energy technology is both essential and expected. Notwithstanding, solar energy has yet to reach maturity in development, especially CSP technology. Also, with growing developments in PV systems, there has been a huge rise in demand for PV technology applications all over the globe. Further work needs to be undertaken to develop energy sustainably and consider other clean energy resources. Moreover, a comprehensive experimental and validation process for such applications is required to develop cleaner energy sources to decarbonize our planet.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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The combination of renewable energy sources into the power system network has been growing rapidly in recent decades. Solar energy is the most abundant renewable energy source available on the earth. Though technologies for converting sunlight energy to power have made a lot of progress, high capital price ...

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Solar Thermal Energy Storage Technology: Current Trends

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Energy security has major three measures: physical accessibility, economic affordability and environmental acceptability. For regions with an abundance of solar energy, solar thermal energy storage technology offers tremendous potential for ensuring energy security, minimizing carbon footprints, and reaching sustainable development goals. Global energy demand soared because of the economy’s recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic. By mitigating the adverse effects of solar energy uncertainties, solar thermal energy storage provides an opportunity to make the power plants economically competitive and reliable during operation. Solar thermal power plant technology is still in the early stages of market introduction, with about six gigawatts of installed capacity globally in 2020 compared to PV technology. In a developing economy, the potential for cost reduction through invention, mass production, and growing competitiveness is far from being exhausted. The objective of this review paper is to access the progress of solar thermal energy technology in India compared to world and its potential to accomplish the clean energy goals.

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Researchers discover new mechanism to cool buildings while saving energy

by University of California, Los Angeles

With temperatures rising globally, the need for more sustainable cooling options is also growing. Researchers at UCLA and their colleagues have now found an affordable and scalable process to cool buildings in the summer and heat them in the winter.

Led by Aaswath Raman, an associate professor of materials science and engineering at the UCLA Samueli School of Engineering, the research team recently published a study in Cell Reports Physical Science detailing a new method to manipulate the movement of radiant heat through common building materials to optimize thermal management.

Radiant heat, which is felt whenever a hot surface warms our bodies and homes and is carried by electromagnetic waves , travels across the entire broadband spectrum at ground level between buildings and their environments, such as streets and neighboring structures. On the other hand, heat moves between buildings and the sky in a much narrower portion of the infrared spectrum known as the atmospheric transmission window. The difference in how radiant heat travels between buildings and the sky versus the ground has long presented a challenge to cooling buildings with less skyward-facing surfaces. These buildings have been hard to cool in the summer as they retain heat from the ground and neighboring walls when the outside temperature is high. They are equally difficult to warm in wintertime as the outdoor temperature drops and the buildings lose heat.

"If we look at historical cities like Santorini in Greece or Jodhpur in India, we find that cooling buildings by making roofs and walls reflect sunlight has been practiced for centuries," said Raman, who leads the Raman Lab at UCLA Samueli. "In recent years there has been massive interest in cool roof coatings that reflect sunlight. But cooling walls and windows is a much more subtle and complex challenge."

However, with the proven success of cooling buildings by using super white paint on the roofs to reflect sunlight and radiate heat into the sky, the researchers set out to create a similar passive radiative cooling effect by coating walls and windows with materials that can better manage heat movement between buildings and their surroundings at ground level. The researchers demonstrated that materials capable of preferentially absorbing and emitting radiant heat within the atmospheric window could stay cooler than conventional building materials in the summer and warmer than they could during the winter.

"We were particularly excited when we found that materials like polypropylene, which we sourced from household plastics, can selectively radiate or absorb heat in the atmospheric window very effectively," Raman said. "These materials border on the mundane, but the same scalability that makes them common also means that we could see them thermoregulating buildings in the near future."

In addition to leveraging easily accessible cost-saving materials, the team's approach also has the added benefit of saving energy by reducing the reliance on air conditioners and heaters that are not only costly to run but also contribute to carbon dioxide emissions.

"The mechanism we proposed is completely passive, which makes it a sustainable way to cool and heat buildings with the seasons and yield untapped energy savings," said Jyotirmoy Mandal, the study's first author and a former postdoctoral scholar in Raman's lab. Mandal is now a civil and environmental engineering assistant professor at Princeton University.

According to the researchers, the new methodology can scale easily and will be especially impactful on low-income communities with limited or no access to cooling and heating systems that have seen increasing casualties resulting from extreme weather events across the globe.

Raman and his team are exploring ways to demonstrate this effect at larger building scales and its real-world energy savings, particularly in heat-vulnerable communities in Southern California.

Journal information: Cell Reports Physical Science

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Study Paraffin wax, palm wax as phase change materials for thermal energy storage in solar water heater

• Kurniawati, Desy
• Fachrizal, Noor
• Chaeruni, Wiwie
• Pansawati, Indah Sakina
• Nurmawati, Titik
• Gunadi, Dwi

Solar water heater is an effort to utilize green energy that uses solar radiation, which is quite widely available, especially in tropical countries such as Indonesia. Optimization of heat storage in the tank of solar water heater continues to be developed, by adding insulation with Phase Change Material (PCM). Phase Change Material (PCM) as Thermal Energy Storage (TES) material that can store large amounts of heat by using small volumes. This study is concerned with the characterization of PCM organic materials, paraffin wax, palm wax and a mixture of both which is easy to obtain, and widely available in large quantities. Characterization was carried out by Differential Scanning Calorimetry test (DSC) on paraffin and palm wax as organic materials with specific heat at melting and freezing at 185 kJ / kg, with a low thermal conductivity of around 0.2 W/mK. PCM placed in copper container encapsulated is installed on the Solar water heater of the SR 150 L1 solar water heater tank, where's the average solar radiation measured in the research area is 5.84kWh/m2, with an average accumulated energy in 16.38MJ/day. The best PCM materials from the DSC testing result is 100%w.t paraffin wax, which has higher melting point at 57.54°C and higher latent heat value of 170.46 J/g.

