egyptian pyramids essay

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Egyptian Pyramids

By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 15, 2024 | Original: October 14, 2009

Built during a time when Egypt was one of the richest and most powerful civilizations in the world, the pyramids—especially the Great Pyramids of Giza—are some of the most magnificent man-made structures in history. Their massive scale reflects the unique role that the pharaoh, or king, played in ancient Egyptian society. Though pyramids were built from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period in the fourth century A.D., the peak of pyramid building began with the late third dynasty and continued until roughly the sixth (c. 2325 B.C.). More than 4,000 years later, the Egyptian pyramids still retain much of their majesty, providing a glimpse into the country’s rich and glorious past.

The Pharaoh in Egyptian Society

During the third and fourth dynasties of the Old Kingdom, Egypt enjoyed tremendous economic prosperity and stability. Kings held a unique position in Egyptian society. Somewhere in between human and divine, they were believed to have been chosen by the gods themselves to serve as their mediators on earth. Because of this, it was in everyone’s interest to keep the king’s majesty intact even after his death, when he was believed to become Osiris, god of the dead. The new pharaoh, in turn, became Horus, the falcon-god who served as protector of the sun god, Ra.

Did you know? The pyramid's smooth, angled sides symbolized the rays of the sun and were designed to help the king's soul ascend to heaven and join the gods, particularly the sun god Ra.

Ancient Egyptians believed that when the king died, part of his spirit (known as “ka”) remained with his body. To properly care for his spirit, the corpse was mummified, and everything the king would need in the afterlife was buried with him, including gold vessels, food, furniture and other offerings. The pyramids became the focus of a cult of the dead king that was supposed to continue well after his death. Their riches would provide not only for him, but also for the relatives, officials and priests who were buried near him.

The Early Pyramids

From the beginning of the Dynastic Era (2950 B.C.), royal tombs were carved into rock and covered with flat-roofed rectangular structures known as “mastabas,” which were precursors to the pyramids. The oldest known pyramid in Egypt was built around 2630 B.C. at Saqqara, for the third dynasty’s King Djoser. Known as the Step Pyramid, it began as a traditional mastaba but grew into something much more ambitious. As the story goes, the pyramid’s architect was Imhotep, a priest and healer who some 1,400 years later would be deified as the patron saint of scribes and physicians. Over the course of Djoser’s nearly 20-year reign, pyramid builders assembled six stepped layers of stone (as opposed to mud-brick, like most earlier tombs) that eventually reached a height of 204 feet (62 meters); it was the tallest building of its time. The Step Pyramid was surrounded by a complex of courtyards, temples and shrines where Djoser could enjoy his afterlife.

After Djoser, the stepped pyramid became the norm for royal burials, although none of those planned by his dynastic successors were completed (probably due to their relatively short reigns). The earliest tomb constructed as a “true” (smooth-sided, not stepped) pyramid was the Red Pyramid at Dahshur, one of three burial structures built for the first king of the fourth dynasty, Sneferu (2613-2589 B.C.) It was named for the color of the limestone blocks used to construct the pyramid’s core.

The Great Pyramids of Giza

No pyramids are more celebrated than the Great Pyramids of Giza, located on a plateau on the west bank of the Nile River, on the outskirts of modern-day Cairo. The oldest and largest of the three pyramids at Giza, known as the Great Pyramid , is the only surviving structure out of the famed Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . It was built for Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops, in Greek), Sneferu’s successor and the second of the eight kings of the fourth dynasty. Though Khufu reigned for 23 years (2589-2566 B.C.), relatively little is known of his reign beyond the grandeur of his pyramid. The sides of the pyramid’s base average 755.75 feet (230 meters), and its original height was 481.4 feet (147 meters), making it the largest pyramid in the world. Three small pyramids built for Khufu’s queens are lined up next to the Great Pyramid, and a tomb was found nearby containing the empty sarcophagus of his mother, Queen Hetepheres. Like other pyramids, Khufu’s is surrounded by rows of mastabas, where relatives or officials of the king were buried to accompany and support him in the afterlife.

The middle pyramid at Giza was built for Khufu’s son Pharaoh Khafre (2558-2532 B.C). The Pyramid of Khafre is the second tallest pyramid at Giza and contains Pharaoh Khafre’s tomb. A unique feature built inside Khafre’s pyramid complex was the Great Sphinx, a guardian statue carved in limestone with the head of a man and the body of a lion. It was the largest statue in the ancient world, measuring 240 feet long and 66 feet high. In the 18th dynasty (c. 1500 B.C.) the Great Sphinx would come to be worshiped itself, as the image of a local form of the god Horus. The southernmost pyramid at Giza was built for Khafre’s son Menkaure (2532-2503 B.C.). It is the shortest of the three pyramids (218 feet) and is a precursor of the smaller pyramids that would be constructed during the fifth and sixth dynasties.

Who Built The Pyramids?

Though some popular versions of history held that the pyramids were built by slaves or foreigners forced into labor, skeletons excavated from the area show that the workers were probably native Egyptian agricultural laborers who worked on the pyramids during the time of year when the Nile River flooded much of the land nearby. Approximately 2.3 million blocks of stone (averaging about 2.5 tons each) had to be cut, transported and assembled to build Khufu’s Great Pyramid. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that it took 20 years to build and required the labor of 100,000 men, but later archaeological evidence suggests that the workforce might actually have been around 20,000.

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The End of the Pyramid Era

Pyramids continued to be built throughout the fifth and sixth dynasties, but the general quality and scale of their construction declined over this period, along with the power and wealth of the kings themselves. In the later Old Kingdom pyramids, beginning with that of King Unas (2375-2345 B.C), pyramid builders began to inscribe written accounts of events in the king’s reign on the walls of the burial chamber and the rest of the pyramid’s interior. Known as pyramid texts, these are the earliest significant religious compositions known from ancient Egypt.

The last of the great pyramid builders was Pepy II (2278-2184 B.C.), the second king of the sixth dynasty, who came to power as a young boy and ruled for 94 years. By the time of his rule, Old Kingdom prosperity was dwindling, and the pharaoh had lost some of his quasi-divine status as the power of non-royal administrative officials grew. Pepy II’s pyramid, built at Saqqara and completed some 30 years into his reign, was much shorter (172 feet) than others of the Old Kingdom. With Pepy’s death, the kingdom and strong central government virtually collapsed, and Egypt entered a turbulent phase known as the First Intermediate Period. Later kings, of the 12th dynasty, would return to pyramid building during the so-called Middle Kingdom phase, but it was never on the same scale as the Great Pyramids.

The Pyramids Today

Tomb robbers and other vandals in both ancient and modern times removed most of the bodies and funeral goods from Egypt’s pyramids and plundered their exteriors as well. Stripped of most of their smooth white limestone coverings, the Great Pyramids no longer reach their original heights; Khufu’s, for example, measures only 451 feet high. Nonetheless, millions of people continue to visit the pyramids each year, drawn by their towering grandeur and the enduring allure of Egypt’s rich and glorious past.

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The Pyramids of Egypt

This essay will provide an overview of the pyramids of Egypt, focusing on their historical significance, construction methods, and cultural importance. It will explore the architectural ingenuity behind these ancient wonders, discussing theories on how they were built and their purpose. The piece will also delve into the role of the pyramids in Egyptian religion and society, including their function as tombs for pharaohs. Additionally, it will touch on recent archaeological discoveries and ongoing research related to the pyramids. Also at PapersOwl you can find more free essay examples related to Ancient Egypt.

How it works

Did you know that pyramids were around in 25 B.C? There were drawings in side of the pyramids. There was a 30 -meters above the queen’s chamber. They used limestone bricks to build their pyramids. Some people thought that the pyramids were not build 4,000 years ago.

They are right because they were built in 12,500 years ago. The pyramids were built in the south. The dead rulers were buried in pyramids. Egypt is located in the north eastern in Africa. Avember 2008, sourcess of No cite either 118 or 138 as the number of identified Egyptian pyramids.

The Great Pyramid of Giza points very precisely to the north.

The pyramids of Egypt are all built to the west of the Nile River.The base of a pyramid was always a perfect square.A view of the pyramids at Giza from the plateau to the south of the complex. From left to right, the three largest are: the Pyramid of Menkaure, the Pyramid of Khafreand the Great Pyramid of Khufu.The first Egyptian pyramid is believed to be the Pyramid of Djoser, it was built in Saqqara around 4650 years ago (2640 BC).

The Great Pyramid of Giza was built as a tomb for the Egyptian pharaoh Khufu. It took approximately 20 years to build and has three burial chambers inside. When it was originally built (in approximately 2550 BC) it was almost 147 meters tall. Today, because of erosion, it is only about 139 meters tall.The largest is the Pyramid of Khufu, also called the Great Pyramid of Giza. The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens.Pyramids always remained a mystery to man. Even in 2018, we are discovering more about these ancient man made marvels. Much to surprise, with every discovery we are realizing that there is more to uncover than ever before!

The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt. As of November 2008, sources cite either 118 or 138 as the number of identified Egyptian pyramids. Most were built as tombs for the country’s pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. Over 130 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt. The first Egyptian pyramid is believed to be the Pyramid of Djoser, it was built in Saqqara around 4650 years ago (2640 BC).

Most were built as tombs for the country’s pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. The earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser (constructed 2630 BC2611 BC) which was built during the third dynasty

The Greek historian Herodotus claimed in 500 B.C. that 100,000 people built the Pyramids, and yet modern Egyptologists believe the figure to be more like 20,000 to 30,000. Herodotus, when he came here, met guides who told stories and things like that.

Archaeologists believe Egypt’s large pyramids are the work of the Old Kingdom society that rose to prominence in the Nile Valley after 3000 B.C. Historical analysis tells us that the Egyptians built the Giza Pyramids in a span of 85 yearsbetween 2589 and 2504 BC.

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Essay on Pyramids Of Egypt

Students are often asked to write an essay on Pyramids Of Egypt in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Pyramids Of Egypt

What are pyramids.

Pyramids are giant structures made of stone. They are found in Egypt and were built thousands of years ago. They have a square base and four triangular sides. The most famous pyramids are the Pyramids of Giza.

Why were Pyramids built?

The Pyramids were built as tombs for Egyptian kings, known as Pharaohs. The Egyptians believed in life after death. They thought that the Pharaoh needed a grand tomb to help him in the afterlife. So, they built these huge pyramids.

The Great Pyramid of Giza

The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest pyramid. It was built for Pharaoh Khufu. It is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It’s made of over 2 million stone blocks!

How were Pyramids built?

Building a pyramid was hard work. Thousands of workers moved and placed the heavy stones. They used sledges, ramps, and ropes. It took many years to build just one pyramid.

Pyramids Today

250 words essay on pyramids of egypt, the pyramids of egypt.

The Pyramids of Egypt are ancient structures built thousands of years ago. They are located in Egypt, a country in Africa. These pyramids are famous all over the world for their size, design, and the mystery surrounding their construction.

Why were they built?

The pyramids were built as tombs for the Pharaohs, the rulers of ancient Egypt. The Pharaohs believed in life after death. So, they had these pyramids built to protect their bodies and their treasures after they died.

How were they built?

Building the pyramids was a massive task. Thousands of workers would cut large blocks of stone, move them to the site, and then stack them to form the pyramid. It is still a mystery how the ancient Egyptians were able to do this without modern machinery.

