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What is a Computer System?

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Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

Reema Thareja, Assistant Professor, Institute of Information Technology and Management

© Oxford University Press 2012. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

1 st gen-1940-56

2 nd gen 1956-63

3 rd -64-71

4 th —72-89

5 th -mordern day

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SOFTWARE

• A computer is a machine that takes instructions and performs computations based on those instructions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

The word generation means the state of improvement in the product development process. Similarly, computer generation refers to the different advancements of new computer technology.

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first generation computers used very large number of vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.

UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are prime examples of first-generation computing devices.

Advantages: Fastest calculating device of their time

Disadvantages:

1. Dissipate a lot of heat

2. Consume a lot of electricity

3. Very bulky in size

4. These computers were frequently down due to hardware failures.

5. These computers needed constant maintenance because of low mean time between failures

6. Limited commercial use because these computers were difficult to program

7. Very expensive

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

• The second generation computers were manufactured using transistors.
• While first generation computers were programmed using machine language, second generation computers moved towards symbolic, or assembly languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
• At this time, high-level programming languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, ALGOL and SNOBOL were also being developed.
• Second generation computers were first to store instructions in memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
• Second generation computers were first developed for the atomic energy industry.

Advantages:

1. Consumed less electricity and thus dissipated less heat as compared to first generation computers

2. Faster, cheaper smaller and more reliable than first generation computers

3. Could be programmed using assembly language and high level languages

4. These computers had faster primary memory and a larger secondary memory

1. Second generation computers were manufactured using transistors that had to be assembled manually. This made commercial production of computers difficult and expensive.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

• The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
• These computers had few megabytes of main memory and magnetic disks which could store few tens of megabytes of data per disk drive.
• High level programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN were standardized by ANSI
• Some more high level programming languages like PL/I PASCAL and BASIC were introduced at this time.
• Third generation computers were the first to implement time sharing operating systems.
• Input to these computers could now be provided using keyboards and mouse.
• Faster than second generation computers and could perform 1 million transactions per second.

2. Smaller, cheaper and more reliable than their predecessors

3. These computers had faster and larger primary memory and secondary storage

4. They were widely used for scientific as well as business applications

5. During this generation of computers, standardization of existing high level languages and invention of new high level languages was done

6. These computers had time sharing operating system which allowed interactive use of computer by one or more users simultaneously thereby improving the productivity of the users.

Fourth Generation (1971-1989) Microprocessors

• The microprocessor started the fourth generation of computers with thousands of integrated circuits built onto a single silicon chip.
• Semi-conductor memories were used which were very fast, even the hard disks became cheaper, smaller in size and larger in capacity.
• For input, floppy disks (in addition to magnetic tapes) were used to port data and programs from one computer to another.
• During this period many new operating systems were developed like MS-DOS MS-Windows UNIX and Apple’s proprietary operating system.
• Development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
• In this period, several word processing packages, spreadsheet packages and graphics packages were introduced.

1. Smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable

2. Consumed less electricity and therefore dissipated less heat

3. They had faster and larger primary memory and secondary storage

4. They could be used as general purpose computers.

5. GUIs enabled people to learn to work with computers very easily. So the use of computers in both office and home became widespread.

6. Networks allowed sharing of resources thereby efficient utilization of computer hardware and software

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

• The fifth generation computers are completely based on a new concept of artificial intelligence.
• Although such computers are still in development, there are certain applications like voice recognition which is widely being used today.
• In the fifth generation of computers the aim is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
• The two most common are LISP and Prolog.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be broadly classified into four categories based on their speed, amount of data that they can hold and price.

Computers can be broadly classified into four categories based on their speed, amount of data that they can hold, and price .

