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The words ‘ dissertation ’ and ‘thesis’ both refer to a large written research project undertaken to complete a degree, but they are used differently depending on the country:
The main difference is in terms of scale – a dissertation is usually much longer than the other essays you complete during your degree.
Another key difference is that you are given much more independence when working on a dissertation. You choose your own dissertation topic , and you have to conduct the research and write the dissertation yourself (with some assistance from your supervisor).
Dissertation word counts vary widely across different fields, institutions, and levels of education:
However, none of these are strict guidelines – your word count may be lower or higher than the numbers stated here. Always check the guidelines provided by your university to determine how long your own dissertation should be.
At the bachelor’s and master’s levels, the dissertation is usually the main focus of your final year. You might work on it (alongside other classes) for the entirety of the final year, or for the last six months. This includes formulating an idea, doing the research, and writing up.
A PhD thesis takes a longer time, as the thesis is the main focus of the degree. A PhD thesis might be being formulated and worked on for the whole four years of the degree program. The writing process alone can take around 18 months.
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Home > Blog > Tips for Online Students > Tips for Students > Dissertation Explained: A Grad Student’s Guide
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Updated: June 19, 2024
Published: March 10, 2020
Higher education is filled with milestones. When completing your PhD , you will be required to complete a dissertation. Even if you’ve heard this word thrown around before, you still may be questioning “What is a dissertation?” It’s a common question, especially for those considering to join or are already in a graduate program. As such, here’s everything you need to know about dissertations.
A dissertation is a written document that details research. A dissertation also signifies the completion of your PhD program. It is required to earn a PhD degree, which stands for Doctor of Philosophy.
A PhD is created from knowledge acquired from:
A PhD program consists of academic courses that are usually small in size and challenging in content. Most PhD courses consist of a high amount and level of reading and writing per week. These courses will help prepare you for your dissertation as they will teach research methodology.
For your dissertation, it is likely that you will have the choice between performing your own research on a subject , or expanding on existing research. Likely, you will complete a mixture of the two. For those in the hard sciences, you will perform research in a lab. For those in humanities and social sciences, research may mean gathering data from surveys or existing research.
Once you have collected the data you need to prove your point, you will have to analyze and interpret the information. PhD programs will prepare you for how to conduct analysis, as well as for how to position your research into the existing body of work on the subject matter.
The process of writing and completing a dissertation is bigger than the work itself. It can lead to research positions within the university or outside companies. It may mean that you will teach and share your findings with current undergraduates, or even be published in academic journals. How far you plan to take your dissertation is your choice to make and will require the relevant effort to accomplish your goals.
In essence, a dissertation is what moves a doctoral student into becoming a scholar. Their research may be published, shared, and used as educational material moving forwards.
Basic differences.
Grad students may conflate the differences between a thesis and a dissertation.
Simply put, a thesis is what you write to complete a master’s degree. It summarizes existing research and signifies that you understand the subject matter deeply.
On the other hand, a dissertation is the culmination of a doctoral program. It will likely require your own research and it can contribute an entirely new idea into your field.
When it comes to the structure, a thesis and dissertation are also different. A thesis is like the research papers you complete during undergraduate studies. A thesis displays your ability to think critically and analyze information. It’s less based on research that you’ve completed yourself and more about interpreting and analyzing existing material. They are generally around 100 pages in length.
A dissertation is generally two to three times longer compared to a thesis. This is because the bulk of the information is garnered from research you’ve performed yourself. Also, if you are providing something new in your field, it means that existing information is lacking. That’s why you’ll have to provide a lot of data and research to back up your claims.
Dissertation length.
The length of a dissertation varies between study level and country. At an undergraduate level, this is more likely referred to as a research paper, which is 10,000 to 12,000 words on average. At a master’s level, the word count may be 15,000 to 25,000, and it will likely be in the form of a thesis. For those completing their PhD, then the dissertation could be 50,000 words or more.
Format of the dissertation.
Here are the items you must include in a dissertation. While the format may slightly vary, here’s a look at one way to format your dissertation:
This is the first page which includes: title, your name, department, degree program, institution, and submission date. Your program may specify exactly how and what they want you to include on the title page.
This is optional, but it is where you can express your gratitude to those who have helped you complete your dissertation (professors, research partners, etc.).
The abstract is about 150-300 words and summarizes what your research is about. You state the main topic, the methods used, the main results, and your conclusion.