The Great Pyramid

The most famous pyramid is the Great Pyramid of Giza. It is the largest of all the pyramids and was built for Pharaoh Khufu. It was the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years.

Today, the pyramids are a popular tourist spot. People from all over the world come to see these amazing structures. They remind us of the incredible skills and beliefs of the people who built them.

500 Words Essay on Pyramids Of Egypt

The Pyramids of Egypt are some of the most amazing structures in the world. They are ancient and have been standing for thousands of years. They were built by the people of Egypt long ago and are still standing today.

What are the Pyramids?

The Pyramids are huge buildings made from stone. They have a square base and four triangular sides that meet at a point at the top. The largest and most famous pyramid is the Great Pyramid of Giza. It was the tallest building in the world for over 3,800 years!

Why were the Pyramids built?

The Pyramids were built as tombs for the Pharaohs and their queens. The Pharaohs were the rulers of ancient Egypt. They believed in life after death and thought that they would need their bodies in the next life. So, they preserved their bodies and kept them safe in the Pyramids. They also kept food, furniture, and other items in the Pyramids for use in the afterlife.

How were the Pyramids built?

Building the Pyramids was a big job. It took many people and many years to build just one pyramid. The stones used to build the Pyramids were very heavy. Some stones weighed as much as 15 elephants! The people of Egypt did not have machines to help them move these heavy stones. They had to use their strength and simple tools to move and place the stones.

The Mystery of the Pyramids

Even today, there are many things about the Pyramids that we do not know. For example, we do not know exactly how the people of Egypt were able to build such big and precise structures without modern technology. Many ideas have been suggested, but none have been proven. This mystery makes the Pyramids even more interesting and exciting to study.

The Importance of the Pyramids

In conclusion, the Pyramids of Egypt are fascinating structures. They are a testament to the ingenuity and beliefs of the ancient Egyptians. They are a mystery that continues to intrigue us today. They are a symbol of Egypt’s rich history and a wonder of the ancient world.

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The Great Pyramids of Giza

The Great Pyramids at Giza, Egypt (photo: KennyOMG , CC BY-SA 4.0)

One of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world

The last remaining of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world, the great pyramids of Giza, are perhaps the most famous and discussed structures in history. These massive monuments were unsurpassed in height for thousands of years after their construction and continue to amaze and enthrall us with their overwhelming mass and seemingly impossible perfection. Their exacting orientation and mind-boggling construction has elicited many theories about their origins, including unsupported suggestions that they had extra-terrestrial impetus. However, by examining the several hundred years prior to their emergence on the Giza plateau, it becomes clear that these incredible structures were the result of many experiments, some more successful than others, and represent an apogee in line with the development of the royal mortuary complex.

Pyramid of Khafre (photo: MusikAnimal , CC BY-SA 3.0)

The causeway of the Khafre (Chephren) pyramid complex, taken from the entrance of the Khafre Valley Temple (photo: Hannah Pethen , CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

Three pyramids, three rulers

The three primary pyramids on the Giza plateau were built over the span of three generations by the rulers Khufu , Khafre , and Menkaure .  Each pyramid was part of a royal mortuary complex that also included a temple at its base and a long stone causeway (some nearly 1 kilometer in length) leading east from the plateau to a valley temple on the edge of the floodplain.

Other (smaller) pyramids, and small tombs

In addition to these major structures, several smaller pyramids belonging to queens are arranged as satellites. A large cemetery of smaller tombs, known as mastabas (Arabic for ‘bench’ in reference to their shape—flat-roofed, rectangular, with sloping sides), fills the area to the east and west of the pyramid of Khufu . These were arranged in a grid-like pattern and constructed for prominent members of the court.  Being buried near the pharaoh was a great honor and helped ensure a prized place in the Afterlife.

Map of Giza pyramid complex (map by: MesserWoland , CC BY-SA 3.0)

A reference to the sun

The shape of the pyramid was a solar reference, perhaps intended as a solidified version of the rays of the sun. Texts talk about the sun’s rays as a ramp the pharaoh mounts to climb to the sky—the earliest pyramids, such as the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara —were actually designed as a staircase. The pyramid was also clearly connected to the sacred ben-ben stone, an icon of the primeval mound that was considered the place of initial creation. The pyramid was viewed as a place of regeneration for the deceased ruler.

View up the side of Khufu’s pyramid showing scale of the core blocks (Photo: Dr. Amy Calvert)

Construction

Many questions remain about the construction of these massive monuments, and theories abound as to the actual methods used. The workforce needed to build these structures is also still much discussed. Discovery of a town for workers to the south of the plateau has offered some answers. It is likely that there was a permanent group of skilled craftsmen and builders who were supplemented by seasonal crews of approximately 2000 conscripted peasants. These crews were divided into gangs of 200 men, with each group further divided into teams of 20.  Experiments indicate that these groups of 20 men could haul the 2.5 ton blocks from quarry to pyramid in about 20 minutes, their path eased by a lubricated surface of wet silt. An estimated 340 stones could be moved daily from quarry to construction site, particularly when one considers that many of the blocks (such as those in the upper courses) were considerably smaller.

We are used to seeing the pyramids at Giza in alluring photographs, where they appear as massive and remote monuments rising up from an open, barren desert. Visitors might be surprised to find, then, that there is a golf course and resort only a few hundred feet from the Great Pyramid , and that the burgeoning suburbs of Giza (part of the greater metropolitan area of Cairo) have expanded right up to the foot of the Sphinx . This urban encroachment and the problems that come with it—such as pollution, waste, illegal activities, and auto traffic—are now the biggest threats to these invaluable examples of global cultural heritage.

Aerial view of the Giza pyramid complex and development nearby (photo: © Raimond Spekking , CC BY-SA 4.0)

The pyramids were inscribed into the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979, and since 1990, the organization has sponsored over a dozen missions to evaluate their status. It has supported the restoration of the Sphinx, as well as measures to curb the impact of tourism and manage the growth of the neighboring village. Still, threats to the site continue: air pollution from waste incineration contributes to the degradation of the stones , and the massive illegal quarrying of sand on the neighboring plateau has created holes large enough to be seen on Google Earth. Egypt’s 2011 uprisings and their chaotic political and economic aftermath also negatively impacted tourism, one of the country’s most important industries, and the number of visitors is only now beginning to rise once more .

UNESCO has continually monitored these issues, but its biggest task with regard to Giza has been to advocate for the rerouting of a highway that was originally slated to cut through the desert between the pyramids and the necropolis of Saqqara to the south. The government eventually agreed to build the highway north of the pyramids. However, as the Cairo metropolitan area (the largest in Africa, with a population of over 20 million) continues to expand, planners are now proposing a multilane tunnel to be constructed underneath the Giza Plateau. UNESCO and ICOMOS are calling for in-depth studies of the project’s potential impact, as well as an overall site management plan for the Giza pyramids that would include ways to halt the continued impact of illegal dumping and quarrying.

As massive as they are, the pyramids at Giza are not immutable. With the rapid growth of Cairo, they will need sufficient attention and protection if they are to remain intact as key touchstones of ancient history.

Backstory by Dr. Naraelle Hohensee

Bibliography

Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

UNESCO webpage for Memphis and its Necropolis – the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur

Digital Giza

Giza archives, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Building the Great Pyramid, BBC

Mark Lehner, The Complete Pyramids , Thames and Hudson, 2008.

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Pyramids of Egypt: Monuments to Eternity

Few structures in human history have evoked as much wonder as the Egyptian pyramids. Rising majestically against the backdrop of Egypt’s golden sands, they stand not merely as architectural marvels but as a testament to the aspirations and achievements of a civilization that flourished millennia ago.

Table of content

Historical Backdrop

Ancient Egypt, cradled by the sinuous Nile, was a civilization of unparalleled grandeur and complexity. Its story is not just one of pharaohs and deities but also of intertwining human ambition with the timeless rhythm of the river’s ebb and flow. This was a land where life itself was orchestrated by the Nile’s inundations, breathing life into the otherwise arid expanses and nurturing a society poised for greatness.

As dynasties rose and fell, the architectural endeavors of the Egyptians evolved. Initial burial practices involved simple mastabas, rectangular structures made of mud bricks. However, a monumental shift occurred with the dawn of the Old Kingdom, around 2686–2181 BCE. Pharaohs, now seen as incarnate gods, harbored aspirations that transcended the confines of mortality. They envisioned their final resting places as tombs and cosmic vessels, launching them into the boundless expanse of the afterlife.

It was Pharaoh Djoser who took the seminal step in pyramid evolution. With the genius of his architect, Imhotep, they conceived the Step Pyramid at Saqqara – a structure that laid the groundwork for the true pyramids that would soon punctuate Egypt’s skyline. As subsequent pharaohs, driven by a blend of piety, pride, and politics, sought to outdo their predecessors, the stage was set for constructing the iconic Giza pyramids.

In this era of architectural revolution, the pyramid became more than a structure – it was a statement, a testament to the pharaoh’s divine stature and the nation’s prowess. This was an age of audacious endeavors, where the desert’s silence was punctuated by the chisel’s rhythm, where man, in his quest for eternity, etched his dreams upon the canvas of the earth.

Architectural Marvel

Beyond the sheer grandiosity of the pyramids lies a tapestry of engineering feats and architectural brilliance. These structures are not mere mounds of stone but rather a symphony of precision, innovation, and artistry – a testament to the acumen of ancient Egyptian builders.

Firstly, consider the material. The bulk of a pyramid’s mass was limestone, quarried often from locales at some distance from the construction site. Transporting these behemoth blocks, some weighing as much as 80 tons, was an endeavor. Ancient records and architectural remains hint at a sophisticated network of canals and purpose-built boats designed to ferry these blocks to the construction sites.

The pyramid’s very foundation demanded extraordinary precision. Ensuring a level base on the uneven desert terrain required advanced tools and techniques, many of which remain subjects of study and admiration today. The alignment of these structures is yet another marvel. For instance, the Great Pyramid of Giza is aligned with a margin of error of just 0.05 degrees to the cardinal points of the compass.

Then, the interior is a maze of chambers, corridors, and hidden recesses designed with purpose and symbolism. The Grand Gallery of the Great Pyramid, a sloping hall with a corbelled roof, is an engineering marvel, displaying a masterful understanding of weight distribution and architectural aesthetics.

What truly accentuates the pyramid’s architectural splendor is its casing. Initially, these monumental structures were adorned with smooth, white Tura limestone, causing them to gleam under the Egyptian sun. Imagine the sight: these radiant, shimmering structures, visible from miles away, proclaiming the glory of the pharaohs and the divine favor of the gods.

In essence, the pyramids, in their architectural sophistication, narrate a tale not just of power and piety but of a civilization’s indefatigable spirit to chase perfection, to defy the constraints of their era, and to craft edifices that would echo their prowess through the corridors of time.

Symbolism and Significance

One finds a confluence of artistry and ideology in the shadow of the pyramids. These colossal structures are more than a testament to ancient Egypt’s architectural prowess; they are emblematic of a society deeply entrenched in ritual, reverence, and cosmological beliefs.

The ancient Egyptians’ profound understanding of the afterlife was at the heart of pyramid construction. In their belief system, death was not an end but a transcendental journey – a passage from the terrestrial realm to the cosmic beyond. The pyramid epitomized this ascension, with its pointed apex reaching the heavens. Its sloping sides, reminiscent of the sun’s rays, symbolized the pharaoh’s spiritual ascent to join the sun deity, Ra, in his daily voyage across the sky.

