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Narrative Analysis – Types, Methods and Examples

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Narrative Analysis

Definition:

Narrative analysis is a qualitative research methodology that involves examining and interpreting the stories or narratives people tell in order to gain insights into the meanings, experiences, and perspectives that underlie them. Narrative analysis can be applied to various forms of communication, including written texts, oral interviews, and visual media.

In narrative analysis, researchers typically examine the structure, content, and context of the narratives they are studying, paying close attention to the language, themes, and symbols used by the storytellers. They may also look for patterns or recurring motifs within the narratives, and consider the cultural and social contexts in which they are situated.

Types of Narrative Analysis

Types of Narrative Analysis are as follows:

Content Analysis

This type of narrative analysis involves examining the content of a narrative in order to identify themes, motifs, and other patterns. Researchers may use coding schemes to identify specific themes or categories within the text, and then analyze how they are related to each other and to the overall narrative. Content analysis can be used to study various forms of communication, including written texts, oral interviews, and visual media.

Structural Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the formal structure of a narrative, including its plot, character development, and use of literary devices. Researchers may analyze the narrative arc, the relationship between the protagonist and antagonist, or the use of symbolism and metaphor. Structural analysis can be useful for understanding how a narrative is constructed and how it affects the reader or audience.

Discourse Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the language and discourse used in a narrative, including the social and cultural context in which it is situated. Researchers may analyze the use of specific words or phrases, the tone and style of the narrative, or the ways in which social and cultural norms are reflected in the narrative. Discourse analysis can be useful for understanding how narratives are influenced by larger social and cultural structures.

Phenomenological Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the subjective experience of the narrator, and how they interpret and make sense of their experiences. Researchers may analyze the language used to describe experiences, the emotions expressed in the narrative, or the ways in which the narrator constructs meaning from their experiences. Phenomenological analysis can be useful for understanding how people make sense of their own lives and experiences.

Critical Analysis

This type of narrative analysis involves examining the political, social, and ideological implications of a narrative, and questioning its underlying assumptions and values. Researchers may analyze the ways in which a narrative reflects or reinforces dominant power structures, or how it challenges or subverts those structures. Critical analysis can be useful for understanding the role that narratives play in shaping social and cultural norms.

Autoethnography

This type of narrative analysis involves using personal narratives to explore cultural experiences and identity formation. Researchers may use their own personal narratives to explore issues such as race, gender, or sexuality, and to understand how larger social and cultural structures shape individual experiences. Autoethnography can be useful for understanding how individuals negotiate and navigate complex cultural identities.

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying themes or patterns that emerge from the data, and then interpreting these themes in relation to the research question. Researchers may use a deductive approach, where they start with a pre-existing theoretical framework, or an inductive approach, where themes are generated from the data itself.

Narrative Analysis Conducting Guide

Here are some steps for conducting narrative analysis:

• Identify the research question: Narrative analysis begins with identifying the research question or topic of interest. Researchers may want to explore a particular social or cultural phenomenon, or gain a deeper understanding of a particular individual’s experience.
• Collect the narratives: Researchers then collect the narratives or stories that they will analyze. This can involve collecting written texts, conducting interviews, or analyzing visual media.
• Transcribe and code the narratives: Once the narratives have been collected, they are transcribed into a written format, and then coded in order to identify themes, motifs, or other patterns. Researchers may use a coding scheme that has been developed specifically for the study, or they may use an existing coding scheme.
• Analyze the narratives: Researchers then analyze the narratives, focusing on the themes, motifs, and other patterns that have emerged from the coding process. They may also analyze the formal structure of the narratives, the language used, and the social and cultural context in which they are situated.
• Interpret the findings: Finally, researchers interpret the findings of the narrative analysis, and draw conclusions about the meanings, experiences, and perspectives that underlie the narratives. They may use the findings to develop theories, make recommendations, or inform further research.

Applications of Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis is a versatile qualitative research method that has applications across a wide range of fields, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, literature, and history. Here are some examples of how narrative analysis can be used:

• Understanding individuals’ experiences: Narrative analysis can be used to gain a deeper understanding of individuals’ experiences, including their thoughts, feelings, and perspectives. For example, psychologists might use narrative analysis to explore the stories that individuals tell about their experiences with mental illness.
• Exploring cultural and social phenomena: Narrative analysis can also be used to explore cultural and social phenomena, such as gender, race, and identity. Sociologists might use narrative analysis to examine how individuals understand and experience their gender identity.
• Analyzing historical events: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze historical events, including those that have been recorded in literary texts or personal accounts. Historians might use narrative analysis to explore the stories of survivors of historical traumas, such as war or genocide.
• Examining media representations: Narrative analysis can be used to examine media representations of social and cultural phenomena, such as news stories, films, or television shows. Communication scholars might use narrative analysis to examine how news media represent different social groups.
• Developing interventions: Narrative analysis can be used to develop interventions to address social and cultural problems. For example, social workers might use narrative analysis to understand the experiences of individuals who have experienced domestic violence, and then use that knowledge to develop more effective interventions.

Examples of Narrative Analysis

Here are some examples of how narrative analysis has been used in research:

• Personal narratives of illness: Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine the personal narratives of individuals living with chronic illness, to understand how they make sense of their experiences and construct their identities.
• Oral histories: Historians have used narrative analysis to analyze oral histories to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of historical events and social movements.
• Children’s stories: Researchers have used narrative analysis to analyze children’s stories to understand how they understand and make sense of the world around them.
• Personal diaries : Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine personal diaries to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of significant life events, such as the loss of a loved one or the transition to adulthood.
• Memoirs : Researchers have used narrative analysis to analyze memoirs to understand how individuals construct their life stories and make sense of their experiences.
• Life histories : Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine life histories to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of migration, displacement, or social exclusion.

Purpose of Narrative Analysis

The purpose of narrative analysis is to gain a deeper understanding of the stories that individuals tell about their experiences, identities, and beliefs. By analyzing the structure, content, and context of these stories, researchers can uncover patterns and themes that shed light on the ways in which individuals make sense of their lives and the world around them.

The primary purpose of narrative analysis is to explore the meanings that individuals attach to their experiences. This involves examining the different elements of a story, such as the plot, characters, setting, and themes, to identify the underlying values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape the story. By analyzing these elements, researchers can gain insights into the ways in which individuals construct their identities, understand their relationships with others, and make sense of the world.

Narrative analysis can also be used to identify patterns and themes across multiple stories. This involves comparing and contrasting the stories of different individuals or groups to identify commonalities and differences. By analyzing these patterns and themes, researchers can gain insights into broader cultural and social phenomena, such as gender, race, and identity.

In addition, narrative analysis can be used to develop interventions that address social and cultural problems. By understanding the stories that individuals tell about their experiences, researchers can develop interventions that are tailored to the unique needs of different individuals and groups.

Overall, the purpose of narrative analysis is to provide a rich, nuanced understanding of the ways in which individuals construct meaning and make sense of their lives. By analyzing the stories that individuals tell, researchers can gain insights into the complex and multifaceted nature of human experience.

When to use Narrative Analysis

Here are some situations where narrative analysis may be appropriate:

• Studying life stories: Narrative analysis can be useful in understanding how individuals construct their life stories, including the events, characters, and themes that are important to them.
• Analyzing cultural narratives: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze cultural narratives, such as myths, legends, and folktales, to understand their meanings and functions.
• Exploring organizational narratives: Narrative analysis can be helpful in examining the stories that organizations tell about themselves, their histories, and their values, to understand how they shape the culture and practices of the organization.
• Investigating media narratives: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze media narratives, such as news stories, films, and TV shows, to understand how they construct meaning and influence public perceptions.
• Examining policy narratives: Narrative analysis can be helpful in examining policy narratives, such as political speeches and policy documents, to understand how they construct ideas and justify policy decisions.

Characteristics of Narrative Analysis

Here are some key characteristics of narrative analysis:

• Focus on stories and narratives: Narrative analysis is concerned with analyzing the stories and narratives that people tell, whether they are oral or written, to understand how they shape and reflect individuals’ experiences and identities.
• Emphasis on context: Narrative analysis seeks to understand the context in which the narratives are produced and the social and cultural factors that shape them.
• Interpretive approach: Narrative analysis is an interpretive approach that seeks to identify patterns and themes in the stories and narratives and to understand the meaning that individuals and communities attach to them.
• Iterative process: Narrative analysis involves an iterative process of analysis, in which the researcher continually refines their understanding of the narratives as they examine more data.
• Attention to language and form : Narrative analysis pays close attention to the language and form of the narratives, including the use of metaphor, imagery, and narrative structure, to understand the meaning that individuals and communities attach to them.
• Reflexivity : Narrative analysis requires the researcher to reflect on their own assumptions and biases and to consider how their own positionality may shape their interpretation of the narratives.
• Qualitative approach: Narrative analysis is typically a qualitative research method that involves in-depth analysis of a small number of cases rather than large-scale quantitative studies.

Advantages of Narrative Analysis

Here are some advantages of narrative analysis:

• Rich and detailed data : Narrative analysis provides rich and detailed data that allows for a deep understanding of individuals’ experiences, emotions, and identities.
• Humanizing approach: Narrative analysis allows individuals to tell their own stories and express their own perspectives, which can help to humanize research and give voice to marginalized communities.
• Holistic understanding: Narrative analysis allows researchers to understand individuals’ experiences in their entirety, including the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which they occur.
• Flexibility : Narrative analysis is a flexible research method that can be applied to a wide range of contexts and research questions.
• Interpretive insights: Narrative analysis provides interpretive insights into the meanings that individuals attach to their experiences and the ways in which they construct their identities.
• Appropriate for sensitive topics: Narrative analysis can be particularly useful in researching sensitive topics, such as trauma or mental health, as it allows individuals to express their experiences in their own words and on their own terms.
• Can lead to policy implications: Narrative analysis can provide insights that can inform policy decisions and interventions, particularly in areas such as health, education, and social policy.

Limitations of Narrative Analysis

Here are some of the limitations of narrative analysis:

• Subjectivity : Narrative analysis relies on the interpretation of researchers, which can be influenced by their own biases and assumptions.
• Limited generalizability: Narrative analysis typically involves in-depth analysis of a small number of cases, which limits its generalizability to broader populations.
• Ethical considerations: The process of eliciting and analyzing narratives can raise ethical concerns, particularly when sensitive topics such as trauma or abuse are involved.
• Limited control over data collection: Narrative analysis often relies on data that is already available, such as interviews, oral histories, or written texts, which can limit the control that researchers have over the quality and completeness of the data.
• Time-consuming: Narrative analysis can be a time-consuming research method, particularly when analyzing large amounts of data.
• Interpretation challenges: Narrative analysis requires researchers to make complex interpretations of data, which can be challenging and time-consuming.
• Limited statistical analysis: Narrative analysis is typically a qualitative research method that does not lend itself well to statistical analysis.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Narrative Analysis In Qualitative Research

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Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

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Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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On This Page:

What Is Narrative Analysis?

Narrative analysis is a qualitative research method used to understand how individuals create stories from their personal experiences.

There is an emphasis on understanding the context in which a narrative is constructed, recognizing the influence of historical, cultural, and social factors on storytelling.

It differs from other qualitative methods like interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) and discourse analysis by specifically examining how individuals use stories to make sense of their experiences and the world around them.

Narrative analysis is not applicable to all research topics; it is best suited when the focus of the analysis is narratives or stories.

Examples of topics that are well-suited to narrative analysis include: various aspects of identity, individual experiences of psychological processes, interpersonal and intimate relationships, and experiences of body, beauty and health

Assumptions of Narrative Analysis

• Stories are interpretations of the world and experiences: Narrative analysis assumes that stories are not accurate representations of reality. People use stories to explain or normalize what has occurred in their lives and make sense of why things are the way they are. People make sense of their lives through the stories they tell.
• Language is an object for close investigation: A structural analysis of a narrative focuses on the way a story is told, treating language as an object for investigation in itself, not just as it refers to content. This kind of analysis attends to the linguistic phenomena of a story and its overall composition.
• Meaning is created through narrative: Narrative inquiry is the study of how stories unfold over time and is useful for understanding how people perceive reality, make sense of their worlds, and perform social actions. Researchers and participants are co-authors of stories because they collaborate to create meaning. Narrative analysts show how the tools (e.g. its structure and style) used to build a story create the meaning of the experience being shared
• Stories do not speak for themselves: Narratives do not speak for themselves, and they require interpretation when used as data in social research. Researchers must interpret a story by deciding what constitutes a story, collecting stories, identifying stories within data, and identifying narrative themes and relationships.

Key Concepts in Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis is concerned with more than just  what  is said (the content). It also considers  how  the story is constructed (the structure) and the context or situation in which the story is told (the performance)

• Defining “Story” and “Narrative” : A story is a structured account of events, while a narrative is a story that has been shaped and given meaning by a storyteller. The process of transforming events into a narrative involves selecting, organizing, and interpreting those events in a way that conveys a particular message or understanding.
• Content:  While narrative analysis values how a story is told, the content ( what is said ) remains significant. The themes, events, and characters in a story provide insights into the storyteller’s experiences, beliefs, and values. Therefore, narrative analysis sees content as inseparable from structure and performance. All three work together to create the meaning of a story.
• Narrative Structure: Narrative analysis examines how elements like plot, setting, and characterization are used to construct a story. For example, a researcher might study how the sequence of events, the choice of words, or the use of metaphors shapes the meaning of a story.
• Narrative as Performance: Narratives are not simply neutral accounts of events but are performed and co-constructed through interactions between the storyteller and the audience. This means that understanding a narrative involves paying attention to how it is told, who is telling it, and to whom it is being told. For instance, a researcher might study how a story changes depending on who is telling it, or how the same story is received by different audiences.

Approaches to Narrative Analysis

There are different models and approaches to narrative analysis, and the type that is used depends on the research problem.