Classification of Computers

Super Computer

Mini Computers

Mainframe Computers

Micro Computers

Intelligent Terminal

Dumb Terminal

Workstation

Cellular Telephones

H/PC Pro Devices

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

• Word Processing
• Digital Audio or Video Composition
• Desktop Publishing
• Traffic Control
• Legal System
• Retail Business
• Travel and Tourism
• Business and Industry
• Weather Forecasting
• Online Banking
• Industry and Engineering
• Decision Support Systems
• Expert Systems

BASIC ORGANIZATION OF A COMPUTER

A computer is an electronic device which basically performs five major operations which includes:

1) accepts data or instructions (input)

2) stores data

3) process data

4) displays results (output) and

5) controls and co-ordinates all operations inside a computer

CONTROL UNIT

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

Data and instructions

Flow of data and instructions

Control exercised by control unit

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lesson 1-Introduction to computers.pptx

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Computer, any of a class of devices capable of solving problems by processing information in discrete form. It operates on data, including magnitudes, letters, and symbols, that are expressed in binary code — i.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1. By counting, comparing, and manipulating these digits or their combinations according to a set of instructions held in its memory, a digital computer can perform such tasks as to control industrial processes and regulate the operations of machines; analyze and organize vast amounts of business data; and simulate the behaviour of dynamic systems (e.g., global weather patterns and chemical reactions) in scientific research. A typical computer system has four basic functional elements : (1) Input-output equipment, (2) Main memory, (3) Control unit, and (4) Arithmetic-logic unit.

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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out arbitrary sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs, enables them to perform an extremely wide range of tasks. Such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls , factory devices such as industrial robots and computer assisted design, but also in general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones. The Internet is run on computers and it connects millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations. Early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century. The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then. Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices include input devices (keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices (monitor screens, printers, etc.), and input/output devices that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s-era touchscreen). Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.- source = Wekipeda

osheen sharma

The central processing unit (CPU, occasionally central processor unit) is the hardware within a computer system which carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system. The term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s. The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains much the same. A computer as shown below performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of their size and make. These are 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input, 2) it stores data, 3) it can process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of output, and 5) it controls all operations inside a computer. We discuss below each of these operations. 1. Input: In computing, an input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system such as a computer or other information appliance. 2. Storage: Storage Devices are the data storage devices that are used in the computers to store the data. The computer has many types of data storage devices. Some of them can be classified as the removable data Storage Devices and the others as the non removable data Storage Devices. The memory is of two types; one is the primary memory and the other one is the secondary memory. The primary memory is the volatile memory and the secondary memory is the non volatile memory. The volatile memory is the kind of the memory that is erasable and the non volatile memory is the one where in the contents cannot be erased. Basically when we talk about the data storage devices it is generally assumed to be the secondary memory.

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Analog computers

Mainframe computer.

• Supercomputer
• Minicomputer
• Microcomputer
• Laptop computer
• Embedded processors
• Central processing unit
• Main memory
• Secondary memory
• Input devices
• Output devices
• Communication devices
• Peripheral interfaces
• Fabrication
• Transistor size
• Power consumption
• Quantum computing
• Molecular computing
• Role of operating systems
• Multiuser systems
• Thin systems
• Reactive systems
• Operating system design approaches
• Local area networks
• Wide area networks
• Business and personal software
• Scientific and engineering software
• Internet and collaborative software
• Games and entertainment
• Analog calculators: from Napier’s logarithms to the slide rule
• Digital calculators: from the Calculating Clock to the Arithmometer
• The Jacquard loom
• The Difference Engine
• The Analytical Engine
• Ada Lovelace, the first programmer
• Herman Hollerith’s census tabulator
• Other early business machine companies
• Vannevar Bush’s Differential Analyzer
• Howard Aiken’s digital calculators
• The Turing machine
• The Atanasoff-Berry Computer
• The first computer network
• Konrad Zuse
• Bigger brains
• Von Neumann’s “Preliminary Discussion”
• The first stored-program machines
• Machine language
• Zuse’s Plankalkül
• Interpreters
• Grace Murray Hopper
• IBM develops FORTRAN
• Control programs
• The IBM 360
• Time-sharing from Project MAC to UNIX
• Minicomputers
• Integrated circuits
• The Intel 4004
• Early computer enthusiasts
• The hobby market expands
• From Star Trek to Microsoft
• Application software
• Commodore and Tandy enter the field
• The graphical user interface
• The IBM Personal Computer
• Microsoft’s Windows operating system
• Workstation computers
• Embedded systems
• Handheld digital devices
• The Internet
• Social networking
• Ubiquitous computing

What is a computer?

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• Table Of Contents

A computer is a machine that can store and process information . Most computers rely on a binary system , which uses two variables, 0 and 1, to complete tasks such as storing data, calculating algorithms, and displaying information. Computers come in many different shapes and sizes, from handheld smartphones to supercomputers weighing more than 300 tons.