The pyramid’s geometric shape held further significance. The square base, anchored to the earth, represented the four cardinal directions, encapsulating the pharaoh’s dominion over the terrestrial world. Meanwhile, the singular apex symbolized the primordial mound, the first piece of land to emerge from the chaotic waters in ancient Egyptian creation myths. Thus, the pyramid was not merely a tomb but a representation of the world’s creation and the pharaoh’s pivotal role in maintaining cosmic order.

Delving within the pyramids, one is greeted by a kaleidoscope of art and inscriptions. The walls, alive with intricate hieroglyphics and vivid frescoes, chronicle the pharaoh’s earthly endeavors and divine lineage. More crucially, these inscriptions – often excerpts from the “Pyramid Texts” – provided spells, rituals, and incantations to safeguard the pharaoh’s voyage through the underworld, ensuring safe passage and thwarting malevolent entities.

Furthermore, the pyramids, particularly those at Giza, showcase a sophisticated understanding of astronomy. Their alignments with celestial bodies, like the constellation of Orion and the stellar North Pole, suggest a civilization deeply attuned to the cosmos’s rhythms. This celestial alignment, far from coincidental, reinforces the notion of the pharaoh’s divine descent and his inevitable reunion with the stars.

In sum, the symbolism imbued within the pyramids offers a window into the soul of ancient Egypt – a civilization where the temporal and cosmic realms intertwined, where every stone and glyph echoed a profound reverence for the mysteries of existence and the eternal voyage of the soul.

The Pyramid Builders

To truly fathom the grandeur of the pyramids, one must delve into the lives of those who breathed life into these edifices – the myriad workers, artisans, and visionaries responsible for these monumental undertakings.

Contrary to antiquated misconceptions of slaves toiling under the whip, contemporary archaeological discoveries paint a different, more nuanced picture. The workforce behind the pyramids comprised a rotating cadre of well-nourished, skilled laborers organized into communities and hierarchically structured teams. These teams, often named evocatively – like “Friends of Khufu” or “Drunkards of Menkaure” – took immense pride in their craft, leaving inscriptions hinting at camaraderie and collective ambition.

The pyramid builders’ settlements, unearthed near construction sites, are revelations. They depict planned habitats with bakeries, breweries, and modest dwellings – indicative of a self-sustaining community where workers, though engaged in arduous labor, were treated with dignity and care. Skeletal remains unearthed from these sites bear marks of medical treatments, suggesting the presence of physicians tending to the workers’ ailments.

Beyond the manual laborers, a pyramid’s construction necessitated a constellation of other professionals. Quarrymen, adept with copper tools, extracted the massive blocks with precision. Engineers and architects, the unsung geniuses behind the designs, ensured the pyramids’ alignment, stability, and aesthetic appeal. Artisans with a discerning eye and deft hands sculpted statues, carved reliefs, and painted frescoes. Scribes, the learned men of their time, chronicled the construction process, maintained inventory, and recorded daily activities.

Additionally, the logistical orchestration behind sourcing and transporting materials was nothing short of Herculean. A labyrinthine network of canals facilitated the movement of massive limestone blocks on wooden sleds and boats. Overseers entrusted with the weighty responsibility of ensuring timelines and quality were pivotal in coordinating this symphony of activities.

In essence, beyond their stone façades, the pyramids are a testament to a collaborative human endeavor. They are monuments not just to pharaohs but to the countless unsung heroes who, brick by brick, dream by dream, converged to craft edifices that would defy time itself. They remind us that behind every monumental achievement lies countless individuals’ sweat, ambition, and ingenuity, bound together by a shared vision and an indomitable spirit.

Legacy and Influence

The pyramids, standing sentinel upon the Giza plateau, are not just relics of a bygone era; they are living legacies echoing the resonance of ancient Egypt throughout the ages. Like the outstretched arms of the Nile, their influence meanders through time, shaping civilizations, inspiring artistry, and evoking wonder in countless souls.

Firstly, the architectural innovations birthed in the construction of the pyramids had profound reverberations. The methods pioneered – leveraging tools, transporting massive stones, and precision alignment techniques – were foundational for subsequent monumental structures across the ancient world. The Greeks, with their iconic temples, and the Romans, with their grandiose edifices, drew insights, directly or indirectly, from these Egyptian marvels.

The pyramids’ metaphysical allure also catalyzed spiritual reflections. They became emblematic of humanity’s eternal quest to transcend the mortal realm and grapple with the vast unknowns of the cosmos. Their ethereal silhouette against the desert horizon has inspired myriad philosophical treatises and poetic musings, kindling meditations on life, death, and the divine.

In the realm of art, the pyramids have been muses for generations. From the meticulous paintings of David Roberts to the cinematic spectacles of Hollywood, their portrayal has been both a canvas for historical reconstruction and a backdrop for fictional tales of adventure and mystery. Modern architectural designs have also mirrored their iconicity, as seen in the Louvre Pyramid in Paris and the Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas.

Moreover, in the annals of exploration, the pyramids have spurred endeavors marked by scholarly rigor and audacious imagination. They have beckoned historians, archaeologists, and even amateur enthusiasts, each drawn by the promise of unearthing secrets in their chambers. The persistent myths – of hidden chambers, celestial alignments, and arcane rituals – only amplify their enigma, ensuring their narratives are continually revisited and reimagined.

Beyond the tangible and the intellectual, the pyramids have an indelible cultural imprint. They are emblematic of Egypt’s rich heritage, drawing millions of travelers annually, each questing for a rendezvous with history. These interactions – of awe-struck gazes, whispered legends and shared stories – create a tapestry of intercultural exchanges, fostering a global appreciation for humanity’s shared heritage.

The pyramids are not static monuments; they pulse with life. They are bridges connecting epochs, civilizations, and souls. Their legacy is a testament to the indomitable spirit of human ingenuity and our ceaseless yearning to craft narratives that stand resilient against the sands of time, much like the pyramids themselves.

As we stand on the precipice of time, gazing upon the pyramids’ enduring majesty, we are compelled to reflect on the structures themselves and the tapestry of civilization they represent. While rooted in the sands of Egypt, these ancient edifices transcend geographical boundaries, beckoning humanity with a siren’s call that reverberates through the millennia.

In their stoic splendor, the pyramids encapsulate a confluence of human endeavors – ambition, artistry, spirituality, and resilience. They are, in essence, chronicles in stone, capturing the pulse of a civilization that, while distant in time, feels intimately connected to our existential quests. Their construction narrates tales of collaborative spirit, where individuals, driven by a shared vision, toiled under the sun to craft monuments that defy impermanence.

Their profound symbolism, intertwined with Egypt’s cosmological beliefs, serves as a poignant reminder of humanity’s ceaseless yearnings – to understand our place in the cosmos, to grapple with the enigmas of life and death, and to leave imprints that echo our existence. Every stone, every glyph, and every chamber resonates with stories, myths, and rituals, offering tantalizing glimpses into the psyche of a people deeply attuned to the mysteries of the universe.

Furthermore, the pyramids’ legacy and influence, seamlessly woven into the fabric of global culture, underscores the interconnectedness of human civilizations. Their architectural marvels inspired edifices across continents; their tales fueled artistic expressions and scholarly pursuits, bridging epochs and ideologies. They are luminous beacons illuminating human history’s rich tapestry and shared cultural inheritance.

In drawing this exploration to a close, the pyramids challenge us with a profound reflection. They beckon us to recognize the impermanence of life but also to appreciate the indelible imprints we can leave behind. They are a testament to the idea that while civilizations may wane and epochs may fade, the human spirit, in its relentless pursuit of excellence and meaning, can craft legacies that endure, casting shadows that linger long after the sun has set.

Thus, as the golden hues of the Egyptian sun caress the pyramids, casting ethereal silhouettes against the canvas of time, we are left with an invigorating sense of purpose and an appreciation for the boundless potential of human endeavor. In the echoes of the past, we find reflections for the future – a future where we, too, can aspire to etch our narratives in the annals of time.

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Ancient Egyptians during the third and fourth dynasties perfected the construction of pyramids as burial chambers for their kings.

Anthropology, Archaeology, Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations

Egyptian pyramids in sunset

The Great Pyramids of Giza have been a part of the Egyptian landscape for thousands of years. Here, they appear almost like mountains in the background as a woman leads cows across a field.

Photograph by Thomas J. Abercrombie

Archaeologist Zahi Hawass has been studying and preserving the Egyptian pyramids for decades. The area around the ancient capital city of Memphis, Egypt, located just south of modern-day Cairo along the Nile River, contains dozens of pyramids built as burial chambers for kings during the third and fourth dynasties. In 2017, Dr. Hawass was appointed to oversee the restoration of the oldest of these pyramids —a stone step pyramid near Saqarrah, built by architect Imhotep for King Djoser around 2780 B.C.E.

This step pyramid is significant because it was the first stone building constructed by the Egyptians. It also marked a departure from the traditional burial structure known as a mastaba . A mastaba was a rectangular burial mound with sloping walls and a flat roof. Mastabas were usually built using mud bricks, but occasionally they were stone. The step pyramid was constructed of six mastabas stacked together. The largest formed the base, and the rest decreased in size so that the smallest was at the top of the structure.

A later king, Snefru, made further advancements in pyramid building. His first pyramid began as a step pyramid, but he later filled in the steps to create a more pyramid-like shape. Snefru then attempted to build a pyramid near Saqqarah. This pyramid had a square base and four triangular walls that sloped inward to meet at a central point. Partway through construction, builders had to change the slope of the structure so the angle was less acute. Today, this pyramid at Saqqarah is known as the Bent Pyramid because of its slightly curved appearance. Snefru's final pyramid attempt, called the Red Pyramid and located near Dahshur, is believed to be the first to have been designed as a pyramid from the beginning.

Snefru's son, grandson, and great-grandson would build on Snefru's ideas and create the three famous pyramids near Giza. His son Khufu built what is today known as the Great Pyramid. Originally 146 or 147 meters (479 or 482 feet) high, the Great Pyramid required 300,000 blocks and more than two million tons of stone. Dr. Hawass helps put the Great Pyramid's immense size into perspective. He says that the blocks "could be used to build a three-meter-high (9.8 feet) wall around France. If we cut them into small pieces, they could cover two-thirds of the globe."

Khafre, Khufu’s son, built a somewhat smaller pyramid nearby, and Khafre's son Menkure built yet another smaller pyramid . The four sides of all three of these pyramids have perfect north, south, east, and west orientations. How the ancient Egyptians accomplished this without a compass remains a mystery, as does how the pyramid builders built such massive structures without modern tools or conveniences.

Archaeologists continue to make new discoveries about the pyramids, such as Dr. Hawass’s discovery of the tombs of the pyramid builders just outside the Great Pyramid. Hawass believes new technology "could be very useful in revealing the remaining secrets of the pyramids."

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Great Pyramid of Giza

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The Great Pyramid of Giza is a defining symbol of Egypt and the last of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World. It is located on the Giza plateau near the modern city of Cairo and was built over a twenty-year period during the reign of the king Khufu (2589-2566 BCE, also known as Cheops) of the 4th Dynasty.