• Thematic Analysis : Thematic analysis assumes language is a direct and unambiguous route to meaning. In this approach, researchers collect many stories and then inductively create conceptual groupings from the data. One of the assumptions of thematic analysis is that everyone in the group means the same thing by what they say, even when grouped into a similar thematic category.
• Structural Analysis: This approach views language as a resource and an object for investigation, moving beyond the referential content. Structural analysis assumes the way a story is told is as important as the content of the story. Following Labov’s Narrative Model, the researcher may focus on identifying and examining the key elements of narrative structure, such as the abstract, orientation, complicating action, evaluation, resolution, and coda.
• Interactional Analysis: Interactional analysis looks at how narratives are created and understood within the context of social interactions. This approach acknowledges that narratives are not created in isolation but are shaped by the listener’s responses, the social context of the storytelling, and the relationship between the storyteller and the listener. E.g. Mishler’s Model.
• Performance Analysis : Examining the performative elements of storytelling such as the use of language, nonverbal communication, and audience engagement provides further insights into how stories are constructed and the effects they create. Researchers are interested in how the narrator positions themselves in relation to the audience.

Pratical Steps: Conducting Narrative Analysis

The steps involved in conducting narrative analysis are often iterative and non-linear, rather than following a strict sequential order.

While the steps provide a general framework and guidance for the research process, in practice, researchers may move back and forth between different stages, or engage in multiple steps simultaneously, as new insights and questions emerge from the data.

The iterative nature of narrative analysis reflects the complex and dynamic nature of human experience and meaning-making.

1. Situate the Epistemological Approach

Determine whether to use a naturalist or constructivist approach. The research questions and theoretical framework inform this decision.

Situating the epistemological approach at the outset of the study helps ensure consistency and coherence throughout the research process, guiding methodological choices and the interpretation of findings.

If the research questions focus on understanding the subjective experiences and meaning-making processes of participants, a constructivist approach may be more appropriate.

Conversely, if the research aims to identify common patterns or themes across narratives and assumes a more objective reality, a naturalist approach may be suitable.

Naturalist Approach :

• Assumes that narratives reflect an objective reality or truth
• Seeks to capture and understand the “real” experiences and perspectives of participants
• Aims to minimize the researcher’s influence on the data collection and interpretation process
• Aligns with a more positivist or realist paradigm

Constructivist Approach :

• Assumes that narratives are constructed and shaped by the interaction between the narrator and the listener (researcher)
• Acknowledges that multiple realities or truths can exist, as individuals interpret and make sense of their experiences differently
• Recognizes the researcher’s role in co-creating meaning during the data collection and analysis process
• Aligns with an interpretivist or social constructionist paradigm

2. Select the Analytical Model(s)

Decide which model(s) to use in analyzing narrative data. Different models focus on different features of narratives and raise distinct questions during analysis.

Research design, informed by the chosen epistemological approach, will guide decisions regarding the use of single or multiple models.

• Structural Model:  Examines the structure of stories and the ways in which they are told. Considers elements such as plot, characters, setting, and narrative arc
• Thematic Model:  Analyzes the content of stories, focusing on the themes around which stories are told. May involve coding the data to identify recurrent themes and organizing them into categories or hierarchies
• Interactional/Performative Model:  Investigates the contextual features that shape the construction of narratives and how meaning is collaboratively created through interaction between storytellers and listeners.

3. Select Narratives to Analyze

In conducting narrative analysis involves selecting specific narratives to analyze within the larger dataset. Even when the aim is to analyze the data holistically, researchers often choose to focus on particular narratives for close scrutiny.

This selection process is guided by the research questions, theoretical framework, and the analytical strategy employed in the study.

When selecting narratives to analyze, researchers may consider the following:

• Representativeness : Choosing narratives that are representative of the broader dataset or the phenomena under investigation. This may involve selecting narratives that exemplify common themes, patterns, or experiences shared by multiple participants.
• Uniqueness : Identifying narratives that stand out as unique, unusual, or deviant cases. These narratives may offer valuable insights into the diversity of experiences or challenge dominant patterns or assumptions.
• Theoretical relevance : Selecting narratives that are particularly relevant to the theoretical framework or concepts guiding the study. These narratives may help illuminate or expand upon key theoretical ideas.
• Richness of data : Choosing narratives that are rich in detail, providing thick descriptions and in-depth insights into the participants’ experiences, thoughts, and emotions.

4. Identifying Narrative Blocks

A narrative block refers to a complete, self-contained story or narrative within a larger dataset, such as an interview transcript.

It is a segment of the data that has a clear beginning, middle, and end, and that conveys a specific experience, event, or perspective of the participant.

This involves looking for cues like “entrance and exit talk”, which signal the beginning and end of a distinct narrative within a conversation.

For instance, phrases like, “There was this one time…” or “Let me give you an example…” may signal the beginning of a narrative block.

Similarly, phrases like, “So that’s how that wrapped up…” or “That is a pretty classic example of…” can help researchers pinpoint the end of a narrative block

It is important to note that the selection of narratives and units of analysis is an iterative process, and researchers may revisit and refine their choices as they delve deeper into the data and their analysis progresses.

Researchers should be transparent about their selection criteria and process, and should reflect on how their choices may impact the interpretation and findings of the study.

Here’s an example of what a narrative block might look like:

“I remember when I first started college. I was so nervous and excited at the same time. I didn’t know anyone on campus, and I was worried about fitting in. But during orientation week, I met this group of people who were just as lost and nervous as I was. We bonded over our shared experiences and became fast friends. That group of friends made all the difference in my college experience. We supported each other through the ups and downs, and I don’t think I would have made it through without them.”

This narrative block has a clear beginning (starting college), middle (meeting friends during orientation week), and end (reflecting on the importance of those friendships throughout college).

It conveys a specific experience and perspective of the participant, making it a suitable unit for narrative analysis.

5. Code Narrative Blocks

In conducting narrative analysis involves coding the narrative blocks using one or multiple analytical models.

Coding is the process of assigning labels or categories to segments of data, allowing researchers to organize, retrieve, and interpret the information in a systematic manner.

The coding process may involve several rounds or iterations, as researchers refine their codes and categories based on their deepening understanding of the data.

There are two main approaches to coding narrative blocks:

It’s important to note that these classifications are not always clear-cut, and researchers may use a combination of inductive and deductive approaches in their analysis.

For example, a researcher might start with a deductive structural analysis, using a predefined model of narrative structure, but then switch to an inductive thematic analysis to identify emergent themes within each structural element.

Inductive Coding

This approach, starting with the data and allowing themes and categories to emerge from the narratives aligns with a constructivist approach, where meaning is viewed as co-created between the researcher and the participant.

Researchers using inductive coding might identify emergent themes in the narratives about “life events” and code these narrative blocks accordingly.

For example, stories about deciding to have children could be coded as “Narratives about deciding to have children”.

• Also known as “open coding” or “data-driven coding”
• Involves allowing themes and categories to emerge from the data itself, rather than imposing pre-existing frameworks or theories
• Researchers immerse themselves in the narrative data, identifying patterns, similarities, and differences across the stories
• Codes are developed based on the researcher’s interpretation of the data and are refined iteratively throughout the analysis process
• Aligns with a constructivist approach, acknowledging the researcher’s role in co-creating meaning and the possibility of multiple interpretations

Deductive Coding

This approach, using pre-existing frameworks or theories to guide the coding process, aligns with a naturalist approach, where the researcher seeks to objectively identify and categorize elements of the narratives.

One such framework is the one proposed by Labov (1997), which identifies six key elements of a story:

• Abstract : A summary or overview of the story, often provided at the beginning
• Orientation : The setting or context of the story, including information about the time, place, characters, and situation
• Complicating Action : The main plot or sequence of events that drive the story forward, often involving a problem, challenge, or conflict
• Evaluation : The storyteller’s commentary on the meaning or significance of the events, revealing their attitudes, opinions, or emotions
• Resolution : The outcome or conclusion of the story, often resolving the complicating action or providing a sense of closure
• Coda : An optional element that brings the story back to the present or reflects on its broader implications

When using this framework for deductive coding, researchers would analyze each narrative block, looking for segments that correspond to these six elements. They would then assign the appropriate code to each segment, such as “Abstract,” “Orientation,” “Complicating Action,” and so on.

Here’s an example of how this might be applied to a narrative block:

“I remember my first day at my new job [Orientation]. I was so nervous and excited at the same time [Evaluation]. As soon as I walked in, I realized I had forgotten my employee ID [Complicating Action]. I panicked and thought I would be fired on the spot [Evaluation]. But then my manager came over, laughed, and said, ‘Don’t worry, it happens to everyone. We’ll get you a new one.’ [Resolution] That moment taught me that it’s okay to make mistakes and that my new workplace was actually pretty understanding [Coda].”

By applying Labov’s story structure framework, researchers can systematically analyze the narrative data, identifying patterns in how stories are structured and told.

This can provide insights into the way individuals make sense of their experiences and construct meaning through storytelling.

Step 6: Delve into the Story Structure

This step involves a deep and systematic examination of the coded narrative data, with a focus on understanding how the narrators use story structure elements (e.g., abstract, orientation, complicating action, evaluation, resolution, and coda) to construct meaning and convey their experiences.

By delving into the story structure, researchers can identify patterns, themes, and variations across different narratives, and gain insights into the ways in which individuals make sense of their lives through storytelling.

It allows researchers to move beyond the surface level of the narratives and to gain a deeper understanding of how individuals use storytelling to make sense of their lives and multifaceted nature of human experience.

This involves:

• Researchers organize the coded narrative data by grouping together segments that belong to the same story structure element (e.g., all “orientation” segments, all “complicating action” segments, etc.).
• This allows researchers to compare and contrast how different narrators use each story structure element, and to identify patterns, themes, and variations across the narratives.
• Researchers closely examine the content of each coded segment, paying attention to the specific details, descriptions, and evaluations provided by the narrators.
• They also consider the function of each story structure element, i.e., how it contributes to the overall meaning and coherence of the narrative.
• For example, researchers might analyze how narrators use the “orientation” element to set the scene, introduce characters, and provide context for their stories, or how they use the “evaluation” element to convey their attitudes, emotions, and reflections on the events being narrated.
• Researchers seek to understand how narrators make sense of their experiences and construct meaning through the way they structure and tell their stories.
• This involves considering the interplay between story structure, content, and context, and how these elements shape the overall meaning and significance of the narratives.
• Researchers may also consider the narrator’s perspective, the audience and social context of the storytelling, and the broader cultural and historical frameworks that inform the narratives.

Throughout this process, researchers need to be aware of the challenges and complexities of interpretation, such as the fact that narrators may not always follow a linear or coherent story structure, or that different individuals may attribute different meanings to similar experiences.

Researchers should aim to provide nuanced and contextualized descriptions of their findings, supported by relevant examples and quotes from the narratives.

Step 7: Compare Across Story Structure

This step involves a comparative analysis of the narrative data, looking for patterns, similarities, and differences in how story structure elements are used across different narratives.

In the previous step (Step 6: Delve into the Story Structure), researchers examined each story structure element in depth, analyzing its content, function, and meaning within individual narratives.

In Step 7, the focus shifts to a higher-level analysis, where researchers compare and contrast the use of story structure elements across the entire dataset.

The goal is to provide a comprehensive and integrative understanding of the narrative data, one that goes beyond the analysis of individual stories and reveals the broader patterns, meanings, and significance of storytelling in human experience.

This comparative analysis can be done in several ways:

• Researchers look for similarities and differences in how different individuals use each story structure element (e.g., orientation, complicating action, resolution) to construct their narratives.
• This can reveal patterns in how people from different backgrounds, experiences, or perspectives structure and tell their stories.
• Researchers may also compare the use of story structure elements across different types of narratives, such as life stories, event narratives, or turning point narratives.
• This can help identify genre-specific patterns or conventions in how stories are structured and told.
• Researchers may consider how the social, cultural, or historical context in which narratives are produced influences the way story structure elements are used.
• For example, they may compare narratives told in different settings (e.g., interviews, social media, public speeches), or at different points in time, to see how context shapes the structure and content of stories.

Throughout this comparative analysis, researchers should remain attentive to the overarching narrative and the broader themes and meanings that emerge from the data.

While breaking down narratives into specific story structure elements can provide valuable insights, it’s important not to lose sight of the holistic nature of narratives and the way in which different elements work together to create meaning.

Researchers should also be reflexive about their own role in the analysis process, acknowledging how their own backgrounds, assumptions, and interpretive frameworks may shape their understanding of the narratives.

They should strive to provide a balanced and nuanced account of their findings, highlighting both the commonalities and the variations in how story structure elements are used across different narratives.

By comparing story structure elements across the dataset, researchers can generate new insights and theories about the ways in which individuals use storytelling to make sense of their lives and experiences.

They may identify common patterns or structures that underlie different types of narratives, or they may discover how particular social, cultural, or historical factors shape the way stories are told.

Step 8: Tell the Core Narrative

This step involves synthesizing the insights and findings from the previous steps into a coherent and compelling narrative account that captures the essence of the research participants’ experiences and the key themes and meanings that emerged from the analysis.

At this stage, researchers have thoroughly examined the narrative data, coding and analyzing it at various levels, from the specific story structure elements to the broader patterns and comparisons across narratives.

They have gained a deep understanding of how participants use storytelling to make sense of their lives and experiences, and how different factors (such as social, cultural, or historical context) shape the way stories are told.

In Step 8, researchers aim to distill this complex and multifaceted understanding into a clear and concise narrative that conveys the core insights and conclusions of the study.

The goal is to provide a powerful and insightful narrative account that captures the richness and complexity of the research participants’ experiences, and that contributes to a deeper understanding of the ways in which storytelling shapes and reflects human lives and meanings.