Here, you list the chapter titles and pages to serve as a wayfinding tool for your readers.
This is like the table of contents, but for graphs and figures.
If you’ve constantly abbreviated words in your content, define them in a list at the beginning.
In highly specialized work, it’s likely that you’ve used words that most people may not understand, so a glossary is where you define these terms.
Your introduction sets up the topic, purpose, and relevance. It’s where readers will understand what they expect to gain from your dissertation.
Based on the research you performed to create your own dissertation, you’ll want to summarize and address the gaps in what you researched.
This is where you define how you conducted your research. It offers credibility for you as a source of information. You should give all the details as to how you’ve conducted your research, including: where and when research took place, how it was conducted, any obstacles you faced, and how you justified your findings.
This is where you share the results that have helped contribute to your findings.
In the discussion section, you explain what these findings mean to your research question. Were they in line with your expectations or did something jump out as surprising? You may also want to recommend ways to move forward in researching and addressing the subject matter.
A conclusion ties it all together and summarizes the answer to the research question and leaves your reader clearly understanding your main argument.
This is the equivalent to a works cited or bibliography page, which documents all the sources you used to create your dissertation.
If you have any information that was ancillary to creating the dissertation, but doesn’t directly fit into its chapters, then you can add it in the appendix.
As with any paper, especially one of this size and importance, the writing requires a process. It may begin with outlines and drafts, and even a few rewrites. It’s important to proofread your dissertation for both grammatical mistakes, but also to ensure it can be clearly understood.
It’s always useful to read your writing out loud to catch mistakes. Also, if you have people who you trust to read it over — like a peer, family member, mentor, or professor — it’s very helpful to get a second eye on your work.
There are a few main differences between a dissertation and an essay. For starters, an essay is relatively short in comparison to a dissertation, which includes your own body of research and work. Not only is an essay shorter, but you are also likely given the topic matter of an essay. When it comes to a dissertation, you have the freedom to construct your own argument, conduct your own research, and then prove your findings.
You can choose what type of dissertation you complete. Often, this depends on the subject and doctoral degree, but the two main types are:
This relies on conducting your own research.
This relies on studying existing research to support your argument.
More things you should know.
A dissertation is certainly no easy feat. Here’s a few more things to remember before you get started writing your own:
The process of completing a dissertation is self-directed, and therefore can feel overwhelming. However, if you approach it like the new experience that it is with an open-mind and willingness to learn, you will make it through!
There are countless people around to offer support. From professors to peers, you can always ask for help throughout the process.
The process of writing a dissertation will further hone your writing skills which will follow you throughout your life. These skills are highly transferable on the job, from having the ability to communicate to also developing analytical and critical thinking skills.
You can work backwards from the culmination of your program to break down this gargantuan task into smaller pieces. That way, you can manage your time to chip away at the task throughout the length of the program.
It’s okay to change subject matters and rethink the point of your dissertation. Just try as much as possible to do this early in the process so you don’t waste too much time and energy.
A dissertation marks the completion of your doctoral program and moves you from being a student to being a scholar. While the process is long and requires a lot of effort and energy, you have the power to lend an entirely new research and findings into your field of expertise.
As always, when in the thick of things, remember why you started. Completing both your dissertation and PhD is a commendable accomplishment.
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Home · Article · 20 Tips to help you finish your dissertation
i haven’t met many ph.d. students who don’t like to write. some may like writing more than others, but most enjoy writing—or, at least, the satisfaction of having written. wherever you find yourself on the love-for-writing spectrum, a dissertation awaits completion, and you must finish. here are a few tips to help you. 1. write sooner. the….
I haven’t met many Ph.D. students who don’t like to write. Some may like writing more than others, but most enjoy writing—or, at least, the satisfaction of having written. Wherever you find yourself on the love-for-writing spectrum, a dissertation awaits completion, and you must finish. Here are a few tips to help you.
1. Write sooner. The dissertation writing process can quickly become paralyzing because of its size and importance. It is a project that will be reviewed rigorously by your advisor and your committee, and your graduation depends on your successful completion and defense. Facing these realities can be daunting and tempt you to wait until you can determine that you’ve researched or thought enough about the topic. Yet, the longer you delay writing, the more difficult it will be to actually start the process. The answer to your paralysis is to start writing . Are you unsure of your argument or not fully convinced you have done the requisite research? You may be right: your argument may not be airtight, and you may need to do more reading; but you will be able to determine to what degree these problems need attention when you start writing. Productivity begets productivity, and you will be amazed at how arguments take shape and the direction of your research is forged as you write.