Until the Eiffel Tower was completed in Paris , France in 1889, the Great Pyramid was the tallest structure made by human hands in the world; a record it held for over 3,000 years and one unlikely to be broken. Other scholars have pointed to the Lincoln Cathedral spire in England , built in 1300, as the structure which finally surpassed the Great Pyramid in height but, still, the Egyptian monument held the title for an impressive span of time.

The pyramid rises to a height of 479 feet (146 metres) with a base of 754 feet (230 metres) and is comprised of over two million blocks of stone. Some of these stones are of such immense size and weight (such as the granite slabs in the King's Chamber) that the logistics of raising and positioning them so precisely seems an impossibility by modern standards.

The pyramid was first excavated using modern techniques and scientific analysis in 1880 by Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie (l.1853-1942), the British archaeologist who set the standard for archaeological operations in Egypt generally and at Giza specifically. Writing on the pyramid in 1883, Flinders Petrie noted:

The Great Pyramid has lent its name as a sort of by-word for paradoxes; and, as moths to a candle, so are theorisers attracted to it. (1)

Although many theories persist as to the purpose of the pyramid, the most widely accepted understanding is that it was constructed as a tomb for the king. Exactly how it was built, however, still puzzles people in the modern day. The theory of ramps running around the outside of the structure to move the blocks into place is still debated by historians. So-called "fringe" or "New Age" theories abound, in an effort to explain the advanced technology required for the structure, citing extra-terrestrials and their imagined frequent visits to Egypt in antiquity.

These theories continue to be advanced in spite of the increasing body of evidence substantiating that the pyramid was built by the ancient Egyptians using technological means which, most likely, were so common to them that they felt no need to record them. Still, the intricacy of the interior passages, shafts, and chambers (The King's Chamber, Queen's Chamber, and Grand Gallery) as well as the nearby Osiris Shaft, coupled with the mystery of how the pyramid was built at all and its orientation to cardinal points, encourages the persistence of these fringe theories.

Another enduring theory regarding the monument's construction is that it was built on the backs of slaves. Contrary to the popular opinion that Egyptian monuments in general, and the Great Pyramid in particular, were built using Hebrew slave labor, the pyramids of Giza and all other temples and monuments in the country were constructed by Egyptians who were hired for their skills and compensated for their efforts. No evidence of any kind whatsoever - from any era of Egypt's history - supports the narrative events described in the biblical Book of Exodus.

Worker's housing at Giza was discovered and fully documented in 1979 by Egyptologists Lehner and Hawass but, even before this evidence came to light, ancient Egyptian documentation substantiated payment to Egyptian workers for state-sponsored monuments while offering no evidence of forced labor by a slave population of any particular ethnic group. Egyptians from all over the country worked on the monument, for a variety of reasons, to build an eternal home for their king which would last through eternity.

Pyramids & the Giza Plateau

Toward the end of the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150-c.2613 BCE) the vizier Imhotep ((c. 2667-2600 BCE) devised a means of creating an elaborate tomb, unlike any other, for his king Djoser . Prior to Djoser's reign (c. 2670 BCE) tombs were constructed of mud fashioned into modest mounds known as mastabas. Imhotep conceived of a then-radical plan of not only building a mastaba out of stone but of stacking these structures on top of one another in steps to create an enormous, lasting, monument. His vision led to the creation of Djoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara, still standing in the present day, the oldest pyramid in the world.

Still, the Step Pyramid was not a "true pyramid" and, in the period of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE) the king Sneferu (r.c. 2613-2589 BCE) sought to improve on Imhotep's plans and create an even more impressive monument. His first attempt, the Collapsed Pyramid at Meidum, failed because he departed too widely from Imhotep's design. Sneferu learned from his mistake, however, and went to work on another - the Bent Pyramid - which also failed because of miscalculations in the angle from base to summit. Undeterred, Sneferu took what he learned from that experience and built the Red Pyramid, the first true pyramid constructed in Egypt.

Building a pyramid required enormous resources and the maintenance of a wide array of all kinds of skilled and unskilled workers. The kings of the 4th Dynasty - often referred to as "the pyramid builders" - were able to command these resources because of the stability of the government and the wealth they were able to acquire through trade . A strong central government, and a surplus of wealth, were both vital to any efforts at pyramid building and these resources were passed from Sneferu, upon his death , to his son Khufu.

Khufu seems to have set to work on building his grand tomb shortly after coming to power. The rulers of the Old Kingdom governed from the city of Memphis and the nearby necropolis of Saqqara was already dominated by Djoser's pyramid complex while other sites such as Dashur had been used by Sneferu. An older necropolis, however, was also close by and this was Giza. Khufu's mother, Hetepheres I (l.c. 2566 BCE), was buried there and there were no other great monuments to compete for attention close by; so Khufu chose Giza as the site for his pyramid.

Construction of the Pyramid

The first step in constructing a pyramid, after deciding upon the best location, was organizing the crews and allocating resources and this was the job of the second-most powerful man in Egypt, the vizier. Khufu's vizier was Hemiunu, his nephew, credited with the design and building of the Great Pyramid. Hemiunu's father, Nefermaat (Khufu's brother) had been Sneferu's vizier in his pyramid-building projects and it is probable he learned a great deal about construction from these experiences.

Because of their immense size, building pyramids posed special problems of both organization and engineering. Constructing the Great Pyramid of the pharaoh Khufu, for example, required that more than two million blocks weighing from two to more than sixty tons be formed into a structure covering two football fields and rising in a perfect pyramidal shape 480 feet into the sky. Its construction involved vast numbers of workers which, in turn, presented complex logistical problems concerning food, shelter, and organization. Millions of heavy stone blocks needed not only to be quarried and raised to great heights but also set together with precision in order to create the desired shape. (217)

It is precisely the skill and technology required to "create the desired shape" which presents the problem to anyone trying to understand how the Great Pyramid was built. Modern-day theories continue to fall back on the concept of ramps which were raised around the foundation of the pyramid and grew higher as the structure grew taller. The ramp theory, still debated, maintains that, once the foundation was firm, these ramps could have easily been raised around the structure as it was built and provided the means for hauling and positioning tons of stones in precise order.

Aside from the problems of a lack of wood in Egypt to make an abundance of such ramps, the angles workers would have had to move the stones up, and the impossibility of moving heavy stone bricks and granite slabs into position without a crane (which the Egyptians did not have), the most serious problem comes down to the total impracticability of the ramp theory. Brier and Hobbs explain:

The problem is one of physics. The steeper the angle of an incline, the more effort necessary to move an object up that incline. So, in order for a relatively small number of men, say ten or so, to drag a two-ton load up a ramp, its angle could not be more than about eight percent. Geometry tells us that to reach a height of 480 feet, an inclined plane rising at eight percent would have to start almost one mile from its finish. It has been calculated that building a mile-long ramp that rose as high as the Great Pyramid would require as much material as that needed for the pyramid itself - workers would have had to build the equivilent of two pyramids in the twenty-year time frame. (221)

A variation on the ramp theory was proposed by the French architect Jean-Pierre Houdin who claims ramps were used inside of the pyramid. Houdin believes that ramps may have been used externally in the initial stages of construction but, as the pyramid grew taller, work was done internally. The quarried stones were brought in through the entrance and moved up the ramps to their position. This, Houdin claims, would account for the shafts one finds inside the pyramid. This theory, however, does not account for the weight of the stones or the number of workers on the ramp required to move them up an angle inside the pyramid and into position.

The ramp theory in either of these forms fails to explain how the pyramid was built while a much more satisfactory possibility rests right below the monument: the high water table of the Giza plateau. Engineer Robert Carson, in his work The Great Pyramid: The Inside Story , suggests that the pyramid was built using water power. Carson also suggests the use of ramps but in a much more cogent fashion: the interior ramps were supplemented by hydraulic power from below and hoists from above.

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Although the Egyptians had no knowledge of a crane as one would understand that mechanism in the present day, they did have the shaduf, a long pole with a bucket and rope at one end and counter-weight at the other, typically used for drawing water from a well. Hydraulic power from below, coupled with hoists from above could have moved the stones throughout the interior of the pyramid and this would also account for the shafts and spaces one finds in the monument which other theories have failed to fully account for.

It is abundantly clear that the water table at Giza is still quite high in the present day and was higher in the past. Egyptologist Zahi Hawass, writing on his excavation of the Osiris Shaft near the Great Pyramid in 1999, notes how "the excavation proved to be very challenging mainly due to the dangerous nature of the work caused by the high water table" (381). In the same article, Hawass notes how, in 1945, guides at Giza were regularly swimming in the waters of this underground shaft and that "the rising water table in the shaft prevented scholars from studying it further" (379).

Further, earlier attempts to excavate the Osiris Shaft - by Selim Hassan in the 1930's - and observations (though no excavation) of the shaft by Abdel Moneim Abu Bakr in the 1940's - also make note of this same high water table. Geological surveys have determined that the Giza plateau and surrounding region was much more fertile in the time of the Old Kingdom than it is today and that the water table would have been higher.

Considering this, Carson's theory of water power used in building the pyramid makes the most sense. Carson claims the monument "could only be constructed by means of hydraulic power; that a hydraulic transportation system was set up inside the Great Pyramid" (5). Harnessing the power of the high water table, the ancient builders could have constructed the pyramid much more reasonably than by some form of exterior ramping system.

Once the interior was completed, the whole of the pyramid was covered in white limestone which would have shone brilliantly and been visible from every direction for miles around the site. As impressive as the Great Pyramid is today, one must recognize that it is a monument in ruin as the limestone long ago fell away and was utilized as building material for the city of Cairo (just as the nearby city of ancient Memphis was).

When it was completed, the Great Pyramid must have appeared as the most striking creation the Egyptians had ever seen. Even today, in its greatly weathered state, the Great Pyramid inspires awe. The sheer size and scope of the project is literally amazing. Historian Marc van de Mieroop writes:

The size boggles the mind: it was 146 meters high (479 feet) by 230 meters at the base (754 feet). We estimate that it contained 2,300,000 blocks of stone with an average weight of 2 and 3/4 tons some weighing up to 16 tons. Khufu ruled 23 years according to the Turin Royal Canon, which would mean that throughout his reign annually 100,000 blocks - daily about 285 blocks or one every two minutes of daylight - had to be quarried, transported, dressed, and put in place...The construction was almost faultless in design. The sides were oriented exactly toward the cardinal points and were at precise 90-degree angles. (58)

The workers who accomplished this were skilled and unskilled laborers hired by the state for the project. These workers either volunteered their efforts to pay off a debt, for community service, or were compensated for their time. Although slavery was an institution practiced in ancient Egypt, no slaves, Hebrew or otherwise, were used in creating the monument. Brier and Hobbs explain the logistics of the operation:

Were it not for the two months every year when the Nile 's water covered Egypt's farmland, idling virtually the entire workforce, none of this construction would have been possible. During such times, a pharaoh offered food for work and the promise of a favored treatment in the afterworld where he would rule just as he did in this world. For two months annually, workmen gathered by the tens of thousands from all over the country to transport the blocks a permanent crew had quarried during the rest of the year. Overseers organized the men into teams to transport the stones on sleds, devices better suited than wheeled vehicles to moving weighty objects over shifting sand. A causeway, lubricated by water, smoothed the uphill pull. No mortar was used to hold the blocks in place, only a fit so exact that these towering structures have survived for 4,000 years. (17-18)

The yearly inundation of the Nile River was essential for the livelihood of the Egyptians in that it deposited rich soil from the riverbed all across the farmlands of the shore; it also, however, made farming those lands an impossibility during the time of the flood. During these periods, the government provided work for the farmers through labor on their great monuments. These were the people who did the actual, physical, work in moving the stones, raising the obelisks, building the temples, creating the pyramids which continue to fascinate and inspire people in the present day.