By telling the core narrative, researchers can communicate the significance and relevance of their findings to a wider audience, and contribute to ongoing conversations and debates in their field and beyond.

• Researchers review the findings from the previous steps and identify the most salient and significant themes and meanings that emerged from the analysis.
• These themes may relate to the content of the narratives (e.g., common experiences, challenges, or turning points), the structure of the narratives (e.g., common patterns or variations in how stories are told), or the broader social and cultural factors that shape the narratives.
• Researchers organize the key themes and findings into a logical and compelling narrative that tells the “core story” of the research participants’ experiences.
• This may involve selecting illustrative examples or quotes from the narratives to support and enrich the main points, and providing interpretive commentary to guide the reader’s understanding.
• Researchers should aim to create a narrative that is both faithful to the complexity and diversity of the participants’ experiences and clear and accessible to the intended audience.
• In telling the core narrative, researchers should also consider the broader implications and significance of their findings, both for the specific field of study and for understanding human experience more generally.
• This may involve discussing how the findings relate to existing theories or debates in the field, identifying new questions or directions for future research, or highlighting the practical applications or social relevance of the study.

Ethical Considerations in Narrative Analysis

Researchers face the challenge of balancing the need to provide faithful accounts of participant stories with the ethical obligation to interpret those stories in a way that respects the participants and avoids misrepresentation.

This requires nuance and sensitivity, acknowledging the ambiguities inherent in narrative data.

Reflexivity and Positionality

Researchers should acknowledge their role in shaping all aspects of the research process, including the interpretation of narratives.

Researchers need to be aware of their own subjectivity and how their experiences, assumptions, and perspectives could influence their interpretations of participants’ narratives.

This awareness, often referred to as reflexivity, involves critically examining one’s own assumptions and being conscious of potential biases throughout every stage of the research process.

Researchers are encouraged to maintain field journals to track their thoughts and experiences, which can provide valuable insights into their influence on the research.

• Transparency is Crucial: Researchers must be transparent about their positionality, clearly articulating how their background and perspectives have shaped their understanding of the data.
• Reflexive Journals: Researchers can utilize reflexive journals to document feelings and thoughts throughout the research process, particularly during data analysis, helping to distinguish personal biases from participant perspectives.
• Team-Based Reflexivity: In team-based research, researchers should engage in open communication with their colleagues, sharing their reflexive insights and perspectives to ensure a well-rounded understanding of the data.

Respecting Participants’ Voices

Ethical narrative analysis emphasizes the importance of representing participants’ stories in a way that is true to their experiences.

Ethical narrative analysis prioritizes representing participants’ stories in a manner that accurately reflects their lived experiences, ensuring their voices are heard and their perspectives are not misrepresented.

This can include involving participants in the interpretation of their narratives and giving them a voice in how their stories are shared.

This can involve:

• Participant Involvement: Researchers can involve participants in the interpretation of their narratives, giving them a voice in deciding how their stories are shared [VI, 15].
• Member Checking: Sharing transcripts, analyses, and publications with research participants is a common practice in narrative research, allowing for further dialogue and ensuring accurate representation.
• Collaborative Meaning-Making: Researchers should approach interviews as opportunities for collaborative meaning-making, recognizing that interviewees have their own agendas and interpretations of the interactions. Researchers should validate participant experiences without judgment, encouraging them to tell their stories authentically.
• Ethical Interviewing: Researchers must adopt ethical interviewing practices, gaining informed consent, guaranteeing anonymity, and being sensitive to potential distress caused by interview questions.

Strengths of Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis is a powerful tool for qualitative research, offering several strengths.

• Rich Insights into Human Experience : Narrative analysis stands out for its ability to generate rich, nuanced insights into the complexities of human experience. Unlike other methods that might overlook individual perspectives, narrative analysis centers on personal stories, capturing the unique ways individuals perceive, interpret, and make sense of their lives and experiences.
• Exploring Underlying Meanings : This method enables researchers to go beyond superficial descriptions, uncovering the underlying meanings, motivations, and interpretations embedded within personal narratives. By examining the stories people tell, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the beliefs, values, and cultural contexts that shape those experiences.
• Versatility and Broad Applications : Narrative analysis offers flexibility in its application, proving valuable for a wide range of research topics, particularly those focused on social, personal, cultural, or ideological phenomena. This approach proves particularly well-suited for exploring topics where individual perspectives and experiences are central to understanding the phenomenon under investigation.
• Democratizing Data Analysis : By focusing on the narratives of individuals, narrative analysis offers a democratizing approach to research. This method values the insights and interpretations individuals have about their own experiences, often contrasting with broader societal, cultural, and political factors. This approach acknowledges that individuals possess valuable understandings of their own lives, contributing to a more comprehensive and inclusive research process.

Let’s illustrate these strengths with a specific research example. Imagine investigating the experiences and beliefs of individuals facing social marginalization.

Narrative analysis, in this context, would allow researchers to closely examine the stories told by people within marginalized groups.

By identifying recurring patterns, symbols, or motifs within their narratives, researchers could shed light on how these individuals make sense of their experiences, revealing the often-hidden impacts of social marginalization.

Weaknesses of Narrative Analysis

• It can be time-consuming: Narrative analysis can require a significant time investment to analyze source data, especially when long-form stories are involved. Researchers must also be knowledgeable about the author’s cultural context and consider other interpretations of the narrative.
• Reliability and generalizability are limited: Because narrative analysis relies heavily on subjective interpretation of the narrative, the findings cannot usually be generalized to larger populations or empirically verified. Although conclusions about the cultural context might be drawn, they are based on anecdotal data, making them unsuitable as a basis for theory development.
• Labov’s model is not appropriate for all types of narratives: While Labov’s model can be useful for analyzing monological narratives, it is not suitable for conversational narratives, interactional discourses, or co-constructed stories. This is because the model primarily focuses on analyzing monological narratives collected through interviews like oral histories or life stories, rather than conversational interviews.
• Timelines may oversimplify life stories: While timelines can be a useful tool for organizing large amounts of narrative data, they have limitations. Summarizing and quantifying narrative data in this way risks reducing the complexity and oversimplifying the stories of individuals. Additionally, timelines may not fully capture the episodic nature of narratives, which often unfold non-linearly.

Further Information

For narrative analysis.

• Bamberg, M. (2006) Stories: Big or small. Why do we care? Narrative Inquiry, 16(1):139–147.
• Bamberg, M. (2012) Narrative analysis, in H. Cooper, P.M. Camic, D.L. Long, A.T. Panter, D. Rindskopf and K. Sher (eds), APA Handbook of Research Methods in Psychology, Vol. 2. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 85–102.
• De Fina, A., & Georgakopoulou, A. (2012). Analyzing narrative Discourse and sociolinguistic perspectives Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
• Gee, P. (2011). An introduction to discourse analysis: Theory and method (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
• Holstein, J., & Gubrium, J. (Eds.). (2012). Varieties of narrative analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
• Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

LABOVIAN MODEL

Labov’s Narrative Model, developed by sociolinguist William Labov, is a structural approach to analyzing narratives that focuses on the formal properties and organizational features of stories.

Labov identified six key elements that he argued are present in fully-formed oral narratives: abstract, orientation, complicating action, evaluation, resolution, and coda.

• Labov, W. (1997). Further steps in narrative analysis. Journal of Narrative and Life History (7 ),395–415.
• Labov, W. and Waletzky J. (1997) Narrative analysis: Oral versions of personal experience. Journal of Narrative and Life History, 7 (1–4): 3–38.
• McCormack, C. (2004). Storying stories: a narrative approach to in-depth interview conversations.  International journal of social research methodology ,  7 (3), 219-236.
• Patterson, W. (2008). Narratives of events: Labovian narrative analysis and its limitations.  Doing narrative research , 22-40.

POLKINGHORNE MODEL

The Polkinghorne Model, developed by psychologist Donald Polkinghorne, is a narrative approach to understanding human experience and meaning-making.

According to Polkinghorne, narratives are not simply a way of representing or communicating experience, but are the primary means through which we construct and make sense of our lives.

He argued that narratives are a fundamental form of human cognition, and that we use stories to organize and interpret our experiences, to create coherence and continuity in our sense of self, and to navigate the social and cultural worlds we inhabit.

One of the key features of the Polkinghorne Model is its emphasis on the interpretive and constructivist nature of narrative analysis.

Polkinghorne argued that narratives are not simply a reflection of an objective reality, but are always shaped by the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which they are told, as well as by the individual’s own perspective and meaning-making processes.

• Polkinghorne, D. E. (1995). Narrative configuration in qualitative analysis.  International journal of qualitative studies in education ,  8 (1), 5-23.
• Polkinghorne, D. (1988).  Narrative knowing and the human sciences . Suny Press.
• Polkinghorne, D. E. (2007). Validity issues in narrative research.  Qualitative inquiry ,  13 (4), 471-486.

MISHLER MODEL

Elliot Mishler, a social psychologist and professor at Harvard Medical School, developed an influential model for analyzing narratives in the context of medical encounters.

The Mishler Model, also known as the “Narrative Functions Model,” focuses on the interactive and collaborative nature of storytelling in medical interviews, and examines how patients and healthcare providers co-construct meaning through their dialogue.

• Mishler, E. G. (1995). Models of narrative analysis: A typology.  Journal of narrative and life history ,  5 (2), 87-123.
• Mishler, E. G. (1986).  The analysis of interview-narratives  (pp. 233-255). TR Sarbin (Ed.), Narrative psychology: The storied nature of human conduct.
• Mishler, E. G. (2009).  Storylines . Harvard University Press.
• Mishler, E. G. (1991).  Research interviewing: Context and narrative . Harvard university press.

FOR VISUAL NARRATIVE ANALYSIS

• Bell, 5. E. (2002), Photo images: Jo Spence’s narratives of Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness and with illness. Health An Interdisciplinary by post, 6 (1), 5-30.
• Pink, 5. (2004) Visual methods in C. Seale, G. Gobo, obrium, & D. Silverman (Eds), [Special issue) Qualitative Research Practice (pp. 361-378). London: Sage
• Adams, H. L. (2015). Insights into processes of posttraumatic growth through narrative analysis of chronic illness stories.  Qualitative Psychology ,  2 (2), 111.
• Ehsan, N., Riaz, M., & Khalily, T. (2019). Trauma of terror and displacement: A narrative analysis of mental health of women IDPS in KPK (Pakistan).  Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology ,  25 (2), 140.
• Fewings, E., & Quinlan, E. (2023). “It hasn’t gone away after 30 years.” late-career Australian psychologists’ experience of uncertainty throughout their career .  Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 54 (3), 221–230. 
• Skopp, N. A., Holland, K. M., Logan, J. E., Alexander, C. L., & Floyd, C. F. (2019). Circumstances preceding suicide in US soldiers: A qualitative analysis of narrative data.  Psychological services ,  16 (2), 302.

Using narrative analysis in qualitative research

Last updated

7 March 2023

Reviewed by

Jean Kaluza

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

After spending considerable time and effort interviewing persons for research, you want to ensure you get the most out of the data you gathered. One method that gives you an excellent opportunity to connect with your data on a very human and personal level is a narrative analysis in qualitative research. 

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• What is narrative analysis?

Narrative analysis is a type of qualitative data analysis that focuses on interpreting the core narratives from a study group's personal stories. Using first-person narrative, data is acquired and organized to allow the researcher to understand how the individuals experienced something. 

Instead of focusing on just the actual words used during an interview, the narrative analysis also allows for a compilation of data on how the person expressed themselves, what language they used when describing a particular event or feeling, and the thoughts and motivations they experienced. A narrative analysis will also consider how the research participants constructed their narratives.

From the interview to coding , you should strive to keep the entire individual narrative together, so that the information shared during the interview remains intact.

Is narrative analysis qualitative or quantitative?

Narrative analysis is a qualitative research method.

Is narrative analysis a method or methodology?

A method describes the tools or processes used to understand your data; methodology describes the overall framework used to support the methods chosen. By this definition, narrative analysis can be both a method used to understand data and a methodology appropriate for approaching data that comes primarily from first-person stories.

• Do you need to perform narrative research to conduct a narrative analysis?

A narrative analysis will give the best answers about the data if you begin with conducting narrative research. Narrative research explores an entire story with a research participant to understand their personal story.

What are the characteristics of narrative research?

Narrative research always includes data from individuals that tell the story of their experiences. This is captured using loosely structured interviews . These can be a single interview or a series of long interviews over a period of time. Narrative research focuses on the construct and expressions of the story as experienced by the research participant.

• Examples of types of narratives

Narrative data is based on narratives. Your data may include the entire life story or a complete personal narrative, giving a comprehensive account of someone's life, depending on the researched subject. Alternatively, a topical story can provide context around one specific moment in the research participant's life. 

Personal narratives can be single or multiple sessions, encompassing more than topical stories but not entire life stories of the individuals.

• What is the objective of narrative analysis?

The narrative analysis seeks to organize the overall experience of a group of research participants' stories. The goal is to turn people's individual narratives into data that can be coded and organized so that researchers can easily understand the impact of a certain event, feeling, or decision on the involved persons. At the end of a narrative analysis, researchers can identify certain core narratives that capture the human experience.

What is the difference between content analysis and narrative analysis?

Content analysis is a research method that determines how often certain words, concepts, or themes appear inside a sampling of qualitative data . The narrative analysis focuses on the overall story and organizing the constructs and features of a narrative.

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What is the difference between narrative analysis and case study in qualitative research?

A case study focuses on one particular event. A narrative analysis draws from a larger amount of data surrounding the entire narrative, including the thoughts that led up to a decision and the personal conclusion of the research participant. 

A case study, therefore, is any specific topic studied in depth, whereas narrative analysis explores single or multi-faceted experiences across time. ​​

What is the difference between narrative analysis and thematic analysis?