2. Write continually. So, don’t stop writing. Of course, you need to continue to read and study and take notes—I will talk about this more in a moment—but it is best if you keep the gears from grinding to a halt. Keep your mind working and your project moving. Your assignment is not to turn in a hundred pages of notes to your supervisor—you must produce a dissertation with complete sentences and paragraphs and chapters. Keep writing.
3. Write in order to rewrite. Writing sooner and writing continually can only happen if you aren’t consumed with perfection. Some of us are discouraged from writing because we think our first draft needs to be our final draft. But this is exactly the problem. Get your thoughts on paper and plan to go back and fix awkward sentences, poor word choices, and illogical or unsubstantiated arguments in your subsequent drafts. Knowing that rewriting is part of the writing process will free you to write persistently, make progress, and look forward to fixing things later.
4. Spend adequate time determining your thesis and methodology. This probably could fit in the number one slot, but I wanted to emphasize the importance writing right away. Besides, you might find that you modify your thesis and methodology slightly as you write and make progress in developing your overall argument. Nevertheless, the adage is true: form a solid thesis and methodology statement and your dissertation will “write itself.” Plan to spend some time writing and rewriting and rewriting (again) your thesis and methodology statements so that you will know where you are going and where you need to go.
5. If you get stuck, move to another section. Developing a clear thesis and methodology will allow you to move around in your dissertation when you get stuck. Granted, we should not make a habit of avoiding difficult tasks, but there are times when it will be a more effective use of time to move to sections that will write easy. As you continue to make progress in your project and get words on paper, you will also help mitigate the panic that so often looms over your project when you get stuck and your writing ceases.
6. Fight the urge to walk away from writing when it gets difficult. Having encouraged you to move to another section when you get stuck, it is also important to add a balancing comment to encourage you to fight through the tough spots in your project. I don’t mean that you should force writing when it is clear that you may need to make some structural changes or do a little more research on a given topic. But if you find yourself dreading a particular portion of your dissertation because it will require some mind-numbing, head-on-your-desk, prayer-producing rigor, then my advice is to face these tough sections head on and sit in your chair until you make some progress. You will be amazed at how momentum will grow out of your dogged persistence to hammer out these difficult portions of your project.
7. Strive for excellence but remember that this is not your magnum opus. A dissertation needs to be of publishable quality and it will need to past the muster of your supervisor and committee. But it is also a graduation requirement. Do the research. Make a contribution. Finish the project. And plan to write your five-volume theology when you have 30-40 more years of study, reflection, and teaching under your belt.
8. Take careful notes. Taking careful notes is essential for two reasons. First, keeping a meticulous record of the knowledge you glean from your research will save you time: there will be no need to later revisit your resources and chase bibliographic information, and you will find yourself less prone to the dreaded, “Where did I read that?” Second, and most importantly, you will avoid plagiarism. If you fail to take good notes and are not careful to accurately copy direct quotes and make proper citations, you will be liable to reproducing material in your dissertation that is not original with you. Pleading that your plagiarism was inadvertent will not help your cause. It is your responsibility to take careful notes and attribute all credit to whom it is due through proper citation.
9. Know when to read. Write sooner, write continually, and write in order to rewrite. But you need to know when you are churning an empty barrel. Reading and research should be a stimulus to write and you need to know when that stimulus is needed. Be willing to stop writing for a short period so that you can refresh your mind with new ideas and research.
10. Establish chunks of time to research and write. While it is important to keep writing and make the most of the time that you have, it is best for writing projects specifically to set aside large portions of time with which to write. Writing requires momentum, and momentum gathers over time. Personally, I have found that I need at least an hour to get things rolling, and that three to four hours is ideal.
11. Get exercise, adequate sleep, and eat well. Because our minds and bodies are meant to function in harmony, you will probably find that your productivity suffers to the degree that you are not giving attention to your exercise, sleep, and eating habits. Like it or not, our ability to maintain long periods of sustained concentration, think carefully over our subject matter, and find motivation to complete tasks is dependent in a significant sense upon how we are caring for our bodies. When we neglect exercise, fail to get adequate sleep, or constantly indulge in an unhealthy diet, we will find it increasingly difficult to muster the energy and clarity with which to complete our dissertation.