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***Selections for the Fiscal Year 2022 Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Research, Development, and Demonstration funding program were announced on September 27, 2022. View a list of projects here.***

Office:   Solar Energy Technologies Office   FOA number:  DE-FOA-0002630 Link to apply:  Apply on EERE Exchange   FOA Amount:  $25 Million

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) announced the Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power (CSP) Fiscal Year 2022 Research, Development, and Demonstration funding program, which will award up to $25 million for innovative projects in CSP technologies. These projects will accelerate the large-scale development and deployment of solar technology. CSP technologies offer a unique value as renewable energy resources that can readily deliver high-temperature heat and incorporate storage for on-demand solar energy.  

This funding opportunity is designed to help decarbonize the energy sector by developing CSP technologies for carbon-free industrial processes in the United States, and next-generation plant designs that will operate at high efficiency with low-cost thermal storage. Projects supported by this opportunity will focus on lowering the cost of CSP technologies and creating new market opportunities for the industry, with the goal of enabling substantial deployment of CSP to decarbonize the electricity grid and energy system. These projects will work to apply CSP to new industries and advance the development of components for next-generation CSP systems based on solid particle heat transfer media .

SETO expects to make about 8 to 15 awards, each ranging between $750,000 and $6 million. Diverse teams from universities, federally-funded research and development centers, nonprofit and for-profit companies, community-based organizations, state agencies, and local governments are encouraged to apply.  

Prior to submitting a full application for this opportunity, a mandatory concept paper is due on  March 16 at 5:00 p.m. ET .  

Topic Areas  

Topic Area 1:   Concentrating Solar Thermal for Industrial Decarbonization – 4-8 projects, $15 million   To achieve a carbon-free economy, it is necessary to identify technologies that can eliminate the need to burn fossil fuels for heat-driven processes that produce essential commodities, refined products, and other goods. Projects in this topic area will enable concentrating solar-thermal technologies with thermal energy storage (TES) to be integrated with high-temperature process technologies to produce economically important products, like steel, cement, ammonia, fuels, and other chemicals and fuels. These products are responsible for approximately half of all emissions from the industrial sector. This topic seeks to develop solar-driven processes using directly heated on-sun reactors, indirectly heated TES-coupled reactors, recuperators for heating and cooling reactants and products, and the production and use of low-carbon fuels for use as a heat source or chemical reactant. 

Topic Area 2:  Concentrating Solar-thermal Particle Technologies for Generation 3 CSP and Beyond (Gen3++)  – 4-7 projects, $10 million   Particle-based systems for thermal energy storage have a number of advantages, require fewer components, and are less complex to operate than alternative pathways based on liquids, gases, or supercritical fluids.  Additionally, particle-based systems need relatively few high-cost materials to collect and transport thermal energy. TES using solid particles is expected to be highly cost-effective due to stability at high service temperatures and the relatively low cost of the material. Projects in this topic area will identify opportunities to improve upon in the following technical areas of interest: Gen3 CSP component development and scaleup, receiver system (focusing on receiver and particle lifts), particle heat exchangers, particle CSP towers, solid particle media, particle-heated steam generation systems, and supercritical carbon dioxide power blocks for integration with particle based CSP. 

Teaming Partner List

SETO strongly encourages teaming among multiple stakeholders across academia, industry, National Laboratories, and technical disciplines. Teams that include multiple partners are preferred over applications that include a single organization. Teams that include representation from diverse entities such as, but not limited to, minority-serving institutions (MSI), including historically Black colleges and universities (HBCU) and other minority institutions (OMI), minority business enterprises, minority-owned businesses, woman-owned businesses, veteran-owned businesses, or entities located in an underserved community are encouraged. To facilitate the formation of teams, SETO is providing a forum where interested parties can add themselves to the Teaming Partner List, which allows organizations that may wish to apply to the FOA, but not as the prime applicant, to express interest to potential partners.

Download the Teaming Partner List (Excel file)

Any organization that would like to be included on this list should submit the following information in Excel format to  [email protected]  with the subject line “Teaming Partner Information”: organization name, contact name, contact address, contact email, contact phone, organization type, area of technical expertise, brief description of capabilities, and topic area.

Disclaimer: By submitting a request to be included on the Teaming Partner List, the requesting organization consents to the publication of the above-referenced information. By enabling and publishing the Teaming Partner List, EERE is not endorsing, sponsoring, or otherwise evaluating the qualifications of the individuals and organizations that are self-identifying themselves for placement on this Teaming Partner List. EERE will not pay for the provision of any information, nor will it compensate any applicants or requesting organizations for the development of such information.

Webinar  

SETO will host an informational webinar on  February 24 at 2:00 p.m. ET to discuss the funding program and the areas of focus.  Register for the webinar .  

Key Dates 

Additional Information 

• Download the full funding opportunity on the EERE Exchange website . 
• For FOA-specific support, contact  [email protected] . 
• Sign up for the  Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) email list  to get notified of new EERE funding opportunities. Also  sign up for our newsletter  to stay current with the latest SETO news.