A thematic analysis will appear as researchers review the available qualitative data and note any recurring themes. Unlike narrative analysis, which describes an entire method of evaluating data to find a conclusion, a thematic analysis only describes reviewing and categorizing the data.

• Capturing narrative data

Because narrative data relies heavily on allowing a research participant to describe their experience, it is best to allow for a less structured interview. Allowing the participant to explore tangents or analyze their personal narrative will result in more complete data. 

When collecting narrative data, always allow the participant the time and space needed to complete their narrative.

• Methods of transcribing narrative data

A narrative analysis requires that the researchers have access to the entire verbatim narrative of the participant, including not just the word they use but the pauses, the verbal tics, and verbal crutches, such as "um" and "hmm." 

As the entire way the story is expressed is part of the data, a verbatim transcription should be created before attempting to code the narrative analysis.

Video and audio transcription templates

• How to code narrative analysis

Coding narrative analysis has two natural start points, either using a deductive coding system or an inductive coding system. Regardless of your chosen method, it's crucial not to lose valuable data during the organization process.

When coding, expect to see more information in the code snippets.

• Types of narrative analysis

After coding is complete, you should expect your data to look like large blocks of text organized by the parts of the story. You will also see where individual narratives compare and diverge.

Inductive method

Using an inductive narrative method treats the entire narrative as one datum or one set of information. An inductive narrative method will encourage the research participant to organize their own story. 

To make sense of how a story begins and ends, you must rely on cues from the participant. These may take the form of entrance and exit talks. 

Participants may not always provide clear indicators of where their narratives start and end. However, you can anticipate that their stories will contain elements of a beginning, middle, and end. By analyzing these components through coding, you can identify emerging patterns in the data.

Taking cues from entrance and exit talk

Entrance talk is when the participant begins a particular set of narratives. You may hear expressions such as, "I remember when…," "It first occurred to me when…," or "Here's an example…."

Exit talk allows you to see when the story is wrapping up, and you might expect to hear a phrase like, "…and that's how we decided", "after that, we moved on," or "that's pretty much it."

Deductive method

Regardless of your chosen method, using a deductive method can help preserve the overall storyline while coding. Starting with a deductive method allows for the separation of narrative pieces without compromising the story's integrity.

Hybrid inductive and deductive narrative analysis

Using both methods together gives you a comprehensive understanding of the data. You can start by coding the entire story using the inductive method. Then, you can better analyze and interpret the data by applying deductive codes to individual parts of the story.

• How to analyze data after coding using narrative analysis

A narrative analysis aims to take all relevant interviews and organize them down to a few core narratives. After reviewing the coding, these core narratives may appear through a repeated moment of decision occurring before the climax or a key feeling that affected the participant's outcome.

You may see these core narratives diverge early on, or you may learn that a particular moment after introspection reveals the core narrative for each participant. Either way, researchers can now quickly express and understand the data you acquired.

• A step-by-step approach to narrative analysis and finding core narratives

Narrative analysis may look slightly different to each research group, but we will walk through the process using the Delve method for this article.

Step 1 – Code narrative blocks

Organize your narrative blocks using inductive coding to organize stories by a life event.

Example: Narrative interviews are conducted with homeowners asking them to describe how they bought their first home.

Step 2 – Group and read by live-event

You begin your data analysis by reading through each of the narratives coded with the same life event.

Example: You read through each homeowner's experience of buying their first home and notice that some common themes begin to appear, such as "we were tired of renting," "our family expanded to the point that we needed a larger space," and "we had finally saved enough for a downpayment."

Step 3 – Create a nested story structure

As these common narratives develop throughout the participant's interviews, create and nest code according to your narrative analysis framework. Use your coding to break down the narrative into pieces that can be analyzed together.

Example: During your interviews, you find that the beginning of the narrative usually includes the pressures faced before buying a home that pushes the research participants to consider homeownership. The middle of the narrative often includes challenges that come up during the decision-making process. The end of the narrative usually includes perspectives about the excitement, stress, or consequences of home ownership that has finally taken place. 

Step 4 – Delve into the story structure

Once the narratives are organized into their pieces, you begin to notice how participants structure their own stories and where similarities and differences emerge.

Example: You find in your research that many people who choose to buy homes had the desire to buy a home before their circumstances allowed them to. You notice that almost all the stories begin with the feeling of some sort of outside pressure.

Step 5 – Compare across story structure

While breaking down narratives into smaller pieces is necessary for analysis, it's important not to lose sight of the overall story. To keep the big picture in mind, take breaks to step back and reread the entire narrative of a code block. This will help you remember how participants expressed themselves and ensure that the core narrative remains the focus of the analysis.

Example: By carefully examining the similarities across the beginnings of participants' narratives, you find the similarities in pressures. Considering the overall narrative, you notice how these pressures lead to similar decisions despite the challenges faced. 

Divergence in feelings towards homeownership can be linked to positive or negative pressures. Individuals who received positive pressure, such as family support or excitement, may view homeownership more favorably. Meanwhile, negative pressures like high rent or peer pressure may cause individuals to have a more negative attitude toward homeownership.

These factors can contribute to the initial divergence in feelings towards homeownership.

Step 6 – Tell the core narrative

After carefully analyzing the data, you have found how the narratives relate and diverge. You may be able to create a theory about why the narratives diverge and can create one or two core narratives that explain the way the story was experienced.

Example: You can now construct a core narrative on how a person's initial feelings toward buying a house affect their feelings after purchasing and living in their first home.

Narrative analysis in qualitative research is an invaluable tool to understand how people's stories and ability to self-narrate reflect the human experience. Qualitative data analysis can be improved through coding and organizing complete narratives. By doing so, researchers can conclude how humans process and move through decisions and life events.

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Narrative Analysis 101

Everything you need to know to get started

By: Ethar Al-Saraf (PhD)| Expert Reviewed By: Eunice Rautenbach (DTech) | March 2023

If you’re new to research, the host of qualitative analysis methods available to you can be a little overwhelming. In this post, we’ll  unpack the sometimes slippery topic of narrative analysis . We’ll explain what it is, consider its strengths and weaknesses , and look at when and when not to use this analysis method. 

Overview: Narrative Analysis

• What is narrative analysis (simple definition)
• The two overarching approaches  
• The strengths & weaknesses of narrative analysis
• When (and when not) to use it
• Key takeaways

What Is Narrative Analysis?

Simply put, narrative analysis is a qualitative analysis method focused on interpreting human experiences and motivations by looking closely at the stories (the narratives) people tell in a particular context.

In other words, a narrative analysis interprets long-form participant responses or written stories as data, to uncover themes and meanings . That data could be taken from interviews , monologues, written stories, or even recordings. In other words, narrative analysis can be used on both primary and secondary data to provide evidence from the experiences described.

That’s all quite conceptual, so let’s look at an example of how narrative analysis could be used.

Let’s say you’re interested in researching the beliefs of a particular author on popular culture. In that case, you might identify the characters , plotlines , symbols and motifs used in their stories. You could then use narrative analysis to analyse these in combination and against the backdrop of the relevant context.

This would allow you to interpret the underlying meanings and implications in their writing, and what they reveal about the beliefs of the author. In other words, you’d look to understand the views of the author by analysing the narratives that run through their work.

The Two Overarching Approaches

Generally speaking, there are two approaches that one can take to narrative analysis. Specifically, an inductive approach or a deductive approach. Each one will have a meaningful impact on how you interpret your data and the conclusions you can draw, so it’s important that you understand the difference.

First up is the inductive approach to narrative analysis.

The inductive approach takes a bottom-up view , allowing the data to speak for itself, without the influence of any preconceived notions . With this approach, you begin by looking at the data and deriving patterns and themes that can be used to explain the story, as opposed to viewing the data through the lens of pre-existing hypotheses, theories or frameworks. In other words, the analysis is led by the data.

For example, with an inductive approach, you might notice patterns or themes in the way an author presents their characters or develops their plot. You’d then observe these patterns, develop an interpretation of what they might reveal in the context of the story, and draw conclusions relative to the aims of your research.

Contrasted to this is the deductive approach.

With the deductive approach to narrative analysis, you begin by using existing theories that a narrative can be tested against . Here, the analysis adopts particular theoretical assumptions and/or provides hypotheses, and then looks for evidence in a story that will either verify or disprove them.

For example, your analysis might begin with a theory that wealthy authors only tell stories to get the sympathy of their readers. A deductive analysis might then look at the narratives of wealthy authors for evidence that will substantiate (or refute) the theory and then draw conclusions about its accuracy, and suggest explanations for why that might or might not be the case.

Which approach you should take depends on your research aims, objectives and research questions . If these are more exploratory in nature, you’ll likely take an inductive approach. Conversely, if they are more confirmatory in nature, you’ll likely opt for the deductive approach.

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Strengths & Weaknesses

Now that we have a clearer view of what narrative analysis is and the two approaches to it, it’s important to understand its strengths and weaknesses , so that you can make the right choices in your research project.

A primary strength of narrative analysis is the rich insight it can generate by uncovering the underlying meanings and interpretations of human experience. The focus on an individual narrative highlights the nuances and complexities of their experience, revealing details that might be missed or considered insignificant by other methods.

Another strength of narrative analysis is the range of topics it can be used for. The focus on human experience means that a narrative analysis can democratise your data analysis, by revealing the value of individuals’ own interpretation of their experience in contrast to broader social, cultural, and political factors.

All that said, just like all analysis methods, narrative analysis has its weaknesses. It’s important to understand these so that you can choose the most appropriate method for your particular research project.

The first drawback of narrative analysis is the problem of subjectivity and interpretation . In other words, a drawback of the focus on stories and their details is that they’re open to being understood differently depending on who’s reading them. This means that a strong understanding of the author’s cultural context is crucial to developing your interpretation of the data. At the same time, it’s important that you remain open-minded in how you interpret your chosen narrative and avoid making any assumptions .

A second weakness of narrative analysis is the issue of reliability and generalisation . Since narrative analysis depends almost entirely on a subjective narrative and your interpretation, the findings and conclusions can’t usually be generalised or empirically verified. Although some conclusions can be drawn about the cultural context, they’re still based on what will almost always be anecdotal data and not suitable for the basis of a theory, for example.

Last but not least, the focus on long-form data expressed as stories means that narrative analysis can be very time-consuming . In addition to the source data itself, you will have to be well informed on the author’s cultural context as well as other interpretations of the narrative, where possible, to ensure you have a holistic view. So, if you’re going to undertake narrative analysis, make sure that you allocate a generous amount of time to work through the data.

When To Use Narrative Analysis

As a qualitative method focused on analysing and interpreting narratives describing human experiences, narrative analysis is usually most appropriate for research topics focused on social, personal, cultural , or even ideological events or phenomena and how they’re understood at an individual level.

For example, if you were interested in understanding the experiences and beliefs of individuals suffering social marginalisation, you could use narrative analysis to look at the narratives and stories told by people in marginalised groups to identify patterns , symbols , or motifs that shed light on how they rationalise their experiences.

In this example, narrative analysis presents a good natural fit as it’s focused on analysing people’s stories to understand their views and beliefs at an individual level. Conversely, if your research was geared towards understanding broader themes and patterns regarding an event or phenomena, analysis methods such as content analysis or thematic analysis may be better suited, depending on your research aim .

Let’s recap

In this post, we’ve explored the basics of narrative analysis in qualitative research. The key takeaways are:

• Narrative analysis is a qualitative analysis method focused on interpreting human experience in the form of stories or narratives .
• There are two overarching approaches to narrative analysis: the inductive (exploratory) approach and the deductive (confirmatory) approach.
• Like all analysis methods, narrative analysis has a particular set of strengths and weaknesses .
• Narrative analysis is generally most appropriate for research focused on interpreting individual, human experiences as expressed in detailed , long-form accounts.

If you’d like to learn more about narrative analysis and qualitative analysis methods in general, be sure to check out the rest of the Grad Coach blog here . Alternatively, if you’re looking for hands-on help with your project, take a look at our 1-on-1 private coaching service .

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This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

Thanks. I need examples of narrative analysis

Here are some examples of research topics that could utilise narrative analysis:

Personal Narratives of Trauma: Analysing personal stories of individuals who have experienced trauma to understand the impact, coping mechanisms, and healing processes.

Identity Formation in Immigrant Communities: Examining the narratives of immigrants to explore how they construct and negotiate their identities in a new cultural context.

Media Representations of Gender: Analysing narratives in media texts (such as films, television shows, or advertisements) to investigate the portrayal of gender roles, stereotypes, and power dynamics.

Where can I find an example of a narrative analysis table ?

Please i need help with my project,

how can I cite this article in APA 7th style?

please mention the sources as well.

My research is mixed approach. I use interview,key_inforamt interview,FGD and document.so,which qualitative analysis is appropriate to analyze these data.Thanks

Which qualitative analysis methode is appropriate to analyze data obtain from intetview,key informant intetview,Focus group discussion and document.

I’ve finished my PhD. Now I need a “platform” that will help me objectively ascertain the tacit assumptions that are buried within a narrative. Can you help?

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Narrative inquiry uses stories to understand social patterns.  Stories from the participants and stories created by researchers from information they gather from participants are at the heart of narrative inquiry.  Life history and biography research is sometimes categorized as narrative inquiry.  

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Narrative inquiry can reveal unique perspectives and deeper understanding of a situation. Often giving voice to marginalised populations whose perspective is not often sought. 

Narrative inquiry records the experiences of an individual or small group, revealing the lived experience or particular perspective of that individual, usually primarily through interview which is then recorded and ordered into a chronological narrative. Often recorded as biography, life history or in the case of older/ancient traditional story recording - oral history.  

• Qualitative survey 
• Recordings of oral history (documents can be used as support for correlation and triangulation of information mentioned in interview.) 
• Focus groups can be used where the focus is a small group or community. 