12. Stay on task. Completing a dissertation, in large measure, is not so much a feat of the intellect as it is the result of discipline. If you are able to set aside large chunks of time with which to research and write, make sure that you are not using that time for other tasks. This means that you must strive against multi-tasking. In truth, studies have shown that multi-tasking is a cognitive impossibility. Our brains can only concentrate on one thing at a time. When we think we are multitasking we are actually “switch-tasking;” rather than doing several things at once, our brains are constantly toggling from one task to the other (listening to a song on the radio to reading a book, back to the song, etc.). You will be amazed at how much you can accomplish if you give an undistracted 60-90 minutes to something. Stay on task.
13. Don’t get stuck on introductions. This is a basic writing principle, but one that bears repeating here: write the body of a given chapter or section and then return to the introductions. It is usually easier to introduce something that you have already written for the simple fact that you now know what you are introducing. You might be tempted to write the introduction first and labor to capture your reader with a gripping illustration or perfect quote while refusing to enter into the body of your paper until your preliminary remarks are flawless. This is a sure recipe for frustration. Wait until you have completed a particular section or chapter’s content until you write introductions. This practice will save you time and loads of trouble.
14. Use a legal pad. There’s nothing magic about a legal pad; my only aim here is to encourage you to push back from the keyboard occasionally and stimulate your mind by sketching your argument and writing your ideas by hand. I have found my way out of many dry spells by closing the laptop for a few minutes and writing on a piece of paper. I might bullet point a few key ideas, diagram my chapter outlines, or sketch the entire dissertation with boxes and arrows and notes scribbled over several pages.
15. Go on walks. It has been said recently that walking promotes creativity . I agree. Whether you like to walk among the trees or besides the small coffee shops along quaint side streets, I recommend that you go on walks and think specifically about your dissertation. You might find that the change of scenery, the stimulus of a bustling community, or the refreshing quiet of a park trail is just the help you need.
16. Make use of a capture journal. In order to make the most of your walks, you will need a place to “capture” your ideas. You may prefer to use the voice memo or notepad feature on your smartphone, or, if you’re like me, a small 2.5”x4” lined journal . Whatever your preference, find a method that allows you to store your ideas as they come to you during your walks or as you fall to sleep at night. I wonder how many useful ideas many of us have lost because we failed to write them down? Don’t let this happen to you. Resolve to be a good steward of your thinking time and seize those thoughts.
17. Talk about your ideas with others. When you are writing your dissertation, you might be tempted to lock away your ideas and avoid discussing them with others. This is unwise. Talking with others about your ideas helps you to refine and stimulate your thinking; it also creates opportunities for you to learn of important resources and how your contribution will affect other branches of scholarship. Also, as people ask questions about your project, you will begin to see where your argument is unclear or unsubstantiated.
18. Learn how to read. Writing a dissertation requires a massive amount of reading. You must become familiar with the arguments of several hundred resources—books, articles, reviews, and other dissertations. What will you do? You must learn how to read. Effective reading does not require that you read every book word-for-word, cover-to-cover. Indeed, sometimes very close reading of a given volume may actually impede your understanding of the author’s argument. In order to save time and cultivate a more effective approach to knowledge acquisition, you must learn how to use your resources. This means knowing when to read a book or article closely, and knowing when to skim. It means knowing how to read large books within a matter of an hour by carefully reviewing the table of contents, reading and rereading key chapters and paragraphs, and using the subject index. If you want to finish your dissertation, learn how to read.
19. Set deadlines. Depending on your project, you may have built in deadlines that force you to produce material at a steady clip. If you do not have built in deadlines, you must impose them on yourself. Deadlines produce results, and results lead to completed writing projects. Set realistic deadlines and stick to them. You will find that you are able to accomplish much more than you anticipated if you set and stick to deadlines.
20. Take productive breaks. Instead of turning to aimless entertainment to fill your break times, try doing something that will indirectly serve your writing process. We need breaks: they refresh us and help us stay on task. In fact, studies have shown that overall productivity diminishes if employees are not allowed to take regular, brief pauses from their work during the day. What is not often mentioned, however, is that a break does not necessarily have to be unrelated to our work in order to be refreshing; it needs only to be different from what we were just doing. So, for example, if you have been writing for 90 minutes, instead of turning on YouTube to watch another mountain biking video, you could get up, stretch, and pull that book off the shelf you’ve been wanting to read, or that article that has been sitting in Pocket for the past six weeks. Maybe reorganizing your desk or taking a walk (see above) around the library with your capture journal would be helpful. Whatever you choose, try to make your breaks productive.