It is a disservice to their efforts and their memory, not to mention the grand culture of the Egyptians, to continue to insist that these structures were created by poorly treated slaves who were forced into their condition because of ethnicity. The biblical Book of Exodus is a cultural myth purposefully created to distinguish one group of people living in the land of Canaan from others and should not be regarded as history.

The Great Pyramid as Tomb

All of this effort went to creating a grand tomb for the king who, as mediator between the gods and the people, was thought to be deserving of the finest of tombs. Theories regarding the original purpose of the Great Pyramid range from the fanciful to the absurd, and may be investigated elsewhere, but the culture which produced the monument would have regarded it as a tomb, an eternal home for the king.

Tombs which have been excavated throughout Egypt, from the most modest to the rich example of Tutankhamun 's - along with other physical evidence - make clear the ancient Egyptian belief in a life after death and the concern for the soul's welfare in this new world. Grave goods were always placed in the tomb of the deceased as well as, in wealthier tombs, inscriptions and paintings on the walls (known as the Pyramid Texts , in some cases). The Great Pyramid is simply the grandest form of one of these tombs.

Arguments against the Great Pyramid as a tomb cite the fact that no mummies or grave goods have ever been found inside. This argument willfully ignores the plentiful evidence of grave robbing from ancient times to the present. Egyptologists from the 19th century onwards have recognized that the Great Pyramid was looted in antiquity and, most likely, during the time of the New Kingdom (c. 1570-1069 BCE) when the Giza necropolis was replaced by the area now known as The Valley of the Kings near Thebes .

This is not to suggest that Giza was forgotten, there is ample evidence of New Kingdom pharaohs such as Ramesses the Great (r. 1279-1213 BCE) taking great interest in the site. Rameses II had a small temple built at Giza in front of the Sphinx as a token of honor and it was Rameses II's fourth son, Khaemweset , who devoted himself to preserving the site. Khaemweset never ruled Egypt but was a crown prince whose efforts to restore the monuments of the past are well documented. He is, in fact, considered the world's "first Egyptologist" for his work in restoration, preservation, and recording of ancient monuments and especially for his work at Giza.

Further, work conducted on the Osiris Shaft - and other areas around the site - have shown activity during the 26th Dynasty of the Third Intermediate Period (c. 1069-525 BCE) and into the Late Period (c. 525-332 BCE). Giza was, therefore, an active site throughout Egypt's history but was not always given the kind of attention it received during the Old Kingdom.

Herodotus , writing in the 5th century BCE, reported that the Great Pyramid had been looted and visitor's to the site in the modern day enter through the so-called Robbers Tunnel created c. 820 by Caliph al-Ma'mun seeking to recover whatever treasures the pyramid held inside. Tomb robbers before and after the caliph had also visited the pyramid prior to the excavations of the 19th century. Whatever treasures the pyramid may have held in the time of Khufu could have been removed at any time from the Old Kingdom onward.

The Giza Plateau

Following Khufu's death, his son Khafre (r. 2558-2532 BCE) took the throne and began building his own pyramid next to his father's. The king Menkaure (r. 2532-2503 BCE) came after Khafre and followed the same paradigm of building his eternal home at Giza. Khafre and Menkaure added their own temple complexes and monuments, such as the Great Sphinx of Giza under Khafre's reign, but these were on a smaller scale than that of Khufu's work.

It is no accident or mystery as to why the Great Pyramid is the largest and the other two are progressively smaller: as the period of the Old Kingdom continued, with the government's emphasis on grand building projects, resources became more and more scarce. Menkaure's successor, Shepseskaf (r. 2503-2498 BCE) had the resources to complete Menkaure's pyramid complex but could afford no such luxury for himself; he was buried in a modest mastaba tomb at Saqqara.

Still, Giza continued be regarded as an important site and funds were allocated as long as they were available for its upkeep. Giza was a thriving community for centuries with temples, shops, a market place, housing, and a sturdy economy . Individuals in the present day speculating on the lonely, deserted, mystical outpost of Giza ignore the evidence of what the complex would have been like for most of Egypt's long history.

The present day understanding of the plateau as some isolated outpost of monuments encourages theories which do not align with how Giza actually was when those monuments were constructed. Theories suggesting mysterious tunnels beneath the plateau have been debunked - yet still persist - including speculations concerning the Osiris Shaft.

This complex of underground chambers was most likely dug, as Hawass contends, in honor of the god Osiris and may or may not have been where the king Khufu was originally laid to rest. Herodotus mentions the Osiris Shaft (though not by that name, which was only given to it recently by Hawass) in writing of Khufu's burial chamber which was said to be surrounded by water.

Excavations of the shaft and the chambers have recovered artifacts dating from the Old Kingdom through the Third Intermediate Period but no tunnels branching out beneath the plateau. Osiris, as lord of the dead, would certainly have been honored at Giza and underground chambers recognizing him as ruler in the afterlife were not uncommon throughout Egypt's history.

Although the Great Pyramid of Giza, and the other smaller pyramids, temples, monuments, and tombs there, continued to be respected throughout Egypt's history, the site fell into decline after the Roman occupation and then annexation of the country in 30 BCE. The Romans concentrated their energies on the city of Alexandria and the abundant crops the country offered, making Egypt into Rome 's "bread basket", as the phrase goes.

The site was more or less neglected until Napoleon 's Egyptian Campaign of 1798-1801 during which he brought along his team of scholars and scientists to document ancient Egyptian culture and monuments. Napoleon's work in Egypt attracted others to the country who then inspired still others to visit, make their own observations, and conduct their own excavations.

Throughout the 19th century, ancient Egypt became increasingly the object of interest for people around the world. Professional and amateur archaeologists descended upon the country seeking to exploit or explore the ancient culture for their own ends or in the interests of science and knowledge. The Great Pyramid was first fully excavated professionally by the British archaeologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie whose work on the monument lay the foundation for any others who followed up to the present day.

Flinders Petrie was obviously interested in exploring every nuance of the Great Pyramid but not at the expense of the monument itself. His excavations were performed with great care in an effort to preserve the historical authenticity of the work he was examining. Although this may seem a common sense approach in the modern day, many European explorers before Flinders Petrie, archaeologists professional and amateur, brushed aside any concerns of preservation in pursuing their goal of unearthing ancient treasure troves and bringing antiquities back to their patrons. Flinders Petrie established the protocol regarding ancient monuments in Egypt which is still adhered to in the present day. His vision inspired those who came after him and it is largely due to his efforts that people today can still admire and appreciate the monument known as the Great Pyramid of Giza.

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Bibliography

• Bard, K. A. An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.
• Brier, B & Hobbs, H. Ancient Egypt: Everyday Life in the Land of the Nile. Sterling Publishing, 2013.
• Shaw, I. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford, 2016.
• The Archaeology and Art of Ancient Egypt: Essays in Honor of David B. O'Connor by Zawi Hawass , accessed 19 Dec 2016.
• The Great Pyramid: The Inside Story by Robert Carson , accessed 19 Dec 2016.
• The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh by W. M. Flinders Petrie, 1883 , accessed 19 Dec 2016.
• Van De Mieroop, M. A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
• Verner,. The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Grove Press, 2002.

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Art and Design: Wonders of the Egyptian Pyramids Essay

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Introduction

The ancient pyramids are part of the Seven Wonders of the World. The pyramids are huge and really wonderful to look at. The greatness of these huge structures does not just lie in their size but also in the architectural exactness with which they were constructed. It is a wonder that over time the modern man has found some of the most amazing geometry relationships in the dimensions of these great structures. This essay will make an attempt to bring into light some of the greatest wonders of the great pyramids including its geometry as depicted in the Great Pyramid.

Background Information

Simply defined a pyramid has a rectangular base and four triangular sides which are joined together to form a trapezoidal. In detail, it is “a monumental structure constructed of or faced with stone or brick and having a rectangular base and four sloping triangular (or sometimes trapezoidal) sides meeting at an apex (or truncated to form a platform)” (Pyramid 1). There are pyramids all over the world but this essay concentrates on those found in Egypt.

In ancient Egypt, pyramids were used as funeral edifices. It has been reported that they were built over a period of approximately 2, 700 years from the beginning of the “old kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period” (Pyramid 1). It has been pointed out that the climax of the pyramid construction was at the beginning of the third dynasty up to the sixth dynasty (Pyramid 1). Elsewhere, it has been pointed out that at the beginning of the third dynasty the pyramid was constructed with the sides being of several steps. During the fourth dynasty, the true pyramids were constructed. The true pyramids were an improvement of the several steps pyramid. The true pyramids did not have steps on their sides but rather were smooth. It has been pointed out that the pyramids have displayed sharp depictions of Pi. It is not yet understood how the Egyptians came up with this knowledge only that it is assumed they must have used drums to enable them to make some calculations (Tour Egypt 1).

Construction of the Pyramids

It has been reported that the construction of a pyramid was a huge work. Physical orientation and layout were only carried out after extensive planning had been done. Before construction would start there had to be plans drawn by some specialists. It is believed that models of the pyramids were made to aid in the construction process. It is said that when construction started it had to be initiated with a foundation ritual (Winston 1).

Plans for the Pyramids

Proper construction of the pyramids is said to have demanded strict cardinal point orientation. It is not properly understood how the pyramid alignment took place. A primary theory that has been proposed on the construction of the pyramid proposes that the pyramid construction heavily relied on stellar construction. This is explained as:

This involved building a small, circular wall of perhaps mudbrick that had to be perfectly level at the top. Within the circle, a man would stand and through a straight pole with a forked top called a bay, sight a circumpolar star as it rises. A second man at the perimeter of the small circular wall would then “spot” the wall where the star rose. Using a type of plumb line, or market, he would also spot the mark at the bottom of the wall. When the star is set, the process would be repeated. Measuring between the two spots would then provide true north from the center sighting pole. (Winston 1)

There are more theories that have been proposed on how the Egyptians came up with the initial planning for the pyramid construction. In the recent past, astronomical theories have been constructed in an attempt to explain the pyramid construction mystery. Spence believes that two circumpolar must have been used by the Egyptian architects. Another theory forwarded by D. Magdolen claims that the sun played an important role and this is backed up by the fact of the existence of “ancient text referring to ‘the shadow’ and the ‘stride of Ra’” (Winston 1).

Ground Plan Creation

After the determination of the primary coordinates, the ground plan would be next. It is reported that the methods used for the marking of the ground plans differed from pyramid to pyramid. Winston gave the example of the method used to mark the groundwork for the Great Pyramid of Khufu (1).

Initially, a reference line along true north was constructed from the orientation process. The next step would be to create a true square with precise right angles. Within Khufu’s pyramid, there is actually a massif of natural rock jutting up that was used as part of the pyramid’s core. Therefore, measuring the diagonals of the square to check for accuracy was impossible. (Winston 1) [See fig. 1 below]

Three ways have been proposed to explain how the ancient builders came up with a right a right angle: use of A-shaped set square, use of a sacred or Pythagorean triangle and use of intersecting arcs.