Reveals in-depth detail of a situation or life experience.  

Can reveal historically significant issues not elsewhere recorded. 

Narrative research was considered a way to democratise the documentation and lived experience of a wider gamut of society. In the past only the rich could afford a biographer to have their life experience recorded, narrative research gave voice to marginalised people and their lived experience. 

Limitations

“The Hawthorne Effect is the tendency, particularly in social experiments, for people to modify their behaviour because they know they are being studied, and so to distort (usually unwittingly) the research findings.” SRMO  

The researcher must be heavily embedded in the topic with a broad understanding of the subject’s life experience in order to effectively and realistically represent the subject’s life experience. 

There is a lot of data to be worked through making this a time-consuming method beyond even the interview process itself. 

Subject’s will focus on their lived experience and not comment on the greater social movements at work at the time. For example, how the Global Financial Crisis affected their lives, not what caused the Global Financial Crisis. 

This research method relies heavily on the memory of the subject. Therefore, triangulation of the information is recommended such as asking the question in a different way, at a later date, looking for correlating documentation or interviewing similarly related participants. 

Example questions

• What is the lived experience of a home carer for a terminal cancer patient? 
• What is it like for parents to have their children die young? 
• What was the role of the nurse in Australian hospitals in the 1960s? 
• What is it like to live with cerebral palsy? 
• What are the difficulties of living in a wheelchair? 

Example studies

• Francis, M. (2018). A Narrative Inquiry Into the Experience of Being a Victim of Gun Violence. Journal of Trauma Nursing, 25(6), 381–388. https://doi-org.ezproxy-f.deakin.edu.au/10.1097/JTN.0000000000000406 
•  Kean, B., Oprescu, F., Gray, M., & Burkett, B. (2018). Commitment to physical activity and health: A case study of a paralympic gold medallist. Disability and Rehabilitation, 40(17), 2093-2097. doi:10.1080/09638288.2017.1323234  https://doi-org.ezproxy-f.deakin.edu.au/10.1080/09638288.2017.1323234
• Liamputtong, P. (2009). Qualitative research methods. Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.deakin.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat00097a&AN=deakin.b2351301&site=eds-live   
• Padgett, D. (2012). Qualitative and mixed methods in public health. SAGE. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.deakin.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat00097a&AN=deakin.b3657335&authtype=sso&custid=deakin&site=eds-live&scope=site    
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Narrative Inquiry, Phenomenology, and Grounded Theory in Qualitative Research

• First Online: 27 October 2022

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• Rabiul Islam 4 &
• Md. Sayeed Akhter 5  

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Narrative inquiry, phenomenology, and grounded theory are the basic types of qualitative research. This chapter discusses the three major types of qualitative research—narrative inquiry, phenomenology, and grounded theory. Firstly, this chapter briefly discusses the issue of qualitative research and types. Secondly, it offers a conceptual understanding of narrative inquiry, phenomenology, and grounded theory including their basic characteristics. Finally, the chapter provides an outline of how these three types of qualitative research are applied in the field.

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Islam, R., Sayeed Akhter, M. (2022). Narrative Inquiry, Phenomenology, and Grounded Theory in Qualitative Research. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_8

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• University of Kentucky, College of Health Sciences, Lexington, KY
• Address for Correspondence: Michelle Butina, PhD, MLS(ASCP) CM , Assistant Professor and Program Director, Medical Laboratory Science, University of Kentucky, College of Health Sciences, 900 South Limestone Street, CTW Bldg. Rm. 126E, Lexington, KY 40536-0200, (859) 218-0852, Michelle.Butina{at}uky.edu

Provide an example of when narrative inquiry would be the most appropriate qualitative research approach.

Identify the activities involved in data collection.

Define and describe narrative thematic data analysis.

Discuss data verification and validation strategies used in qualitative research approaches.

INTRODUCTION When selecting a research design, such as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods, Patton (2002) suggested reflecting on the purpose of the inquiry and the types of answers you seek. 1 Qualitative methods allow the researcher to study issues in depth with data collection often occurring through open-ended questions permitting “one to understand and capture the points of view of other people without predetermining those points of view through prior selection of questionnaire categories”. 1 Results include a wealth of detailed information about a small number of people; therefore, leading to an increase in the depth of understanding of these select individuals.

As Creswell (2013) stated, “Those undertaking qualitative studies have a baffling number of choices of approaches”. 2 Qualitative approaches of inquiry are diverse and can be numerous depending upon how they are classified as some classification schemes include 20 plus approaches. 2 Regardless of how they are classified, the traditional 5 approaches are represented, in some fashion, in all classification schemes. These include case studies, ethnography, grounded theory, narrative, and phenomenology. This article will provide the reader with a better understanding of narrative approach or narrative inquiry.

Narrative inquiry is the approach of which I have the most knowledge and the most experience with as it was the approach I selected for my doctoral research study. Narrative inquiry is a form of qualitative research in which the stories themselves become the raw data. 3 This approach has been used in many disciplines to learn more about the culture, historical experiences, identity, and lifestyle…

• Data coding
• data validation
• narrative inquiry
• professional identity
• qualitative research methods
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Qualitative Research: Narrative

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What is Narrative Analysis?

Narrative research  is a term that subsumes a group of approaches that in turn rely on the written or spoken words or visual representation of individuals. These approaches typically focus on the lives of individuals as told through their own stories. Clandinin and Connelly define it as "a way of understanding and inquiring into experience through “collaboration between researcher and participants, over time, in a place or series of places, and in social interaction with milieus” ( Clandinin  & Connelly, 2000, p. 20)."

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• Narrative Analysis Survey of the science of Narrative Analysis by Catherine Kohler Riessman, a leading voice in the field.
• The state of the art in Narrative Inquiry Reflections on narrative inquiry and the status of the field.
• Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry This paper briefly surveys forms of narrative inquiry in educational studies and outline certain criteria, methods, and writing forms, which are described in terms of beginning the story, living the story, and selecting stories to construct and reconstruct narrative plots.
• Validity in Issues of Narrative Research Examines the question of validity in narrative studies.
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• Last Updated: Mar 10, 2023 2:59 PM
• URL: https://csl.libguides.com/qualitative

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• Developing the Quantitative Research Design
• Qualitative Descriptive Design
• Design and Development Research (DDR) For Instructional Design
• Qualitative Narrative Inquiry Research

What is a Qualitative Narrative Inquiry Design?

Tips for using narrative inquiry in an applied manuscript, summary of the elements of a qualitative narrative inquiry design, sampling and data collection, resource videos.

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Narrative inquiry is relatively new among the qualitative research designs compared to qualitative case study, phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory. What distinguishes narrative inquiry is it beings with the biographical aspect of C. Wright Mills’ trilogy of ‘biography, history, and society’(O’Tolle, 2018). The primary purpose for a narrative inquiry study is participants provide the researcher with their life experiences through thick rich stories. Narrative inquiry was first used by Connelly and Calandinin as a research design to explore the perceptions and personal stories of teachers (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). As the seminal authors, Connelly & Clandinin (1990), posited:

Although narrative inquiry has a long intellectual history both in and out of education, it is increasingly used in studies of educational experience. One theory in educational research holds that humans are storytelling organisms who, individually and socially, lead storied lives. Thus, the study of narrative is the study of the ways humans experience the world. This general concept is refined into the view that education and educational research is the construction and reconstruction of personal and social stories; learners, teachers, and researchers are storytellers and characters in their own and other's stories. In this paper we briefly survey forms of narrative inquiry in educational studies and outline certain criteria, methods, and writing forms, which we describe in terms of beginning the story, living the story, and selecting stories to construct and reconstruct narrative plots. 

Attribution: Reprint Policy for Educational Researcher: No written or oral permission is necessary to reproduce a tale, a figure, or an excerpt fewer that 500 words from this journal, or to make photocopies for classroom use. Copyright (1990) by the American Educational Research Association; reproduced with permission from the publisher. 

• Example Qualitative Narrative Inquiry Design

First, the applied doctoral manuscript narrative inquiry researcher should recognize that they are earning a practical/professional based doctorate (Doctor of Education), rather than a research doctorate such as a Ph.D. Unlike a traditional Ph.D. dissertation oral defense where the candidates focus is on theory and research, the NU School of Education applied doctoral candidate presents their finding and contributions to practice to their doctoral committee as a conceptual professional conference level presentation that centers on how their study may resolve a complex problem or issue in the profession. When working on the applied doctoral manuscript keep the focus on the professional and practical benefits that could arise from your study. If the Applied Doctoral Experience (ADE) student is unsure as to whether the topic fits within the requirements of the applied doctoral program (and their specialization, if declared) they should reach out to their research course professor or dissertation chair for guidance. This is known as alignment to the topic and program, and is critical in producing a successful manuscript. Also, most applied doctoral students doing an educational narrative inquiry study will want to use a study site to recruit their participants. For example, the study may involve teachers or college faculty that the researcher will want to interview in order to obtain their stories. Permission may be need from not only the NU Institutional Review Board (IRB), but also the study site. For example, conducting interviews on campus, procuring private school district or college email lists, obtaining archival documents, etc. 

The popularity of narrative inquiry in education is increasing as a circular and pedagogical strategy that lends itself to the practical application of research (Kim, 2016). Keep in mind that by and large practical and professional benefits that arise from a narrative inquiry study revolve around exploring the lived experiences of educators, education administrators, students, and parents or guardians. According to Dunne (2003), 

Research into teaching is best served by narrative modes of inquiry since to understand the teacher’s practice (on his or her own part or on the part of an observer) is to find an illuminating story (or stories) to tell of what they have been involved with their student” (p. 367).

• Temporality – the time of the experiences and how the experiences could influence the future;
• Sociality – cultural and personal influences of the experiences; and;
• Spatiality – the environmental surroundings during the experiences and their influence on the experiences. 

From Haydon and van der Riet (2017)

• Narrative researchers collect stories from individuals retelling of their life experiences to a particular phenomenon. 
• Narrative stories may explore personal characteristics or identities of individuals and how they view themselves in a personal or larger context.
• Chronology is often important in narrative studies, as it allows participants to recall specific places, situations, or changes within their life history.

Sampling and Sample Size

• Purposive sampling is the most often used in narrative inquiry studies. Participants must meet a form of requirement that fits the purpose, problem, and objective of the study
• There is no rule for the sample size for narrative inquiry study. For a dissertation the normal sample size is between 6-10 participants. The reason for this is sampling should be terminated when no new information is forthcoming, which is a common strategy in qualitative studies known as sampling to the point of redundancy.

Data Collection (Methodology)

• Participant and researcher collaborate through the research process to ensure the story told and the story align.
• Extensive “time in the field” (can use Zoom) is spent with participant(s) to gather stories through multiple types of information including, field notes, observations, photos, artifacts, etc.
• Field Test is strongly recommended. The purpose of a field study is to have a panel of experts in the profession of the study review the research protocol and interview questions to ensure they align to the purpose statement and research questions.
• Member Checking is recommended. The trustworthiness of results is the bedrock of high-quality qualitative research. Member checking, also known as participant or respondent validation, is a technique for exploring the credibility of results. Data or results are returned to participants to check for accuracy and resonance with their experiences. Member checking is often mentioned as one in a list of validation techniques (Birt, et al., 2016).

Narrative Data Collection Essentials

• Restorying is the process of gathering stories, analyzing themes for key elements (e.g., time, place, plot, and environment) and then rewriting the stories to place them within a chronological sequence (Ollerenshaw & Creswell, 2002).
• Narrative thinking is critical in a narrative inquiry study. According to Kim (2016), the premise of narrative thinking comprises of three components, the storyteller’s narrative schema, his or her prior knowledge and experience, and cognitive strategies-yields a story that facilitates an understanding of the others and oneself in relation to others.

Instrumentation

• In qualitative research the researcher is the primary instrument.
• In-depth, semi-structured interviews are the norm. Because of the rigor that is required for a narrative inquiry study, it is recommended that two interviews with the same participant be conducted. The primary interview and a follow-up interview to address any additional questions that may arise from the interview transcriptions and/or member checking.

Birt, L., Scott, S., Cavers, D., Campbell, C., & Walter, F. (2016). Member checking: A tool to enhance trustworthiness or merely a nod to validation? Qualitative Health Research, 26 (13), 1802-1811. http://dx.doi.org./10.1177/1049732316654870

Cline, J. M. (2020). Collaborative learning for students with learning disabilities in inclusive classrooms: A qualitative narrative inquiry study (Order No. 28263106). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (2503473076). 

Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry. Educational Researcher, 19 (5), 2–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2018.1465839

Dunne, J. (2003). Arguing for teaching as a practice: A reply to Alasdair Macintyre. Journal of Philosophy of Education . https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.00331 

Haydon, G., & der Riet, P. van. (2017). Narrative inquiry: A relational research methodology suitable to explore narratives of health and illness. Nordic Journal of Nursing Research , 37(2), 85–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/2057158516675217

Kim, J. H. (2016). Understanding Narrative Inquiry: The crafting and analysis of stories as research. Sage Publications. 

Kim J. H. (2017). Jeong-Hee Kim discusses narrative methods [Video]. SAGE Research Methods Video https://www-doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.4135/9781473985179

O’ Toole, J. (2018). Institutional storytelling and personal narratives: reflecting on the value of narrative inquiry. Institutional Educational Studies, 37 (2), 175-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2018.1465839

Ollerenshaw, J. A., & Creswell, J. W. (2002). Narrative research: A comparison of two restorying data analysis approaches. Qualitative Inquiry, 8 (3), 329–347. 