Derek J. Brown is an M.Div and Ph.D graduate of Southern Seminary and is currently serving as pastoral assistant at Grace Bible Fellowship of Silicon Valley overseeing their young adult ministry, Grace Campus Ministries , mid-week Bible studies, website, and social media. He is also an adjunct professor of Christian Theology at Southern Seminary. This article was originally published on his blog www.derekjamesbrown.com . Follow Derek on twitter at @DerekBrown24 .
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Dissertation defenses are daunting, and no wonder; it’s not a “dissertation discussion,” or a “dissertation dialogue.” The name alone implies that the dissertation you’ve spent the last x number of years working on is subject to attack. And if you don’t feel trepidation for semantic reasons, you might be nervous because you don’t know what to expect. Our imaginations are great at making The Unknown scarier than reality. The good news is that you’ll find in this newsletter article experts who can shed light on what dissertations defenses are really like, and what you can do to prepare for them.
The first thing you should know is that your defense has already begun. It started the minute you began working on your dissertation— maybe even in some of the classes you took beforehand that helped you formulate your ideas. This, according to Dr. Celeste Atkins, is why it’s so important to identify a good mentor early in graduate school.
“To me,” noted Dr. Atkins, who wrote her dissertation on how sociology faculty from traditionally marginalized backgrounds teach about privilege and inequality, “the most important part of the doctoral journey was finding an advisor who understood and supported what I wanted from my education and who was willing to challenge me and push me, while not delaying me. I would encourage future PhDs to really take the time to get to know the faculty before choosing an advisor and to make sure that the members of their committee work well together.”
Your advisor will be the one who helps you refine arguments and strengthen your work so that by the time it reaches your dissertation committee, it’s ready. Next comes the writing process, which many students have said was the hardest part of their PhD. I’ve included this section on the writing process because this is where you’ll create all the material you’ll present during your defense, so it’s important to navigate it successfully. The writing process is intellectually grueling, it eats time and energy, and it’s where many students find themselves paddling frantically to avoid languishing in the “All-But-Dissertation” doldrums. The writing process is also likely to encroach on other parts of your life. For instance, Dr. Cynthia Trejo wrote her dissertation on college preparation for Latin American students while caring for a twelve-year-old, two adult children, and her aging parents—in the middle of a pandemic. When I asked Dr. Trejo how she did this, she replied:
“I don’t take the privilege of education for granted. My son knew I got up at 4:00 a.m. every morning, even on weekends, even on holidays; and it’s a blessing that he’s seen that work ethic and that dedication and the end result.”
Importantly, Dr. Trejo also exercised regularly and joined several online writing groups at UArizona. She mobilized her support network— her partner, parents, and even friends from high school to help care for her son.
The challenges you face during the writing process can vary by discipline. Jessika Iwanski is an MD/PhD student who in 2022 defended her dissertation on genetic mutations in sarcomeric proteins that lead to severe, neonatal dilated cardiomyopathy. She described her writing experience as “an intricate process of balancing many things at once with a deadline (defense day) that seems to be creeping up faster and faster— finishing up experiments, drafting the dissertation, preparing your presentation, filling out all the necessary documents for your defense and also, for MD/PhD students, beginning to reintegrate into the clinical world (reviewing your clinical knowledge and skill sets)!”
But no matter what your unique challenges are, writing a dissertation can take a toll on your mental health. Almost every student I spoke with said they saw a therapist and found their sessions enormously helpful. They also looked to the people in their lives for support. Dr. Betsy Labiner, who wrote her dissertation on Interiority, Truth, and Violence in Early Modern Drama, recommended, “Keep your loved ones close! This is so hard – the dissertation lends itself to isolation, especially in the final stages. Plus, a huge number of your family and friends simply won’t understand what you’re going through. But they love you and want to help and are great for getting you out of your head and into a space where you can enjoy life even when you feel like your dissertation is a flaming heap of trash.”