Platform Construction

In the construction of the platform, an orientation reference line was made use of. The orientation reference line was constructed in the following manner:

This was done by digging post holes at measured distances from the inner square in the bedrock and inserting small posts through which a rope or string ran. These holes were dug at about 10 cubit intervals. This outer reference line was needed because the original orientation lines would be erased by building work. Various segments of the reference line could be removed so that building material could be moved into place. Then measurements were taken from the guideline as the material for the platform was put in place so that the platform was in accord with the initial floor plan. (Winston 1) [View fig. 2 below]

Leverage of the Platform

The platform was required to be a perfect square as well as every level. It is actually not known with accuracy which methods were used to leverage the platform. Many theories have been proposed to explain this. It is believed that water must have been used in the determination of a level. This method is highly doubted as the water could have easily evaporated in the desert. Another method suggested was the use of posts of equal heights (Winston 1).

It is evident that much is not understood about the precise construction of the pyramids and that is why there exist so many theories to explain the various concept of pyramid construction. The pyramids have been shown to have dimensions that have been of mathematical and architectural significance. What is not well understood is how the builders were able to come up with such dimensions as they constructed the great pyramids.

The connection between Geometry, Art and Architecture

Calter has shown a pyramid to be such a basic geometrical figure. Calter noted that the pyramids are structures clouded with many secrets. The great pyramids have been shown to contain the Golden ratio and also square the circle.

Golden Ratio

The extreme and mean ratio is used in the place of the golden ratio. Calter quoted Euclid, “a straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when, as the whole line is to the greater to the less” (1). The Golden ration is derived as below:

Let smaller part = 1, larger part = φ. Thus is the golden ratio. It is often designated by the Greek letter phi, φ for Phidias, (fl. c. 490-430 BC), Athenian sculptor and artistic director of the construction of the Parthenon, who supposedly used the golden ratio in his work. (Calter 1)

Thus golden ratio definition gives,

Φ / 1 = (1 + φ) / φ

Φ 2 = 12 + 1 φ

Φ 2 – φ – 1 = 0

φ = 1/2 + 5 / 2 1.618

The pyramids have been found to have the golden ratio. A cross-section of a triangle will give a triangle. Specifically, if the case is the Great Pyramid then the triangle obtained is referred to as the Egyptian triangle also referred to as the Kepler triangle and Triangle of Price. The Egyptian triangle obtained is said to contain the golden ratio. Letting the S be the slant height of the triangle obtained from the great pyramid then the slant height can be determined from known values of the height and base.

Height = 146.515 m

Base = 230.363 m

Then half of the base will be 230.363/2 = 115.182 m

S2 = 146.515 + (115.182)2 = 34, 733 m2

S=18636.9 mm

Thus we can prove whether the Egyptian triangle satisfies the golden ratio;

1/2base = 230.363/2 m = 115. 182

S/0.5base = 186.369/115.182 = 1.61804. The difference is in the fifth decimal place.

Squaring the Circle

The pyramid has also been shown to square the circle. Squaring of a circle comes about when one is constructing by use of a straightedge and compass: “a square whose perimeter is exactly equal to the perimeter of a given circle, or a square whose area is exactly equal to the perimeter of a given circle” (Calter 1). It is claimed that many attempts which have been made to square the circle have not provided any solution. In squaring the circle in the great pyramid it is claimed that “the perimeter of the base of the Great Pyramid equals the circumference of a circle whose radius equal to the height of the pyramid” (Calter 1). This can be proved as below:

Assuming the length of the base of the Great Pyramid to be 2 units then;

The height of the pyramid =√ φ

The base perimeter = 2 × 4 = 8 units

Take a circle of radius √φ (height of the pyramid)

The perimeter of the circle = 2∏√ φ ≈ 7.992

Therefore the perimeter of both the square and circle agree within a range of less than 0.1 percent.

From the above data, we can approximate the value of PI (∏) in terms of φ.

We know that the perimeter of the circle is quite close to that of the square.

∏ ≈ 3.1446 (true within o.1 percent)

Lastly, another the other claim is that “ The area of that same circle, with radius equal to the pyramid height, equals that of a rectangle whose length is twice the pyramid height (√φ) and whose width is the width (2) of the pyramid ” (Calter 1).

Area of rectangle = 2 (√φ) ( 2 ) = 5.088

Area of circle of radius √φ = ∏r 2 ≈ ∏ (√φ) 2 ≈∏ φ = 5.083

Pyramids were constructed as funeral edifices. The way they were constructed has not been fully understood as some of them have stood firm to the present time. There are many theories that have been formulated to explain how some of the construction stages took place. Not one theory has been conclusive on the stages of the construction of the pyramids. Apart from their huge sizes, the pyramids have displayed some accurate dimensions such as the golden ratio and the squaring of the circle. Less is understood about the construction of the Egyptian pyramids but it is generally agreed that they form some of the greatest architectural structures. They are a need for more research to be carried out on these structures as they may give some insight into the construction of large structures.

Works Cited

Calter, Paul. The Golden Ratio & Squaring the Circle in the Great Pyramid . Dartmouth College, 1998. Web.

Pyramid. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online . Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2011. Web.

Tour Egypt. The Pyramids of Egypt . Tour Egypt, 1996-2010. Web.

Winston, Alan. Construction Of The Pyramids, Part I Orientation And Layout And The Pyramid Platform. Tour Guide, 1996-2010. Web.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — Pyramids — Pyramids Of Giza: The Important Monument In The History Of Egypt

Pyramids of Giza: The Important Monument in The History of Egypt

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After a ruler died, his or her body was carefully treated and wrapped to preserve it as a mummy. According to ancient Egyptian belief, the pyramid, where the mummy was placed, provided a place for the monarch to pass into the afterlife. In temples nearby, priests performed rituals to nourish the dead monarch’s spirit, which was believed to stay with the body after death. In the Old Kingdom (a period of Egyptian history from about 2575 BC to about 2134 BC), Egyptian artists carved hieroglyphs on the walls of the burial chamber, designed to safeguard the dead monarch’s passage into the afterlife.

All pyramids were aligned to the cardinal directions, meaning that their sides ran almost exactly due north-south and east-west. Most pyramids rose from desert plateaus on the west bank of the Nile River, behind which the sun set. The Egyptians believed that a dead monarch’s spirit left the body and traveled through the sky with the sun each day. When the sun set in the west, the royal spirits settled into their pyramid tombs to renew themselves. The internal layout of pyramids changed over time, but the entrance was typically in the center of the north face.

From here a passage ran downward, sometimes leveling out, to the king’s burial chamber, which ideally was located directly underneath the pyramid’s center point. Sometimes, in addition to the burial chamber, there were storage chambers within the pyramid. These chambers held objects used in burial rituals as well as items for the deceased to use in the afterlife. Some of these items were valuable, and in later years people robbed many of the pyramids and stole the objects. A pyramid never stood alone in the desert.

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The World’s Oldest Papyrus and What It Can Tell Us About the Great Pyramids

Ancient Egyptians leveraged a massive shipping, mining and farming economy to propel their civilization forward

By Alexander Stille

Photographs by David Degner

Following notes written by an English traveler in the early 19th century and two French pilots in the 1950s, Pierre Tallet made a stunning discovery: a set of 30 caves honeycombed into limestone hills but sealed up and hidden from view in a remote part of the Egyptian desert, a few miles inland from the Red Sea, far from any city, ancient or modern. During his first digging season, in 2011, he established that the caves had served as a kind of boat storage depot during the fourth dynasty of the Old Kingdom, about 4,600 years ago. Then, in 2013, during his third digging season, he came upon something quite unexpected: entire rolls of papyrus, some a few feet long and still relatively intact, written in hieroglyphics as well as hieratic, the cursive script the ancient Egyptians used for everyday communication. Tallet realized that he was dealing with the oldest known papyri in the world.

Astonishingly, the papyri were written by men who participated in the building of the Great Pyramid, the tomb of the Pharaoh Khufu, the first and largest of the three colossal pyramids at Giza just outside modern Cairo. Among the papyri was the journal of a previously unknown official named Merer, who led a crew of some 200 men who traveled from one end of Egypt to the other picking up and delivering goods of one kind or another. Merer, who accounted for his time in half-day increments, mentions stopping at Tura, a town along the Nile famous for its limestone quarry, filling his boat with stone and taking it up the Nile River to Giza. In fact, Merer mentions reporting to “the noble Ankh-haf,” who was known to be the half-brother of the Pharaoh Khufu and now, for the first time, was definitively identified as overseeing some of the construction of the Great Pyramid. And since the pharaohs used the Tura limestone for the pyramids’ outer casing, and Merer’s journal chronicles the last known year of Khufu’s reign, the entries provide a never-before-seen snapshot of the ancients putting finishing touches on the Great Pyramid.

Experts are thrilled by this trove of papyri. Mark Lehner, the head of Ancient Egypt Research Associates, who has worked on the pyramids and the Sphinx for 40 years, has said it may be as close as he is likely to get to time-traveling back to the age of the pyramid builders. Zahi Hawass, the Egyptian archaeologist, and formerly the chief inspector of the pyramid site and minister of antiquities, says that it is “the greatest discovery in Egypt in the 21st century.”

Tallet himself is careful to speak in more measured terms. “The century is at the beginning,” he says at one of his digs along the Red Sea. “One must not enlarge this kind of find.” Was he very emotional when he came upon the cache of papyri? “You know, when you are working like that all the day for one month you cannot realize at once what happens.”

Tallet has been toiling quietly on the periphery of the ancient Egyptian Empire—from the Libyan Desert to the Sinai and the Red Sea—for more than 20 years without attracting much notice, until now. He finds it both amusing and mildly annoying that his discoveries are suddenly attracting attention in the scholarly press and popular media. “It’s because the papyri are speaking of the Pyramid of Khufu,” he says.

We are standing in an encampment in a desert valley a couple of hundred yards from the Red Sea near the modern Egyptian resort town called Ayn Soukhna. Tallet and his crew—part French, part Egyptian—sleep in rows of tents set up near the archaeological site. Above the tents is a steep sandstone hillside into which the ancient Egyptians carved deep caves, or galleries, in which they stored their boats. Tallet leads us up the hillside and clambers on a rocky trail along the cliff face. You can see the outlines of a set of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs carved delicately into the stone. There is the royal seal of Mentuhotep IV, a little-known pharaoh who ruled for just two years in about 2,000 B.C. And right below there are three lines of a hieroglyphic inscription proclaiming the achievements of the pharaoh, which Tallet translates: “In year one of the king, they sent a troop of 3,000 men to fetch copper, turquoise and all the good products of the desert.”

On a clear day you can see the Sinai Desert about 40 miles away across the Red Sea from where we stand. Before these recent excavations, the ancient Egyptians were not widely known to be notable sea travelers, and were thought to confine themselves to moving up and down the Nile or hugging the Mediterranean coast. The work that Tallet and others have done in the last two decades has shown that the ancient Egyptian Empire was as ambitious in its outward reach as it was in building upward in its colossal monuments at Giza.

Tallet, a short, almost bald man of 49, wears wire-rimmed glasses and, on this day, a tan wool sweater vest. He looks like someone you would be more likely to encounter in a Paris library or office than in a desert camp. Indeed he is soft-spoken, choosing his words with scholarly scruple and carefully citing the contributions of other scholars, and he likes working in remote locations far from the hubbub at the monumental sites, royal tombs and palaces and necropolises that have generally captured the world’s attention. “What I love are desert places,” he says. “I would not like to excavate places like Giza and Saqqara.” (Saqqara is where early Egyptian pharaohs built some of their tombs before beginning the pyramid complex at Giza.) “I am not so fond of excavating graves. I like natural landscapes.” At the same time, he has professional reasons for preferring remote sites over famous monuments. “Most new evidence is found in the periphery,” he says.