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• Published: 02 September 2024

Propaganda in focus: decoding the media strategy of ISIS

• Yuanbo Qi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9541-8220 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1123 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Politics and international relations

This investigation employs the analytical framework established by Braddock and Horgan to conduct a comprehensive content analysis of 79 official English-language propaganda videos disseminated by ISIS, with the objective of quantifying the thematic composition and the evolutionary trajectory of ISIS’s international media operations and propaganda machinery from 2014 to 2017. The findings reveal that a predominant portion of the videos articulate narratives extensively centred around themes of the adversary and religious discourse, with the Sharia (Islamic law) emerging as the most prevalent theme. This research concludes that at a global scale, the propaganda apparatus of ISIS has orchestrated an intricate narrative, incorporating adversarial, theological, and emotional elements, thereby delineating the advanced sophistication of ISIS’s global propaganda endeavours.

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Introduction.

Between 2014 and 2017, pivotal years in the trajectory of the Islamic State (ISIS), the group witnessed a meteoric rise and subsequent decline in territorial control (al-Lami, 2019 ; Barnard and Saad, 2017 ; Chulov, 2019 ; Curry, 2014a ; Damon et al. 2017 ; Gilsinan, 2014 ; Phippen, 2017 ). Throughout this period, ISIS strategically utilised media, particularly through its official English-language videos, to propagate its message worldwide. Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi’s proclamation of a caliphate at Mosul’s al-Nuri Mosque marked a significant milestone for ISIS, symbolically hearkening back to a perceived Islamic golden age and galvanising Muslims to join their cause (al-Lami, 2019 ; Chulov, 2019 ). The extreme measures employed by the group, along with the global military response, accentuated the multifaceted nature of contemporary extremist movements (Curry, 2014b ; Gilsinan, 2014 ; Malik, 2014b ).

Understanding ISIS’s media strategy is a vital piece of the puzzle in the broader fight against global terrorism. The English-language videos produced by ISIS from 2014 to 2017 underscore not just the group’s media acumen but also their ideological engagement with a global audience. These videos aimed to intimidate adversaries, recruit sympathisers, and affirm the group’s narrative, showcasing a new dimension of digital terrorism that manipulates psychological, rhetorical, and theological elements to wield influence (Dearden, 2015 ).

This study examines ISIS’s video propaganda to decode its key narratives, rhetoric device, and implications for counter narratives. The increased reliance of ISIS on propaganda as their territorial grasp expanded underscores the imperative to scrutinise and interpret their communicative strategies. By delving into the content of these videos, this research seeks insights into how ISIS’s messaging evolved in response to military setbacks, territorial losses, and shifts in the geopolitical landscape.

This enquiry is of paramount importance for scholarly exploration and practical counter-terrorism measures. Recognising the patterns, themes, and shifts in ISIS’s propagated content enables security analysts and policymakers to anticipate and counteract the tactics of ISIS and similar entities. The insight derived from this study has the potential to inform counter-narratives and deconstruct extremist messaging strategies, thus curtailing the reach and impact of jihadist propaganda on a global scale (Gerges, 2019 ).

The confines of this study are set strictly within the official English-language video propaganda disseminated by ISIS from 2014 to 2017, a period marking the zenith of the group’s influence (al-Lami, 2019 ; Barnard and Saad, 2017 ; Chulov, 2019 ; Curry, 2014a ; Damon et al. 2017 ; Gilsinan, 2014 ; Phippen, 2017 ), thus permitting an analysis of its narrative amidst changing geopolitical realities. By focusing solely on these materials, the research delves into the intricacies of ISIS’s marketing strategies and the ideological underpinnings aimed at a global, primarily English-speaking, audience. The study’s deliberate temporal and linguistic boundaries enable a concentrated examination of the group’s communication tactics during a critical juncture of its existence. The study posits the following specific inquiries:

What intrinsic narrative motifs emerge with the greatest prominence in the videos?

The lens of the videos’ intrinsic narratives, in what manner is the worldview inherent to ISIS ideology articulated and represented?

How does the thematic distribution within these videos reflect an evolution or transformation in the period from 2014 to 2017, and what does this shift signify about ISIS media strategy?

A thorough examination of the corpus of research reveals a trend of tactical and thematic complexity in ISIS’s English-language propaganda (Colas, 2017 ; Winter, 2015 ; Winter, 2018 ). First, many studies do not differentiate their examination of ISIS propaganda between Arabic and English-language content, thereby overlooking the group’s nuanced and targeted messaging aimed at reaching a global audience (Abrahms et al. 2017 ; Fisher, 2015 ; Lakomy, 2021a , 2021b ; Salem et al. 2008 ). Assessments like those by Qi ( 2020a , 2020b ) focus on English-language propaganda, primarily highlighting production aspects or performed speech acts without exploring the thematic richness of the content (Colas, 2017 ). Secondly, there is a lack of studies documenting how these themes have evolved in response to the group’s changing circumstances and the global environment. The thematic evolution within the English text remains unexplored (Al-Rawi, 2018 ; Colas, 2017 ; Fisher, 2015 ; Kuznar, 2017 ; Qi, 2020b ; Winter, 2018 ). By providing a detailed study of the themes and substance found in ISIS’s English-language videos, this research bridges the gaps by analysing how these videos have changed to reflect global dynamics and the group circumstances. This study narrows its focus to provide a necessary perspective on ISIS’s strategic use of English-language materials aimed at global audiences, highlighting the specificity of their media strategy and deliberate use of language in terrorist propaganda.

Literature review

The evolution of isis media strategy and its historical context.

ISIS, also known as the Islamic State, surged to global prominence under the leadership of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, who proclaimed a caliphate in 2014, with the ambition of restoring what they considered the golden age of Islam and calling for global Jihad (al-Lami, 2019 ; Chulov, 2019 ). This group quickly gained infamy for its brutal tactics, including the persecution of minorities and conducting high-profile terror attacks, while seizing vast territories in Syria and Iraq (Curry, 2014b ; Gilsinan, 2014 ; Malik, 2014a , 2014b ). By 2017, concerted military efforts significantly diminished ISIS’s territorial control, leading to the loss of their critical strongholds, Mosul and Raqqa (Barnard and Saad, 2017 ; Chulov, 2019 ; Damon et al. 2017 ; Phippen, 2017 ). Despite their territorial defeat and the declaration of the caliphate’s end in 2019, ISIS continues to represent a threat through dispersed networks and sleeper cells globally (Forrest, 2019 ). For instance, nearly a decade after the 2015 terror attacks in Paris, an ISIS affiliate, known as the Islamic State Khorasan Province (ISIS-Khorasan), claimed responsibility for a devastating attack at the Crocus City concert hall in Moscow, which killed 137 people in 2024 (Roth and Sauer, 2024 ; Schmitt, 2024 ). The persistence of the group’s radical ideology suggests that, without addressing the root causes of its emergence, the potential for resurgence remains (Gerges, 2019 ). The transformation of ISIS into a more diffuse entity, which inspires global violence through its propaganda, underscores the enduring challenge of neutralising its impact (al-Lami, 2019 ; Votel et al. 2017 ).

ISIS’s media strategy has a complex history that has developed over time due to strategic adjustments and technology breakthroughs (Gerges, 2016 ). ISIS has recognised the power of the media from the beginning, using it as a recruiting tool and a psychological warfare weapon (Atwan, 2015 ). Their activities at first resembled conventional jihadist communication channels, but they quickly changed into an advanced media machine that made use of social media and excellent video production.

ISIS propagandised mostly in Arabic in the phases, focusing on the local populace as well as the larger Middle East. There was a noticeable change, though, as the group looked to broaden its international appeal and attract members from Western nations. The group’s magazine “Dabiq,” and subsequently “Rumiyah,” as well as a number of videos meant for Western audiences, signalled the appearance of English-language material (Milton, 2020 ). The deliberate change in strategy to add English-language content indicated that the campaign was intended to be multinational.

In addition to being linguistic, the shift from local to international media was both thematic and stylistic. In their analysis of the narrative structures and cinematic devices used in these videos, Venkatesh et al. ( 2020 ) highlight how the “Cinemas of Attraction” and “Pornography of violence” models were created with the intention of shocking as well as attracting viewers. Meanwhile, Sweeney et al. ( 2020 ) emphasised the positive relationship that exists between ISIS’s ability to govern territory and the complexity of the media that it produces, directly connecting the group’s perceived legitimacy and power to the calibre of its output.

ISIS media strategy analyses have changed in tandem with the group’s output. According to Kruglova ( 2020 ), ISIS propaganda utilised narrative advertising by appropriating marketing research, especially on social media platforms. This change is especially significant in light of the group’s deliberate use of stories to elicit strong feelings from the audience; these stories are made much more engaging when they are told in the language of the intended audience. Furthermore, an examination of how the group’s employment of cutting-edge tactics, such as drone images, improved the perceived power and legitimacy of the ISIS brand in these propaganda operations was presented (Archambault and Veilleux-Lepage, 2020 ).

A crucial element in the development of ISIS’s tactics is the interaction between the medium and message content. Toguslu ( 2019 ) examined the ways in which ISIS propaganda—particularly that seen in their magazines—constructs and presents storylines to support their ideology. ISIS’s media activities have seen a substantial metamorphosis with the conversion of these tales into video format and English translation (Fisher, 2015 ). These kinds of materials aim to appeal to Western audiences, frequently imitating Western media styles to give the propaganda a more recognisable sentiment (Qi and He, 2023 ).

The development of ISIS’s media strategy demonstrates a purposeful and strategic shift from local Arabic material to a more inclusive, wider media strategy that aims to interact with English-speaking viewers. This shift highlights how terrorist organisations are adaptable in the digital era and emphasises how crucial it is to thoroughly examine their media outputs to comprehend their influence and reach. Even if they are comprehensive, the earlier studies on ISIS’s media tactics have gaps that need for more research, especially when it comes to the topic of English-language video propaganda and its peculiar characteristics (Cottee and Cunliffe, 2020 ). Comprehending this evolutionary process is essential to crafting counter-narrative tactics and reducing the group’s impact on vulnerable English-speaking communities.

ISIS Propaganda’s thematic and tactical development

The tactical strategies and subject matter of ISIS’s English-language propaganda videos evolved significantly as their media apparatus grew (Winter, 2015 ). After analysing these themes, academics found recurring themes including victimisation, cruelty, utopianism, martyrdom, and apocalypse, all of which were intended to accomplish certain tactical goals (Johnston, 2022 ; Lakomy, 2020 ; Price and Mooney, 2022 ; Winter, 2015 ).

Early examination of the content of ISIS revealed a duality between images of horror and utopia—a dualism meant to arouse and terrify. The contrast of violent activities against the backdrop of an Islamic utopia promised was noticed by Venkatesh et al. ( 2020 ). ‘Cinematic charms’ combined with pictures of a dreamy caliphate lifestyle were intended to justify violence by painting it as a means of achieving a holy purpose.

In their investigation of the “Theatre of Terror,” Sweeney et al. ( 2020 ) and Qi ( 2020b ) contended that the staged violence in ISIS films was a deliberate strategy to represent authority and engender terror rather than being merely for spectacular. According to their study, those videos demonstrated the group’s ability to avenge its adversaries and were an example of a low-cost, high-effect tactic that maximised the symbolic value of violence and self-justification.

This topic was expanded upon by Kruglova ( 2020 ) to include the marketing-like techniques employed in these videos. She emphasised how skilled ISIS is at using social media as a platform to attract and radicalise potential recruits by creating narratives that play on emotions and identity. ISIS was able to connect with a larger audience by using English to tell a compelling tale that spoke to the needs and grievances of those who were remote from the fighting.

Milton ( 2020 ) looked into another facet of ISIS’s propaganda, which involved the deliberate manipulation of pictures. Using a dataset of 1700 ISIS images, he concluded that violent images, especially those of adversaries, greatly boosted attention. In addition to showcasing the group’s military might, the carefully chosen video also showed ISIS government and everyday life, appealing to viewers’ feeling of order and community.

With time, there was a noticeable change in the quality of ISIS propaganda—from widely circulated messages to more specialised information. In their audience perception research, Cottee and Cunliffe ( 2020 ) brought to light ISIS’s acute comprehension of its Western audience. ISIS’s English-language videos were an effective recruiting tool because they were crafted with tales that spoke to certain frustrations or ideological inclinations.

Qi and He ( 2023 ) has conducted an evaluation of English-language videos with an emphasis on their production and semantic attributes. These studies provide insight into how the videos’ production value and thematic distribution strategies have changed over time, despite criticism for their cursory presentation of the subject matter. This kind of study is essential to comprehending how, despite its military decline on the ground, ISIS managed to stay relevant and active in the digital sphere.

By concentrating on the performative element of ISIS narratives, Toguslu ( 2019 ) exposed the group’s deft use of religious texts to justify its crimes. ISIS attempted to provide its supporters with a spiritual purpose and a theological rationale for their atrocities by utilising passages from the Quran and Hadith in their propaganda.

ISIS propaganda’s thematic and tactical growth demonstrates a deliberate progression that aims to shock and persuade. By skilfully utilising English-language videos, the group was able to reach a wider audience and have a more profound effect, appealing to deeper themes of identity, religion, and political grievances than the surface-level appeal of violence. Therefore, analysing these advancements offers crucial insights into the workings of contemporary terrorist propaganda and serves as a foundation for developing potent counterstrategies.

Theoretical framework

In this study, we adopt the theoretical framework of content analysis as outlined by Braddock and Horgan ( 2016 ), which serves as a methodological cornerstone for dissecting the narratives utilised by extremist groups like ISIS. This framework builds upon the understanding that these groups use specific communicative strategies, including narratives imbued with extremist ideologies, values, and beliefs, to achieve strategic objectives and potentially foster radicalisation (Braddock and Horgan, 2016 ; Braddock and Dillard, 2016 ). The persuasive power of extremist media, and its role in radicalisation, has been acknowledged in various studies (Horgan, 2014 ; Jackson, 2007 ), highlighting the urgency of crafting counter-narratives based on a profound understanding of terrorist narratives.