While you might sometimes feel like your dissertation is a flaming heap of trash, remember: a) no it’s not, you brilliant scholar, and b) the best dissertations aren’t necessarily perfect dissertations. According to Dr. Trejo, “The best dissertation is a done dissertation.” So don’t get hung up on perfecting every detail of your work. Think of your dissertation as a long-form assignment that you need to finish in order to move onto the next stage of your career. Many students continue revising after graduation and submit their work for publication or other professional objectives.
When you do finish writing your dissertation, it’s time to schedule your defense and invite friends and family to the part of the exam that’s open to the public. When that moment comes, how do you prepare to present your work and field questions about it?
“I reread my dissertation in full in one sitting,” said Dr. Labiner. “During all my time writing it, I’d never read more than one complete chapter at a time! It was a huge confidence boost to read my work in full and realize that I had produced a compelling, engaging, original argument.”
There are many other ways to prepare: create presentation slides and practice presenting them to friends or alone; think of questions you might be asked and answer them; think about what you want to wear or where you might want to sit (if you’re presenting on Zoom) that might give you a confidence boost. Iwanksi practiced presenting with her mentor and reviewed current papers to anticipate what questions her committee might ask. If you want to really get in the zone, you can emulate Dr. Labiner and do a full dress rehearsal on Zoom the day before your defense.
But no matter what you do, you’ll still be nervous:
“I had a sense of the logistics, the timing, and so on, but I didn’t really have clear expectations outside of the structure. It was a sort of nebulous three hours in which I expected to be nauseatingly terrified,” recalled Dr. Labiner.
“I expected it to be terrifying, with lots of difficult questions and constructive criticism/comments given,” agreed Iwanski.
“I expected it to be very scary,” said Dr. Trejo.
“I expected it to be like I was on trial, and I’d have to defend myself and prove I deserved a PhD,” said Dr Atkins.
And, eventually, inexorably, it will be time to present.
“It was actually very enjoyable” said Iwanski. “It was more of a celebration of years of work put into this project—not only by me but by my mentor, colleagues, lab members and collaborators! I felt very supported by all my committee members and, rather than it being a rapid fire of questions, it was more of a scientific discussion amongst colleagues who are passionate about heart disease and muscle biology.”
“I was anxious right when I logged on to the Zoom call for it,” said Dr. Labiner, “but I was blown away by the number of family and friends that showed up to support me. I had invited a lot of people who I didn’t at all think would come, but every single person I invited was there! Having about 40 guests – many of them joining from different states and several from different countries! – made me feel so loved and celebrated that my nerves were steadied very quickly. It also helped me go into ‘teaching mode’ about my work, so it felt like getting to lead a seminar on my most favorite literature.”
“In reality, my dissertation defense was similar to presenting at an academic conference,” said Dr. Atkins. “I went over my research in a practiced and organized way, and I fielded questions from the audience.
“It was a celebration and an important benchmark for me,” said Dr. Trejo. “It was a pretty happy day. Like the punctuation at the end of your sentence: this sentence is done; this journey is done. You can start the next sentence.”
If you want to learn more about dissertations in your own discipline, don’t hesitate to reach out to graduates from your program and ask them about their experiences. If you’d like to avail yourself of some of the resources that helped students in this article while they wrote and defended their dissertations, check out these links:
The Graduate Writing Lab
https://thinktank.arizona.edu/writing-center/graduate-writing-lab
The Writing Skills Improvement Program
https://wsip.arizona.edu
Campus Health Counseling and Psych Services
https://caps.arizona.edu
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When writing a dissertation or thesis, the results and discussion sections can be both the most interesting as well as the most challenging sections to write.
You may choose to write these sections separately, or combine them into a single chapter, depending on your university’s guidelines and your own preferences.
There are advantages to both approaches.
Writing the results and discussion as separate sections allows you to focus first on what results you obtained and set out clearly what happened in your experiments and/or investigations without worrying about their implications.This can focus your mind on what the results actually show and help you to sort them in your head.
However, many people find it easier to combine the results with their implications as the two are closely connected.
Check your university’s requirements carefully before combining the results and discussions sections as some specify that they must be kept separate.
The Results section should set out your key experimental results, including any statistical analysis and whether or not the results of these are significant.
You should cover any literature supporting your interpretation of significance. It does not have to include everything you did, particularly for a doctorate dissertation. However, for an undergraduate or master's thesis, you will probably find that you need to include most of your work.
You should write your results section in the past tense: you are describing what you have done in the past.