Tallet’s taste for the periphery goes back to the beginning of his career. Tallet grew up in Bordeaux, the son of a high-school French teacher (his father) and a professor of English literature (his mother). After studying at Paris’ famous École Normale Supérieure, Tallet went to Egypt to do an alternative military service by teaching in an Egyptian high school; he stayed on to work at the French Institute, where he began his archaeological work. He scoured the edges of the Egyptian world—the Libyan desert on one end, the Sinai Desert on the other—looking for, and finding, previously unknown Egyptian rock inscriptions. “I love rock inscriptions, they give you a page of history without excavating,” he says. In the Sinai he also found abundant evidence that the ancient Egyptians mined turquoise and copper, the latter essential for making weapons as well as tools. This, in turn, fit with his discovery of the harbor at Ayn Soukhna that the Egyptians would have used to reach the Sinai. “You see,” he says, “there is a logic in things.”

The area was not recognized as an ancient Egyptian site until 1997 when the cliffside hieroglyphs were noted by an Egyptian archaeologist. Ayn Soukhna has gradually become a popular weekend destination, and since the construction of a larger, faster highway about ten years ago, it is now only about a two-hour drive from Cairo. Across the road from Tallet’s site is an older Egyptian hotel closed for renovation, which allows his crew to work in peace, sifting through the area between the boat galleries up in the hillside and the sea. They are finding the remains of ovens for smelting copper and preparing food as well as quotidian objects such as mats and storage pots.

Sixty-two miles south of Ayn Soukhna, along the Red Sea coast, is Tallet’s second archaeological site, at Wadi al-Jarf, and it’s even more obscure. Among the only landmarks in the vicinity is the Monastery of Saint Paul the Anchorite, a Coptic Orthodox outpost founded in the fifth century near the cave, which had been inhabited by their hermitic patron saint. The area is almost the definition of the middle of nowhere, which is probably why it long failed to attract the attention of either archaeologists or looters. The remoteness also helps explain why the papyri left in the desert there survived for thousands of years. Precisely because administrative centers like Memphis and Giza were occupied and reused for centuries—and then picked over or looted repeatedly in the intervening millennia—the survival rate of fragile papyri from the early dynasties there has been close to zero.

Among the few people to take note of the place before Tallet was the British explorer John Gardner Wilkinson, who passed by in 1823 and described it in his travel notes: “Near the ruins is a small knoll containing eighteen excavated chambers, beside, perhaps, many others, the entrance of which are no longer visible. We went into those where the doors were the least obstructed by the sand or decayed rock, and found them to be catacombs; they are well cut and vary from about 80 to 24 feet, by 5; their height may be from 6 to 8 feet.”

Perhaps associating the area with the monastery, Wilkinson took the gallery complex to be a series of catacombs. But the description of this series of carefully cut chambers carved into the rock sounded to Tallet exactly like the boat storage galleries he was busy excavating at Ayn Soukhna. (They also looked like the galleries at another ancient port, Mersa Gawasis, then being excavated by Kathryn A. Bard of Boston University and Rodolfo Fattovich of the University of Naples L’Orientale.) Moreover, two French pilots who were based in the Suez Gulf in the mid-1950s had noted the site, but didn’t associate it with the harbor. Tallet tracked down one of the pilots and, using his notes, Wilkinson’s description and GPS technology, figured out the location. It was two years later that Tallet and his crew began clearing out a small passageway at the entrance to the boat galleries, between two large stone blocks that had been used to seal the caves. Here they found entire papyrus scrolls, including Merer’s journal. The ancients, Tallet says, “threw all the papyri inside, some of them were still tied with a rope, probably as they were closing the site.”

Wadi al-Jarf lies where the Sinai is a mere 35 miles away, so close you can see the mountains in the Sinai that were the entry to the mining district. The Egyptian site has yielded many revelations along with the trove of papyri. In the harbor, Tallet and his team found an ancient L-shaped stone jetty more than 600 feet long that was built to create a safe harbor for boats. They found some 130 anchors—nearly quadrupling the number of ancient Egyptian anchors located. The 30 gallery-caves carefully dug into the mountainside—ranging from 50 to more than 100 feet in length—were triple the number of boat galleries at Ayn Soukhna. For a harbor constructed 4,600 years ago, this was an enterprise on a truly grand scale.

Yet it was used for a very short time. All the evidence that Tallet and his colleagues have gathered indicates that the harbor was active in the fourth dynasty, concentrated during the reign of one pharaoh, Khufu. What emerges clearly from Tallet’s excavation is that the port was crucial to the pyramid-building project. The Egyptians needed massive amounts of copper—the hardest metal then available—with which to cut the pyramid stones. The principal source of copper was the mines in the Sinai just opposite Wadi al-Jarf. The reason that the ancients abandoned the harbor in favor of Ayn Soukhna would appear to be logistical: Ayn Soukhna is only about 75 miles from the capital of ancient Egypt. Reaching Wadi al-Jarf involved a considerably longer overland trip, even though it was closer to the Sinai mining district.

After visiting Wadi al-Jarf, Lehner, the American Egyptologist, was bowled over by the connections between Giza and this distant harbor. “The power and purity of the site is so Khufu,” he said. “The scale and ambition and sophistication of it—the size of these galleries cut out of rock like the Amtrak train garages, these huge hammers made out of hard black diorite they found, the scale of the harbor, the clear and orderly writing of the hieroglyphs of the papyri, which are like Excel spreadsheets of the ancient world—all of it has the clarity, power and sophistication of the pyramids, all the characteristics of Khufu and the early fourth dynasty.”

Tallet is convinced that harbors such as Wadi al-Jarf and Ayn Soukhna served mainly as supply hubs. Since there were few sources of food in the Sinai, Merer and other managers were responsible for getting food from Egypt’s rich agricultural lands along the Nile to the thousands of men working in the Sinai mine fields, as well as retrieving the copper and turquoise from the Sinai. In all likelihood, they operated the harbor only during the spring and summer when the Red Sea was relatively calm. They then dragged the boats up to the rock face and stored them in the galleries for safekeeping until the next spring.

Ancient Egypt’s maritime activities also served political and symbolic purposes, Tallet argues. It was important for the Egyptian kings to demonstrate their presence and control over the whole national territory, especially its more remote parts, in order to assert the essential unity of Egypt. “Sinai had great symbolic importance for them as it was one of the farthest points they could reach,” Tallet says. “In the Sinai the inscriptions are explaining the mightiness of the king, the wealth of the king, how the king is governing its country. On the outer limits of the Egyptian universe you have a need to show the power of the king.”

In fact, their control of the periphery was rather fragile. Distant and inhospitable Sinai, with its barren landscape and hostile Bedouin inhabitants, represented a challenge for the pharaohs; one inscription records an Egyptian expedition massacred by Bedouin warriors, Tallet says. Nor were the Egyptians always able to hold on to their camps along the Red Sea. “We have evidence from Ayn Soukhna that the site was destroyed several times. There was a big fire in one of the galleries....It was probably difficult for them to control the area.”

Apparently all parts of Egypt were involved in the great building project at Giza. Granite came from Aswan far to the south, food from the delta in the north near the Mediterranean, and limestone from Tura, about 12 miles south of Cairo on the Nile. The burst of maritime activity was also driven by the monumental undertaking. “It is certain that the shipbuilding was made necessary by the gigantism of the royal building projects,” Tallet writes in a recent essay, “and that the great majority of the boats were intended for the navigation of the Nile and the transport of materials along the river, but the development of Wadi al-Jarf exactly in the same period allows us to see without doubt the logical extension, this time toward the Red Sea, of this project of the Egyptian state.”

Secrets: Great Pyramid

Working on the royal boats, it seems, was a source of prestige. According to the papyri found at Wadi al-Jarf, the laborers ate well, and were provisioned with meat, poultry, fish and beer. And among the inscriptions that Tallet and his team have found at the Wadi al-Jarf gallery complex is one, on a large jar fashioned there, hinting at ties to the pharaoh; it mentions “Those Who Are Known of Two Falcons of Gold,” a reference to Khufu. “You have all sorts of private inscriptions, of officials who were involved in these mining expeditions to the Sinai,” Tallet says. “I think it was a way to associate themselves to something that was very important to the king and this was a reason to be preserved for eternity for the individuals.” Clearly these workers were valued servants of the state.

The discovery of the papyri at such a distant location is significant, Tallet says: “It is not very logical that [the writings] should have ended up at Wadi al-Jarf. Of course [the managers] would have always traveled with their archives because they were expected always to account for their time. I think the reason we found [the papyri] there is that this was the last mission of the team, I imagine because of the death of the king. I think they just stopped everything and closed up the galleries and then as they were leaving buried the archives in the area between the two large stones used to seal the complex. The date on the papyri seems to be the last date we have for the reign of Khufu, the 27th year of his reign.”

The work that Tallet and his colleagues have done along the Red Sea connects with Lehner’s work at Giza. In the late 1980s, Lehner began a full-scale excavation of what has turned out to be a residential area a few hundred yards from the pyramids and the Sphinx. For centuries, travelers had contemplated these amazing monuments in splendid isolation—man-made mountains and one of the world’s great sculptures sitting seemingly alone in the desert. The paucity of evidence of the substantial number of people needed to undertake this massive project gave rise to many bizarre alternative theories about the pyramids (they were built by space aliens, by the people from Atlantis and so forth). But in 1999, Lehner began uncovering apartment blocks that might have housed as many as 20,000 people.

And many of the Giza residents, like the boatmen at the Red Sea, appear to have been well-fed. Judging by remains at the site, they were eating a great deal of beef, some of it choice cuts. Beef cattle were mostly raised in rural estates and then perhaps taken by boat to the royal settlements at Memphis and Giza, where they were slaughtered. Pigs, by contrast, tended to be eaten by the people who produced the food. Archaeologists study the “cattle to pig” ratio as an indication of the extent to which workers were supplied by the central authority or by their own devices—and the higher the ratio, the more elite the occupants. At Lehner’s “Lost City of the Pyramids” (as he sometimes calls it), “the ratio of cattle to pig for the entire site stands at 6:1, and for certain areas 16:1,” he writes of those well-stocked areas. Other, rather exotic items such as leopard’s teeth (perhaps from a priest’s robe), hippopotamus bones (carved by craftsmen) and olive branches (evidence of trade with the Levant) have also turned up in some of the same places, suggesting that the people who populated Lehner’s working village were prized specialists.

Sailors may have figured among the visitors to the pyramid town, according to Merer’s papyrus journal. It mentions carrying stone both up to the lake or basin of Khufu and to the “horizon of Khufu,” generally understood to refer to the Great Pyramid. How did Merer get his boat close enough to the pyramids to unload his cargo of stone? Currently, the Nile is several miles from Giza. But the papyri offer important support for a hypothesis that Lehner had been developing for several years—that the ancient Egyptians, masters of canal building, irrigation and otherwise redirecting the Nile to suit their needs, built a major harbor or port near the pyramid complex at Giza. Accordingly, Merer transported the limestone from Tura all the way to Giza by boat. “I think the Egyptians intervened in the flood plain as dramatically as they did on the Giza Plateau,” Lehner says, adding: “The Wadi al-Jarf papyri are a major piece in the overall puzzle of the Great Pyramid.”