Braddock and Horgan ( 2016 ) advocate for content analysis as a pivotal tool for this endeavour, enabling researchers to identify themes central to an extremist group’s ideology through a detailed examination of their media productions. Their proposed method includes both quantitative assessments of overt message characteristics and a more nuanced thematic analysis aimed at uncovering underlying values, views, and ideologies (Krippendorff, 2012 ). This approach facilitates the recognition of patterns within texts, serving as a crucial step in understanding extremist narratives.

Following the analytic procedures suggested by Braddock and Horgan ( 2016 , pp. 387–388), our study undertakes a systematic exploration of ISIS and other jihadi groups’ narratives. This involves multiple readings of the narratives to grasp their theme, style, and meaning; generating and consolidating codes that reflect the terrorist group’s ideology; sorting codes into overarching themes to identify higher-order concepts; and quantifying these thematic elements to ascertain the most prevalent themes. Such a structured analysis allows for a comprehensive understanding of the narratives, supported by a pilot-coding to ensure objectivity (Boyatzis and E, 1995 ; Patton, 2002 ).

Sampling rationale

Since there has been a substantial quantity of ISIS media production (Atwan, 2015 ; Colas, 2016a ; Cottee, 2015 ; Stern and Berger, 2016 ; Winkler et al. 2016 ; Winter, 2015 ; Zelin, 2015 ), there must be a feasible solution for sampling the data into a manageable corpus (Colas, 2016a ). Through the existing literature, it is observable that, first, studies have largely focused on the written texts, even though empirical studies on ISIS media output have clearly shown that ISIS relies more on visual propaganda than on written propaganda (Zelin, 2015 ). Second, the corpus might need to vary chronologically in terms of release dates to comprehend the evolution and changing dynamics of ISIS media in response to real-world events (Kuznar, 2017 ). Third, English is the second most commonly used language next to Arabic in ISIS propaganda and is the most commonly used foreign language (Fisher, 2015 ). Finally, in its intentional use of such a worldwide, accessible language, the official English-language video, from the organisation’s perspective, represents ISIS’s global ambitions and central strategies. This, in turn, sheds light upon ISIS’s worldview, how ISIS sees itself, and how ISIS wishes to be seen (Colas, 2016a ; Fisher, 2015 ). Ultimately, this fourfold rationale that leads to the sampling criteria sharpens data into a manageable size while remaining quantifiable and comparable with others’ studies of ISIS media production, leading to a more comprehensive, if counter-intuitive, study.

Sampling criteria

The 79 official English-language videos from ISIS were selected based on the following criteria: (1) timing: the video productions must have been released from April 2014 to July 2017, a timeframe that fully captures the Fall and the Liberation of Mosul (10 June 2014–10 July 2017), which symbolises the geographic controllability and territorial power of ISIS (Burke, 2017 ; Forrest, 2019 ; Gamal-Gabriel and Dunlop, 2017 ); (2) language: the video must either be narrated in English or have subtitles in English; (3) sources [for selecting those that represent official ISIS material]: the video productions must be from official ISIS media centres or from provincial-level centres accredited by official media centres. The criteria were implemented to collect English-narrated/subtitled videos released within the established time period that were produced/recognised by the official media centres at al-Hayat , al-Furqan , and al-I’tisam (Barr and Herfroy-Mischler, 2017 ; Zelin, 2015 ). To ensure that the English-language used in the videos released from provincial media centres was officially authorised by ISIS, as opposed to being a private translating effort from pro-ISIS supporters, the videos must have been promoted by the video series Selected 10 and Featured 3 , both of which represent or highlight periodic exaltations of exemplary provincial videos productions by al-Hayat media centre.

The criteria of timing in this study might be worth particular attention to further clarify. The designation of 2014 to 2017 as the peak period of ISIS activities is substantiated by a detailed examination of their territorial control and pivotal events, with a significant focus on the strategic city of Mosul. This era marks ISIS’s swift territorial expansion, reaching its apogee in 2014, characterised by the capture of Mosul, a major urban centre that symbolised their operational and administrative capabilities (Chulov, 2019 ; Curry, 2014b ; Gilsinan, 2014 ). The occupation of Mosul not only demonstrated ISIS’s military prowess but also established a geographical and ideological centre for the caliphate (al-Lami, 2019 ; Boffey and Jalabi, 2014 ; Dearden, 2014 ).

The subsequent decline of ISIS, leading to the liberation of Mosul in July 2017, underscores the importance of this timeframe. The battle for Mosul, which began in October 2016, represented a turning point in the international effort to dismantle ISIS’s territorial hold, highlighting a concerted counter-terrorism strategy that significantly diminished their control and influence (Barnard and Saad, 2017 ; Chulov, 2019 ; Damon et al. 2017 ; Phippen, 2017 )). The liberation of Mosul is widely regarded as a critical indicator of ISIS’s waning power, marking the end of their most significant territorial possession (Burke, 2017 ; Forrest, 2019 ).

Given these considerations, the period between 2014 and 2017 is selected as the focal point of this study, reflecting the zenith and subsequent reduction of ISIS’s territorial and operational command. This timeframe is crucial for understanding the dynamics of ISIS’s rise and fall, providing a comprehensive overview of their impact and the global response to their activities (Burke, 2017 ; Forrest, 2019 ).

Data collection

It is worth noting the distinction between the period of data collection (October 2015 to August 2017) and the video release date criteria (April 2014 to July 2017) for the sake of clarity. This study collected data between 1 October 2015, and 1 August 2017, leveraging Jihadology.net , a renowned repository for jihadi primary materials. During this period, MP4 files of ISIS videos were gathered from digital archives curated by scholars. The collection prioritised anonymity in sourcing to safeguard security while ensuring the authenticity and reliability of the data through cross-verification. Among a broad dataset of 1025 videos, 79 official English-language ISIS videos were chosen based on stringent criteria. Empirical evidence supports data collection via digital media, establishing them as promising research channels for the social sciences (Okereka et al. 2024 ).

Analytical procedure

Extremist organisations use varied communication strategies, including crafting narratives to embed ideologies and values (Braddock and Horgan, 2016 ). The effectiveness of these media in radicalisation is debated. Certain studies suggest narrative exposure can be persuasive, while others see no consistent link (Hong and Park, 2012 ; Peracchio and Meyers-Levy, 1997 ). However, it’s recognised that extremist narratives might potentially lead to radicalisation (Horgan, 2014 ).

Braddock and Horgan focus on developing counter-narratives to extremist ideologies. Understanding terrorist narratives is crucial for crafting effective counter-narratives and strategic communication to prevent radicalisation. These narratives, complex in ideological and emotional content, fulfil several roles: identity, justification for violence, and presenting a skewed reality that influences behaviour. Dissecting them is key to understanding their resonance and potential to foster extremist ideologies.

Development of the coding instrument

The initial phase of the analytical process was the development and enhancement of the coding scheme, which serves as the backbone for thematic analysis. This began with the construction of a provisional list of codes, which are essentially interpretative tags assigned to segments of the meaningful organisations within the videos. These segments to which the codes are applied could vary in length, thereby providing the flexibility to code discrete elements or broader sections of the narrative as necessary.

The analyst used their expertise and preliminary observations to form an initial list of themes present in the videos. This list was dynamically refined to align with established thematic frameworks in extremist propaganda research, ensuring a scholarly foundation for the coding instrument.

Relevant literature, including works by Winter ( 2015 ), Pelletier et al. ( 2016 ), and Gråtrud ( 2016 ), contributed established thematic codes to the analysis. This comparative approach refined the coding list, eliminating redundancy and ensuring a robust, comprehensive coding structure.

The analysis then shifted to a quantitative phase, systematically applying the refined codes to the video narratives. This quantification measured the frequency and prominence of themes, providing empirical insights into ISIS’s strategic messaging priorities during the study period. This approach moved the analysis beyond subjective interpretation towards a data-driven understanding of the thematic content in the ISIS videos.

Application of codes and content analysis

The analytical stage for examining ISIS videos involved a detailed and systematic coding process. The analyst analysed 79 videos, totalling 915 min, by breaking them down into one-minute increments, resulting in 915 distinct units for granular analysis.

Each minute unit was scrutinised using a set of thematic codes, identifying, and recording occurrences of specific themes, termed ‘segments.’ This led to the cataloguing of 799 segments of varying lengths. The prevalence of themes was assessed by calculating the cumulative duration of these segments, quantifying both the frequency and the temporal span of themes in the dataset. The total duration of all segments was 1707 units. Themes with a significance level of 0.06 or higher, roughly equivalent to 100 units or more, were considered substantially prevalent.

Additionally, the analysis explored the ‘asymmetric nature’ of ISIS media operations. This involved using the SKEW function, a statistical measure of distribution asymmetry, to understand the uneven thematic distribution over time, highlighting the dynamic nature of ISIS’s propaganda focus.

The outcome was a comprehensive thematic overview, showing both the frequency and variability of themes in ISIS’s video propaganda. The results were then visually represented in tables and graphs for clearer interpretation and discussion. At the conclusion of this rigorous process, the analyst had at their disposal a comprehensive list of themes, along with detailed insights into the frequency and changing patterns of these themes within ISIS’s video propaganda. The findings from this stage of analysis were then translated into tables and graphs, which facilitated a clear visual representation of the data, allowing for more accessible interpretation and discussion of the results.

Inter-coder reliability

The methodology for analysing ISIS video narratives involved enhancing reliability through an independent expert coder’s review, aligning with Schreier’s ( 2012 ) conflict resolution guidelines. The initial thematic categorisation has been scrutinised to ensure balanced and accurate coding. Braddock and Dillard’s ( 2016 ) methodical evaluation approach guided the determination of theme presence, with coder reviews forming the basis of final decisions.

To verify coding consistency, a pilot test aimed for at least 0.80 inter-coder reliability, following Cohen’s ( 1960 ) benchmark for high reliability. This standard reduces subjective bias, ensuring systematic and replicable coding. After pilot testing and discussions, two significant coding instrument revisions were made, leading to a final list of 26 thematic codes. This process established the credibility and rigour of the analysis.

The research includes three appendices in its online archive for transparency and replication. Appendix 1 details the data collection sources, Appendix 2 presents the final 26 thematic codes, and Appendix 3 contains example tables showing segment cataloguing and duration calculations. These appendices underpin the methodology and analysis, offering detailed insights into the study’s mechanics and coding process.

Thematic dissection of ISIS propaganda: enemy, religious, and emotive narratives

Figure 1 in the study categorises primary narratives in ISIS’s English-language videos into three groups: enemy, religious, and emotive, based on 26 thematic elements.

This figure presents the statistical compositions of the narratives identified in ISIS English-language videos, detailing the specific prevalence of each associated theme.

Figure 2 shows the ‘enemy’ narrative, comprising 40.83% of the content, focuses mainly on portraying ISIS at war (9.02%), captives confessing ‘sins’ (7.26%), and depicting the West as aggressive and oppressive (6.09%). It also highlights Western failures (4.22%) and alliances against ISIS (2.69%), with lesser emphasis on terror attacks (1.52%) and domestic vice and punishment (1.17%).

This figure illustrates the statistical thematic distribution of the enemy narrative within ISIS English-language videos, showing the relative frequency of each theme.

Figure 3 indicates the ‘religious’ narrative forms a substantial portion, led by themes of Sharia law enforcement (9.31%). Other key themes include incitement for jihad (6.39%), Islamic references (6.27%), and calls for emigration (4.16%). Lesser themes include allegiance to the leader (1.29%) and apocalypse (1.05%).

This figure shows the statistical thematic distribution of the religious narrative in ISIS English-language videos, highlighting the prevalence of each associated theme.

Figure 4 signifies the ‘emotive’ narrative, at 21.15%, highlights ‘happiness’ living within ISIS territory (5.74%) and victories at battlefield (4.98%). It also covers martyrdom and Muslim suffering (3.81%; 2.46%; 2.05%), with infrequent mentions of restoring honour of Islam (1.23%) or feelings of humiliation (0.88%).

This figure depicts the statistical thematic distribution of the emotive narrative in ISIS English-language videos, indicating the frequency of different themes.

Prevalent themes in ISIS propaganda: a detailed thematic breakdown

In the detailed analysis of ISIS English-language videos, ‘sharia and governance’ was the most prevalent theme, accounting for 9.31% of the content. This was followed by ‘combat’ (9.02%), ‘captives and confession’ (7.26%), ‘jihad’ (6.39%), ‘support from Quran and Sunnah’ (6.27%), and ‘Western malevolence’ (6.09%). Other notable themes included ‘happiness and wellbeing’ (5.74%), ‘strength and victory’ (4.98%), and ‘execution’ (4.45%).

Figure 5 in the study ranks these 26 themes based on their segment duration in the video corpus. Themes with a significance level of 0.06 or higher, such as ‘sharia and governance’, ‘combat’, and ‘captives and confession’, are highlighted, indicating their central role in ISIS propaganda.

This figure ranks the prevalence of 26 individual themes according to the total duration of segments in 79 ISIS English-language videos, presenting the relative importance of each theme.

Temporal shifts in ISIS narrative focus: analysing the stability of thematic content

The temporal analysis of ISIS English-language videos from 2014 to 2017 reveals fluctuating narrative themes, with six—‘vice and punishment’, ‘terror attack’, ‘apocalypse and prophecy’, ‘support from scholars’, ‘combat’, and ‘obedience to God’—showing significant variability. For example, ‘Terror attack’ was minimal until mid-2015, then became frequent, peaking in January 2016 and coinciding with portrayals of the November 2015 Paris attacks in ISIS videos.

However, as represented by Fig. 6 , themes like ‘jihad’, ‘West colluding with enemies’, ‘happiness and wellbeing’, ‘captives and confession’, ‘support from Quran and Sunnah’, and ‘sharia and governance’ remained stable and recurrent, reflecting ISIS’s core ideological appeals.