Many people throughout history are credited with developing early prototypes that led to the modern computer. During World War II, physicist John Mauchly , engineer J. Presper Eckert, Jr. , and their colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania designed the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC).

What is the most powerful computer in the world?

As of November 2021 the most powerful computer in the world is the Japanese supercomputer Fugaku, developed by RIKEN and Fujitsu . It has been used to model COVID-19 simulations.

How do programming languages work?

Popular modern programming languages , such as JavaScript and Python, work through multiple forms of programming paradigms. Functional programming, which uses mathematical functions to give outputs based on data input, is one of the more common ways code is used to provide instructions for a computer.

The most powerful computers can perform extremely complex tasks, such as simulating nuclear weapon experiments and predicting the development of climate change . The development of quantum computers , machines that can handle a large number of calculations through quantum parallelism (derived from superposition ), would be able to do even more-complex tasks.

A computer’s ability to gain consciousness is a widely debated topic. Some argue that consciousness depends on self-awareness and the ability to think , which means that computers are conscious because they recognize their environment and can process data. Others believe that human consciousness can never be replicated by physical processes. Read one researcher’s perspective.

Computer artificial intelligence's impact on society is widely debated. Many argue that AI improves the quality of everyday life by doing routine and even complicated tasks better than humans can, making life simpler, safer, and more efficient. Others argue AI poses dangerous privacy risks, exacerbates racism by standardizing people, and costs workers their jobs leading to greater unemployment. For more on the debate over artificial intelligence, visit ProCon.org .

Recent News

computer , device for processing, storing, and displaying information.

Computer once meant a person who did computations, but now the term almost universally refers to automated electronic machinery . The first section of this article focuses on modern digital electronic computers and their design, constituent parts, and applications. The second section covers the history of computing. For details on computer architecture , software , and theory, see computer science .

Computing basics

The first computers were used primarily for numerical calculations. However, as any information can be numerically encoded, people soon realized that computers are capable of general-purpose information processing . Their capacity to handle large amounts of data has extended the range and accuracy of weather forecasting . Their speed has allowed them to make decisions about routing telephone connections through a network and to control mechanical systems such as automobiles, nuclear reactors, and robotic surgical tools. They are also cheap enough to be embedded in everyday appliances and to make clothes dryers and rice cookers “smart.” Computers have allowed us to pose and answer questions that were difficult to pursue in the past. These questions might be about DNA sequences in genes, patterns of activity in a consumer market, or all the uses of a word in texts that have been stored in a database . Increasingly, computers can also learn and adapt as they operate by using processes such as machine learning .

Computers also have limitations, some of which are theoretical. For example, there are undecidable propositions whose truth cannot be determined within a given set of rules, such as the logical structure of a computer. Because no universal algorithmic method can exist to identify such propositions, a computer asked to obtain the truth of such a proposition will (unless forcibly interrupted) continue indefinitely—a condition known as the “ halting problem .” ( See Turing machine .) Other limitations reflect current technology . For example, although computers have progressed greatly in terms of processing data and using artificial intelligence algorithms , they are limited by their incapacity to think in a more holistic fashion. Computers may imitate humans—quite effectively, even—but imitation may not replace the human element in social interaction. Ethical concerns also limit computers, because computers rely on data, rather than a moral compass or human conscience , to make decisions.

Analog computers use continuous physical magnitudes to represent quantitative information. At first they represented quantities with mechanical components ( see differential analyzer and integrator ), but after World War II voltages were used; by the 1960s digital computers had largely replaced them. Nonetheless, analog computers, and some hybrid digital-analog systems, continued in use through the 1960s in tasks such as aircraft and spaceflight simulation.

One advantage of analog computation is that it may be relatively simple to design and build an analog computer to solve a single problem. Another advantage is that analog computers can frequently represent and solve a problem in “real time”; that is, the computation proceeds at the same rate as the system being modeled by it. Their main disadvantages are that analog representations are limited in precision—typically a few decimal places but fewer in complex mechanisms—and general-purpose devices are expensive and not easily programmed.