Tallet, characteristically, is more cautious. “I really don’t want to be involved in any polemics on the building of the pyramids at Giza—it’s not my job,” he says. “Of course it’s interesting to have this kind of information, it will deserve a lot of study.”

Tallet believes that the Lake of Khufu, to which Merer refers, was more likely located at Abusir, another important royal site about ten miles south of Giza. “If it is too close to Giza,” Tallet says, “one does not understand why it takes Merer a full day to sail from this site to the pyramid.” But Tallet has been persuaded by Lehner’s evidence of a major port at Giza. It makes perfect sense, he says, that the Egyptians would have found a way to transport construction materials and food by boat rather than dragging them across the desert. “I am not sure it would have been possible at all times of the year,” he said. “They had to wait for the flooding, and could have existed for perhaps six months a year.” By his estimate the ports along the Red Sea were only working for a few months a year—as it happens, roughly when Nile floods would have filled the harbor at Giza. “It all fits very nicely.”

The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries

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Alexander Stille | | READ MORE

Alexander Stille is a professor at the Columbia School of Journalism and the author of five books including Benevolence and Betrayal , The Future of the Past and his latest, The Force of Things . Stille has worked as a contributor for The New Yorker magazine, The Atlantic Monthly , The New Republic and the Boston Globe .

David Degner | READ MORE

David Degner is an editorial photographer based in Boston, Massachusetts.

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Egyptian Pyramids Essay Sample

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Pyramids , History , Construction , Print , Egypt , Discrimination , Middle East , Height

Words: 2000

Published: 02/20/2023

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"Visiting card" of Egypt is the pyramids. There are about hundreds of them - large and small, with smooth and stepped sides that have survived virtually unchanged and more look like a shapeless heap of stones. They are located along the left, West Bank of the Nile in small groups near the place, where in the era of the old Kingdom was the capital of the country - Memphis. The most famous of the pyramids are on the outskirts of Cairo, on the edge of the desert plateau of Giza, looming over the green valley of the Nile. Here at Giza, there are three great pyramids - Cheops, Chephren and Menkaure. In ancient times, the pyramids of Giza were considered one of the seven "wonders of the world" (Levy 6). But today, they are still able to impress anyone. The largest of them - the pyramid of Cheops, built in honor to the second Pharaoh of the fourth dynasty. This pyramid still remains the greatest architectural work of human hands. At the base it is a square with a side of 227,5 meters. During construction, height was 146,6 meters, and now the pyramid is 9 meters below - the upper stones fell during the earthquake (Trumpp 65). For the construction of a pyramid (and it was completed around 2590 BC ) 2.3 million stone blocks weighing two and a half tons each were used. The total volume of the pyramid is 2,34 million cubic meters. Sides of the pyramid are oriented to the cardinal points, and the angle to the base equals 51o52'. The entrance is on the North side. The individual blocks, according to the Arab historian Abdul Latif (XII century), is so exactly fitted to each other that a knife blade can not be stick between them (Dunn, 108). The construction of the pyramid was carried out under the guidance of renowned architect of Chefren for 20 years. According to ancient sources, the peasants, free from field work time during the flooding of the Nile, were involved in its construction only three months out of the year (Rodriguez 530). But this does not preclude the work of a small number of professionals who prepared the scope of work for thousands of seasonal builders-farmers. The great Pyramid was built of granite covered with limestone. The outer surface was smooth and non-separable, which gave the pyramid type of structure like it was lowered from heaven. But the white facing stones were looted, and now to the apex, which is missing the center stone, can be reached by climbing up through the layers of rocks like steps. First who told the world about the pyramids, was the "father of history" - Herodotus. He visited Egypt, 2,000 years after the alleged construction of the pyramids, in the fifth century before Christ (Wheeler 385). Inside of the great pyramid, there are no inscriptions or decorations. There are three burial chambers. The burial chamber of the Pharaoh is a room with a length of about 11 meters, a width of five meters and a height of almost six meters. The walls of the tomb are finished in granite slabs. The sarcophagus of red granite, is empty. Neither the mummy nor funerary utensils were found. It is assume that the pyramid was plundered in ancient times. On the South side of the pyramid there is the building shaped like a ship. This is so-called Solar boat - one of five on which Cheops had to go to the underworld. In 1954, a 43,6 m boat dismantled into 1224 pieces, was found during excavations. It is built from cedar wood without a single nail and, as evidenced by preserved the traces of silt, before the death of Cheops it still floated on the Nile. The second largest pyramid in Giza belongs to Pharaoh Chephren. It was built 40 years later than the first. Sometimes it seems that the pyramid is even bigger than the Cheops. Actually it's a little smaller. Side of the square base of the pyramid of Chefren is 215 meters. Height - 136 meters. However, in ancient times, like the pyramid of Cheops, it was 9 meters higher. The tilt angle is sharper than the first pyramid: 53o8' (Bunson 322). Before the temple, there was a pier where boats floating on the canal from the Nile moored. Two entrances to the temple were guarded, obviously, four Sphinxes, carved out of granite. In the middle of the temple there probably was the statue of the Pharaoh. From both entrances, there were the narrow corridors that led to riposte with sixteen monolithic columns of granite. In this room, having the shape of an inverted letter T, twenty-three seated statues of the Pharaoh, made of alabaster, slate and diorite are standing. There is the color game of polished red granite, contrasting with the alabaster slabs of the floor, as well as the effects of light and shade in hypostyle. This room, now devoid of overlap, was covered originally with a small hole in the ceiling through which light incident separately on each statue. Completes the ensemble of the great pyramids of Giza the pyramid of Menkaure. Its construction was completed in 2505 BC. This pyramid is significantly smaller than its predecessors. The side of the base is 108 meters, the initial height of 66.5 m (today - 62 m), the angle is 51o . Interestingly, the largest size blocks were used for the construction of this smallest of the three pyramids. The lower part of the tomb was lined with granite, in most cases not polished, and its top is a white limestone from Tura. In 1837, British explorers Perring and Visa found the magnificent Royal sarcophagus of basalt in the burial chamber of the pyramid, the walls of which were treated like facade of the Palace. This sarcophagus was drowned during its transportation to England; preserved, however, its picture. Mikerin was not only the smallest pyramid, but also the least monumental funerary complex in comparison with ensembles of his predecessors. No doubt that during the life of this Pharaoh it was not yet built. It was completed by his successor Shepseskaf, using worse quality building material. Walls were built with limestone blocks that were lined with brick-and covered with a white vinegar solution (Rigano 188). On the south of the third pyramid, there are three associated with it small pyramids, surrounded by a common wall. The footprint of each of them is equal to 1/3 the area of the base of the pyramid of Menkaure. It is considered that these pyramids were for the wifes of Pharaoh. In one of the premises associated with the pyramid of Menkaure, during excavations the American archaeologist Reisner discovered four sculptural groups from oil shale, now called the triad of Menkaure. Three of them are now in Cairo, one in Boston (Michałowski 71). The pyramid of Menkaure emphasizes the greatness of the pyramids of Cheops and Chephren. Last is easy to distinguish from others: the pyramid of Khafre near the top of the partially preserved white basalt veneer. After years of research, scientists have shown how pyramids were created. The stone blocks were cut down in the mountain of Mokattam on the other side of the Nile. Ancient quarries are clearly visible even now. Then, they were taken to the courts in Giza, specially dug for this channel. Recently, archaeologists have found berth near the pyramids. The blocks were dragged to the pyramid by a sloping earthen mounds. The great pyramids are part of the vast necropolis of Giza. Beside them, there are several small pyramids, where the wives of pharaohs are buried, the tombs of the priests and government officials. At the foot of the Giza plateau, there are funerary temples and the Great Sphinx. Each of the great pyramids had a triune complex: the lower funerary temple - road - top funerary temple. But still this complex is in a more or less complete form only at the pyramid of Chephren. The cobbled road from the lower Church, where the embalming was carried out, to the top, where the burial was facing the Pharaoh, stretches over half a kilometer. Near the bottom of the granite temple, deprived of the roof, lie the ruins of the temple of the Sphinx. And behind them if to look at the East , there is the ancient guardian of the pyramids - the Great Sphinx. The Sphinx is resting lion with a human head (Mamluk soldiers blew his nose), is the largest monolithic sculpture. Its length is 73 meters, height - 20 meters. It is believed that the Sphinx was carved during the construction of the pyramid of Khafre, and his face bears the features of this Pharaoh. Every night, at the foot of the pyramid, a colorful light and music show is hosted. Enjoying magnificent spectacle, viewers hear the fascinating story of Ancient Egypt, the history of the construction of the pyramids.

Saqqara and Memphis

30 kilometers South of Giza, there is another famous necropolis, Saqqara. There are dozens of relatively small tombs, pyramids, and temples. But this place is famous because of pyramid of Djoser. A six-step tomb of Djoser is the oldest Egyptian pyramid. This was not a classic pyramid, in essence, it was a combination of several tombs-mastabas. Mastaba - a rectangular structure with sloping walls and a flat top. It resembles the shape of a bench, in Arabic - "mastaba", which now can be found in the peasant dwellings. Djoser, the first Pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty, who lived 4700 years ago, commissioned the construction of a pyramid to architect Imhotep, who created the amazing simplicity and grandeur of the building - he put six mastabas one on another, decreasing upwards (Berney et al. 632). This pyramid, called by scientists "the mother of the pyramids," is the world's first Grand structure of stone (area of base 160 x 120 m, height 60 m). The main rooms of the tomb were under the mastaba. It was a series of chambers carved in the rocky soil. One of them was a sarcophagus with a mummy and the things needed on the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, to continue life in the afterlife. Now there is an exact copy of a small statue of Djoser. The real statue is in the Egyptian Museum. Saqqara is the necropolis of the first capital of the United by Pharaoh Menes of Egypt - Memphis. Unfortunately, from a big bustling city that flourished for three millennia, almost nothing left. With the founding of Alexandria, Memphis began to decline. As a result of last century, 20-meter statue of Ramses II and a relatively small alabaster of Sphinx were also discovered. The pyramids are probably the most famous architectural structures in the world. From an engineering point of view, it is a primitive building. However, the goal was achieved - the pyramids are eternal monuments, having survived the millennium.

Works Cited

Berney, K. A, and Trudy Ring. International Dictionary Of Historic Places. Chicago [u.a.]: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1996. Print. Bunson, Margaret. The Encyclopedia Of Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File Publications, 1991. Print. Dunn, Jerry Camarillo. The World's Greatest Landmarks. Lincolnwood, Ill.: PIL/Publications International, 2002. Print. Levy, Janey. The Great Pyramid Of Giza. New York: Rosen Pub. Group, 2007. Print. Michałowski, Kazimierz. Great Sculpture Of Ancient Egypt. New York: Reynal & Co. in association with W. Morrow, 1978. Print. Rigano, Charles. Pyramids Of The Giza Plateau. Print. Rodriguez, Junius P. The Historical Encyclopedia Of World Slavery. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 1997. Print. Trumpp, Hans-Joachim. Master Plan Of The Pyramid Of Cheops. Norderstedt: Books on Demand, 2014. Print. Wheeler, James Talboys. The Geography Of Herodotus London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1854. Print.

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