This figure displays the skewness in the distribution of the 26 themes in ISIS English-language videos. From left to right, the figure ranks the themes based on their instability, from the highest to the lowest.

Binary worldviews and theological legitimacy in ISIS propaganda

The prevalence of enemy narratives in ISIS propaganda creates a stark ‘us versus them’ dichotomy. Gerges ( 2009 , 2016 ) and Mahood and Rane ( 2016 ) discuss how ISIS portrays itself as the ‘good’—upholders of Sharia and the true path of jihad—while anyone opposing them is depicted as the ‘evil’ doomed to fail due to their disbelief. The narrative is given legitimacy by anchoring it in the historical and contemporary experiences of Muslims. Such binary opposition is a classic psychological warfare technique, fostering a collective identity among ISIS followers and justifying the group’s violent actions (Cantey, 2017 ; Gråtrud, 2016 ).

ISIS ideologues use theological language to assert that the group is on a divine mission, with violent jihad being the sole path to rectify the world (Mahood and Rane, 2016 ). They claim to be guided by a ‘prophetic methodology,’ deriving their understanding from the Quran and Sunnah, and present their jihadists as ‘lions of the caliphate’ and ‘warriors in upholding the rules of God’ (Gerges, 2016 ; Mahood and Rane, 2016 ). This religious narrative is fundamental in legitimising ISIS’s actions and in recruiting followers by weaving theological justifications into its narrative framework.

The strategic use of emotive content in ISIS propaganda is discussed as being less prevalent compared to the enemy and religious narratives. This strategic choice could indicate a focus on ideological and combative aspects, particularly in content aimed at Western audiences (Colas, 2016b ; Spier, 2018 ). However, when emotive content is utilised, it is designed to resonate with feelings of injustice and discrimination, appealing to a sense of identity and grievance (Mahood and Rane, 2016 ; Olidort and McCants, 2015 ).

The discussion further situates ISIS’s propaganda strategy within the broader debate on the role of Islam in its ideology, referencing Graeme Wood’s influential essay (Wood, 2015 ) that contends ISIS is intrinsically Islamic, sparking a debate on the relationship between Islamism and terrorism (Cottee, 2017a ). This debate pits those who view ISIS as representing true Islam (Ali et al. 2020 ) against those who vehemently disagree (Coles, 2015 ; Hasan and Mehdi, 2015 ; Tharoor, 2016 ). This ongoing argument examines whether the violence enacted in the name of religion is inherently religious or if it is politically motivated and sometimes can be secular in character.

Wood’s essay challenges the notion that ISIS’s violence is purely psychopathic, suggesting instead that it is rooted in early medieval Islamic ideology (Remnick, 2014 ). Meanwhile, critics like Coles ( 2015 ) argue that ISIS’s interpretation of Islam is a deviation, and others like Coolsaet ( 2016 ) and Roy ( 2016 ) attribute the violence to political rather than religious motivations.

The empirical evidence from this study, which shows a significant emphasis on religious narrative in ISIS’s English-language videos, adds a critical dimension to this debate. The frequent recurrence of themes such as sharia law and violent jihad in official media suggests that ISIS’s theological underpinnings are significant and that the group’s ideological foundations are vital to understanding its allure and the motivations of its adherents (Makdisi and John, 1985 ; Mutahhari, 2014 ).

The integration of empirical findings with the broader discourse on ISIS’s propaganda strategies provides a more comprehensive understanding of how the group uses enemy and religious narratives to construct a worldview that legitimises its actions, while also participating in a broader debate about the role of religion in political violence. This complex narrative strategy serves multiple functions within the group’s ideological battle, solidifying its identity, justifying its violent actions, and recruiting followers.

Strategic emphasis and media diversity in ISIS’s propaganda narrative

The findings in ISIS’s English-language videos, as identified in the study, affirm the thematic elements highlighted in other research on ISIS’s propaganda (Gråtrud and Henrik, 2016 ; Kuznar, 2017 ). Emotive language, moderately employed in ISIS’s videos, is a common thread throughout jihadist propaganda, which is also prevalent among groups like the Taliban, Al-Qaeda, and its affiliates AQIM and AQAP. However, ISIS’s unique emphasis on certain themes distinguishes its propaganda from others (Abrahms et al. 2017 ; Gendron and Angela, 2016 ; Salem et al. 2008 ).

The study supports Kuznar’s observation that the thematic elements of ISIS propaganda are present in other jihadi propaganda but emphasises that ISIS has a distinctive approach to these themes. While the general message across ISIS’s various media formats—magazines, leaders’ speeches, public statements, and Nasheeds —remains coherent, the intensity with which certain themes are highlighted varies. ISIS’s English-language videos, in particular, consistently emphasise religious and enemy narratives in line with ‘Dabiq,’ the group’s official English-language magazine, while emotive narratives are less pronounced (Colas, 2016a ).

In contrast, the leaders’ speeches seem to focus more on emotion-provoking themes, suggesting a strategic use of emotional appeal to strengthen the group’s core narratives, with religious and enemy narratives taking a secondary role (Spier, 2018 ). Gråtrud’s analysis suggests that the effectiveness of ISIS’s media, such as Nasheeds , could be attributed to its emphasis on a select number of broadly appealing themes. This targeted approach likely extends beyond Nasheeds to other media productions, indicating a nuanced strategy to engage with various target audiences effectively.

When we consider these findings alongside the comparative analysis of other extremist groups, it becomes evident that ISIS has carved out a unique space in jihadist media strategy. While the shared use of recruitment, indoctrination, enemy construction, religious justification, and calls to action are common jihadist media narratives, ISIS’s distinct approach lies in its media production quality, modern communication tool utilisation, apocalyptic messaging, and tailored language use.

The thematic emphasis and diversity in ISIS’s media productions, juxtaposed with the broader landscape of jihadist propaganda, underscore the group’s sophisticated media strategy. ISIS’s ability to maintain thematic consistency across different media forms while varying the intensity of certain themes reveals an intention to optimise the impact of its messaging. This adaptability and tailored emphasis not only differentiate ISIS’s propaganda from other groups but also potentially enhance its effectiveness in recruitment and ideological dissemination.

By understanding these nuances, counter-terrorism efforts can be better tailored to address the specific strategies employed by ISIS and other extremist groups, acknowledging the shared tactics while targeting the unique aspects of each group’s propaganda approach.

Adaptive themes and consistent ideology in ISIS propaganda

The research of Pelletier et al. ( 2016 ) aligns with the findings from this study, suggesting that jihadist groups like AQAP and ISIS exhibit major thematic shifts in response to real-world events while maintaining a consistent overarching thematic structure. In the case of ISIS, the primary and most fundamental themes—those at the core of ISIS’s ideology—tend to remain stable over time. Conversely, the less recurrent themes display more dynamism, often aligning with specific geopolitical or operational developments that ISIS encounters.

For example, the theme of ‘Terror Attack’ in ISIS videos became more prominent following high-profile attacks that ISIS claimed responsibility for, such as the Paris attacks in November 2015. Foster ( 2014 ) notes the depiction of the perpetrators as heroes in ISIS’s narrative, which marked a peak in the terror attack theme’s prominence. The ‘Apocalypse and Prophecy’ theme’s activity aligns with the group’s control over the town of Dabiq, believed to be a prophesied battlefield, and its eventual loss of the town in 2016 (Withnall, 2016 ). These shifts illustrate how ISIS’s media strategy is interwoven with its operational successes and setbacks, using thematic content to reflect and amplify its real-world narrative.

Despite the responsiveness to events, the more recurrent themes, particularly those propagating violent jihad and Islamic law—pillars of the ISIS ideology—remained consistent. These themes are critical for maintaining a steady ideological message for recruitment, indoctrination, and asserting the group’s identity.

However, the theme of ‘Combat’ presents an interesting case. Although it is one of the most recurrent themes, it exhibited significant instability. The two major peaks in this theme’s prominence not only reflect specific events but also disproportionately affect the theme’s overall statistical stability. This instability may serve a strategic purpose, as Zelin ( 2015 ) indicates, potentially highlighting the asymmetric nature of ISIS media operations. The aim could be to project an image of ongoing struggle and resilience despite real-world setbacks, thereby maintaining morale and commitment among its followers.

The skewness in the distribution of themes across ISIS’s videos supports the notion of an asymmetric media strategy. This asymmetry is not arbitrary but appears to be a calculated response to real-world events. Themes that exhibit significant shifts correspond to specific incidents, underscoring ISIS’s intent to manipulate media narratives in line with operational objectives and challenges.

Counter-terrorism strategies implications

Counter-narrative campaigns are crucial in combating the binary enemy narratives that ISIS propagates. ISIS frames the world in terms of black and white, good and evil, believers and non-believers. To counter this, it’s important to develop narratives that showcase the complexity and diversity of Muslim identities and the peaceful, pluralistic nature of Islamic teachings. Educational initiatives can play a pivotal role in this area, as they can foster a more nuanced understanding of Islam that goes beyond the simplistic and extremist interpretations offered by ISIS (Gerges, 2016 ; Mahood and Rane, 2016 ).

By highlighting the rich tapestry of Islamic scholarship and the diversity of interpretations that have coexisted within Islamic history, these campaigns can undermine the theological foundations upon which ISIS builds its legitimacy. It is also essential to promote voices within the Muslim community that speak to the religion’s core messages of peace and compassion, drawing on both historical and contemporary sources of Islamic thought (Makdisi and John 1985 ).

ISIS has demonstrated an ability to adapt its messages in response to changing circumstances, be they losses on the battlefield or shifts in geopolitical alliances. A successful counter-terrorism approach must be equally flexible, employing real-time intelligence to detect and respond to changes in ISIS’s narrative strategies (Pelletier et al. 2016 ). Developing predictive models based on this intelligence can help anticipate the group’s future shifts in narrative and allow counter-terrorism efforts to stay one step ahead.

At its core, radicalisation often stems from socio-political factors such as alienation, discrimination, and injustice—elements that ISIS exploits to recruit and radicalise individuals. Counter-terrorism efforts must, therefore, also focus on the root causes of radicalisation. This involves creating inclusive policies that address unemployment, provide educational opportunities, and promote social cohesion within marginalised communities (Coolsaet, 2016 ; Roy, 2016 ). Programs that target these areas can reduce the susceptibility of individuals to extremist ideologies by improving their socioeconomic conditions and fostering a sense of belonging within their societies.

In summary, ISIS has created a complex global propaganda apparatus comprising comprehensive narrative themes that span adversarial, theological, and emotional artefacts. The primary conclusion is fourfold: first, within the scope of ISIS propaganda, the extent to which ISIS emphasises certain themes is distinctive from that of other media releases; second, the two most important narratives for ISIS propagandists are the enemy and religious narratives, which reflect a binary worldview of ISIS ideology. ISIS represents the ‘good’ whereas those who oppose ISIS are its enemies and the ‘evil’; third, the ratio of the religious narrative in ISIS English-language videos elucidates one of the hottest debates regarding ISIS’s Islamic nature by supporting and reinforcing the arguments that the religious artefacts of ISIS are important and cannot be neglected if the narrative and underlying ideologies are to be understood (Pelletier et al. 2016 ; Wood, 2015 ); finally, the most fundamental themes promoted by ISIS remain consistent over time whereas the least recurrent themes are more dynamic and might shift significantly in response to a series of real-world events that ISIS faces on the ground.

However, this study is merely the first step. There have been some limitations and many other research trajectories of which future studies might be aware. Most apparently, due to the resource restraints and unstable circumstances in the region, it has been difficult to claim the complete collection of ISIS-produced videos has been archived in this field. Second, this study does not account for the audience perception of ISIS videos – it demands a separate study, although some research in this domain is already underway, and such work is beneficial for our understanding of ISIS propaganda (Cottee, 2017b ). Third, the effectiveness of ISIS narratives might not only depend on what the narrative contains but also on the style in which the content is vividly presented (O’Keefe, 1997 ). Further studies could provide another perspective by, for instance, examining cinematography or semiotics. Finally, the use of content analysis might restrain our understanding of the sophistication of ISIS rhetoric and reasoning devices; further research could offer an interpretation of ISIS English videos beyond locution and thematic analysis of extremists’ messages. For example, ISIS’s use of language as a means to achieve objectives through words and deeds.

Nevertheless, contributing significantly to the discourse on jihadist media strategy, this study undertakes a detailed examination of narrative motifs found in the official English-language videos of ISIS. It renders an original, comprehensive content analysis of ISIS’s propaganda, and facilitates a highly inclusive range of thematic elements that are also applicable to other extremists’ visual texts. Dissecting these videos’ narrative constructs enables a deeper counterpoint to the narratives that have found traction in jihadist online propaganda. By doing so, insights into the group’s strategic narrative constructions and worldviews are gleaned. These insights are crucial for demystifying ISIS: discerning its self-image, presentation style, and desired perception among international audiences. Moreover, this research augments existing studies on ISIS’s global media reach by providing an exhaustive analysis of its official English-language videos and adopts a dynamic perspective on the group’s media offerings, tracking how ISIS tailored its propagandist responses to various global events during the important period. The methodological rigour applied herein lays the groundwork for future explorations into the propaganda of other terrorist organisations. Exposure to jihadist propaganda might not be a sole radicalising force; rather, it is the confluence of ideological currents within broader social, political, and cultural frameworks that is critical (Winter, 2015). ISIS’s media arsenal, encompassing literature, videos, social platforms, and discussion forums, is curated to mirror these undercurrents. The analytical method developed through this study’s examination of ISIS’s videos paves the way for scrutinising a broader array of extremist communications.

Data availability

The dataset generated during and/or analysed during the current study is submitted as a supplementary file and can also be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Qi, Y. Propaganda in focus: decoding the media strategy of ISIS. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1123 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03608-y

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