Digital computers

In contrast to analog computers, digital computers represent information in discrete form, generally as sequences of 0s and 1s ( binary digits, or bits). The modern era of digital computers began in the late 1930s and early 1940s in the United States , Britain, and Germany . The first devices used switches operated by electromagnets (relays). Their programs were stored on punched paper tape or cards, and they had limited internal data storage. For historical developments, see the section Invention of the modern computer .

During the 1950s and ’60s, Unisys (maker of the UNIVAC computer), International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), and other companies made large, expensive computers of increasing power . They were used by major corporations and government research laboratories, typically as the sole computer in the organization. In 1959 the IBM 1401 computer rented for $8,000 per month (early IBM machines were almost always leased rather than sold), and in 1964 the largest IBM S/360 computer cost several million dollars.

These computers came to be called mainframes, though the term did not become common until smaller computers were built. Mainframe computers were characterized by having (for their time) large storage capabilities, fast components, and powerful computational abilities. They were highly reliable, and, because they frequently served vital needs in an organization, they were sometimes designed with redundant components that let them survive partial failures. Because they were complex systems, they were operated by a staff of systems programmers, who alone had access to the computer. Other users submitted “batch jobs” to be run one at a time on the mainframe.

Such systems remain important today, though they are no longer the sole, or even primary, central computing resource of an organization, which will typically have hundreds or thousands of personal computers (PCs). Mainframes now provide high-capacity data storage for Internet servers, or, through time-sharing techniques, they allow hundreds or thousands of users to run programs simultaneously. Because of their current roles, these computers are now called servers rather than mainframes.

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Components of a computer system

Aug 07, 2014

350 likes | 734 Views

Components of a computer system. Hardware Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory Input and Output Devices Software Data. Components of a computer system. Computer hardware provides the physical mechanisms to store, manipulate and input /output data.

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Presentation Transcript

Components of a computer system • Hardware • Central Processing Unit (CPU) • Memory • Input and Output Devices • Software • Data

Components of a computer system • Computer hardware provides the physical mechanisms to store, manipulate and input /output data. • Software provides instructions to tell the hardware what tasks to perform • Data in the computer may be representing numbers, characters, graphics etc but is always kept in a form that the hardware and software can manipulate.

Basic concepts - Hardware • CPU performs actual processing of data. • Data and programs are stored in memory, and moved to and from CPU as required. • Data travels between system components along electronic pathways, (sets of wires), called buses.

We will look at: • Four Box diagram • CPU • Memory • Registers and their role • Processing speed

Three major components of the CPU: ALU, Control unit and Registers. • The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) operates on binary data to perform all arithmetic and logical functions. • + - * / • < > = <> • AND OR NOT • Rotate Shift • Control unit fetches and interprets instructions in memory and generates signals to control all other system components.

Four Box Diagram CPU Processor Memory (RAM and ROM) Input Output Backing Store

Memory • Purpose of memory is data storage. A hierarchy of memory exists . • data required for immediate manipulation by CPU is stored in small areas of fast access memory within CPU called registers. • data required for active program is generally stored in primary memory, commonly called RAM. • data which may be required at later time generally stored in secondary storage e.g. on disk, tape, or CD-Rom.

Memory: characteristics • Capacity : no of bits, bytes or words in module. Addressable unit - 1 word . Word size may be 8, 16, 32 bits ; (1 byte = 8 bits) • Unit of transfer : RAM = 1 word ; Disk = 1 block • access time or speed - time required to read from memory location. Tradeoff between quantity, cost and speed . As speed increases so does cost. • Also know as Primary Storage

Registers: very fast memory internal to CPU providing temporary storage places for data being manipulated. • System clock generates regular pulses to synchronize all system events and determine the speed at which processing can occur. • Basic measure of system performance is clock speed, measured in megahertz (millions of cycles per second)

Semiconductor main memory • Primary memory is made up of RAM and ROM • Types include: • RAM (Random Access Memory) • ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM- SECONDARY STORAGE • Read Only Memory • Permanent non-volatile • Software and data fixed during chip manufacture • Cannot be written to • All computers have some ROM to load the Operating System into RAM (bootstrap loader)

ALU How the componentsinteract CPU Secondary Memory i.e. hard drive CD R/W Floppy Registers Control Unit Primary Memory • CPU exchanges data with memory via • the registers such as IR and PC.

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