Every result included MUST have a method set out in the methods section. Check back to make sure that you have included all the relevant methods.
Conversely, every method should also have some results given so, if you choose to exclude certain experiments from the results, make sure that you remove mention of the method as well.
If you are unsure whether to include certain results, go back to your research questions and decide whether the results are relevant to them. It doesn’t matter whether they are supportive or not, it’s about relevance. If they are relevant, you should include them.
Having decided what to include, next decide what order to use. You could choose chronological, which should follow the methods, or in order from most to least important in the answering of your research questions, or by research question and/or hypothesis.
You also need to consider how best to present your results: tables, figures, graphs, or text. Try to use a variety of different methods of presentation, and consider your reader: 20 pages of dense tables are hard to understand, as are five pages of graphs, but a single table and well-chosen graph that illustrate your overall findings will make things much clearer.
Make sure that each table and figure has a number and a title. Number tables and figures in separate lists, but consecutively by the order in which you mention them in the text. If you have more than about two or three, it’s often helpful to provide lists of tables and figures alongside the table of contents at the start of your dissertation.
Summarise your results in the text, drawing on the figures and tables to illustrate your points.
The text and figures should be complementary, not repeat the same information. You should refer to every table or figure in the text. Any that you don’t feel the need to refer to can safely be moved to an appendix, or even removed.
Make sure that you including information about the size and direction of any changes, including percentage change if appropriate. Statistical tests should include details of p values or confidence intervals and limits.
While you don’t need to include all your primary evidence in this section, you should as a matter of good practice make it available in an appendix, to which you should refer at the relevant point.
For example:
Details of all the interview participants can be found in Appendix A, with transcripts of each interview in Appendix B.
You will, almost inevitably, find that you need to include some slight discussion of your results during this section. This discussion should evaluate the quality of the results and their reliability, but not stray too far into discussion of how far your results support your hypothesis and/or answer your research questions, as that is for the discussion section.
See our pages: Analysing Qualitative Data and Simple Statistical Analysis for more information on analysing your results.
This section has four purposes, it should:
The discussion section therefore needs to review your findings in the context of the literature and the existing knowledge about the subject.
You also need to demonstrate that you understand the limitations of your research and the implications of your findings for policy and practice. This section should be written in the present tense.
The Discussion section needs to follow from your results and relate back to your literature review . Make sure that everything you discuss is covered in the results section.
Some universities require a separate section on recommendations for policy and practice and/or for future research, while others allow you to include this in your discussion, so check the guidelines carefully.
Most people are likely to write this section best by preparing an outline, setting out the broad thrust of the argument, and how your results support it.
You may find techniques like mind mapping are helpful in making a first outline; check out our page: Creative Thinking for some ideas about how to think through your ideas. You should start by referring back to your research questions, discuss your results, then set them into the context of the literature, and then into broader theory.
This is likely to be one of the longest sections of your dissertation, and it’s a good idea to break it down into chunks with sub-headings to help your reader to navigate through the detail.
Once you have your outline in front of you, you can start to map out how your results fit into the outline.
This will help you to see whether your results are over-focused in one area, which is why writing up your research as you go along can be a helpful process. For each theme or area, you should discuss how the results help to answer your research question, and whether the results are consistent with your expectations and the literature.
If your results are controversial and/or unexpected, you should set them fully in context and explain why you think that you obtained them.
Your explanations may include issues such as a non-representative sample for convenience purposes, a response rate skewed towards those with a particular experience, or your own involvement as a participant for sociological research.
You do not need to be apologetic about these, because you made a choice about them, which you should have justified in the methodology section. However, you do need to evaluate your own results against others’ findings, especially if they are different. A full understanding of the limitations of your research is part of a good discussion section.
At this stage, you may want to revisit your literature review, unless you submitted it as a separate submission earlier, and revise it to draw out those studies which have proven more relevant.
Conclude by summarising the implications of your findings in brief, and explain why they are important for researchers and in practice, and provide some suggestions for further work.
You may also wish to make some recommendations for practice. As before, this may be a separate section, or included in your discussion.
The results and discussion, including conclusion and recommendations, are probably the most substantial sections of your dissertation. Once completed, you can begin to relax slightly: you are on to the last stages of writing!
Continue to: Dissertation: Conclusion and Extras Writing your Methodology
See also: Writing a Literature Review Writing a Research Proposal Academic Referencing What Is the Importance of Using a Plagiarism Checker to Check Your Thesis?
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Find out how to use a dissertation questionnaire for your masters.
Prof Martyn Denscombe, author of " The Good Research Guide, 6th edition ", gives expert advice on using a questionnaire survey for your postgraduate dissertation.
Questionnaire surveys are a well-established way of collecting data. They work with relatively small-scale research projects so design and deliver research questionnaires quickly and cheaply. When it comes to conducting research for a master’s dissertation, questionnaire surveys feature prominently as the method of choice.
Using the post for bulky and lengthy surveys is normal. Sometimes questionnaires go by hand. The popularity of questionnaire surveys is principally due to the benefits of using online web-based questionnaires. There are two main aspects to this.
First, the software for producing and delivering web questionnaires. Simple to use features such as drop-down menus and tick-box answers, is user-friendly and inexpensive.
Second, online surveys make it possible to contact people across the globe without travelling anywhere. Given the time and resource constraints faced when producing a dissertation, makes online surveys all the more enticing. Social media such as Facebook, Instagram and WhatsApp is great for contacting people to participate in the survey.
In the context of a master’s dissertation, however, the quality of the survey data is a vital issue. The grade for the dissertation will depend on being able to defend the use of the data from the survey. This is the basis for advanced, master’s level academic enquiry.
It is not good enough to simply rely on getting 100 or so people to complete your questionnaire. Be aware of the pros and cons of questionnaire surveys. You need to justify the value of the data you have collected in the face of probing questions, such as:
This is where The Good Research Guide, 6th edition becomes so valuable.
It identifies the key points that need to be addressed in order to conduct a competent questionnaire survey. It gets right to the heart of the matter, with plenty of practical guidance on how to deal with issues.
In a straightforward style, using plain language, this bestselling book covers a range of alternative strategies and methods for conducting small-scale social research projects and outlines some of the main ways in which the data can be analysed.
Read Prof Martyn Denscombe's advice on using a Case Study for your postgraduate dissertation.
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Your professor has told you that you must write a dissertation to complete your degree. At this point, you may begin to panic. What is a dissertation? It sounds difficult, or like a massive project that is going to require considerable organisation. For the typical undergraduate, who may be prone to procrastination, a dissertation requires not only the creation of a large piece of writing, but it also may require research to be conducted, data to be analysed, and an extensive bibliography to be compiled. That's why being thorough with your dissertation plan is essential. Starting with the initial phases of the dissertation and working through to the final stages of proofreading, this post should offer you a few tips and tricks for success along with some common mistakes to avoid.
The whole point of a dissertation is to convince your professor that you are a competent researcher. This can be challenging, because it is likely that this is your first real experience with research and the first time you will have to attempt a piece of research to this scale of magnitude. Becoming a competent researcher means you have to demonstrate proficiency in each of the phases of your dissertation. The following tale represents the typical path of the "Dissertation Life Cycle."
To complete the various stages of the Dissertation Life Cycle you are going to need to demonstrate a certain level of proficiency in all of these skills. You should know that while on paper, this life cycle follows a straightforward path; such is rarely the case in real life. Although you may think your dissertation plan is thorough and comprehensive, you should be prepared to modify and change your plans as challenges arise. There will also be the need to go back and modify previous parts. For example, while you might write the literature review first, this will likely require modification after you complete the data analysis for your study.
An essential component of producing a great dissertation plan is good time management. You must be able to manage your time effectively. This can be done through the adoption of two specific time management strategies: the macro-management of time, and the micro-management of time. Macro-management equates to the bigger picture; you should be able to make well-informed estimates about how long it is going to take you to complete each section. Basically, to do this, you need to work backwards from the final submission date, creating a time framework. No dissertation is the same, so the amount of time that you spend on each section will vary from that of your peers. This is contrasted with micro-management, which examines the finer details of the dissertation, for example through the division of a chapter into subsections. As an example, you might allow yourself four weeks to write the literature review using the macro approach to time management. The micro approach would mean that your literature review might be divided into four subsections, a week devoted to each of those.
Time management goes hand in hand with organisation and you are going to require excellent organisational skills as you work to complete your dissertation. Organisation is not just about the writing. You are initially going to need to organise a number of meetings with your supervisor as you begin the dissertation process. As your dissertation is going to be different than that of your peers, it is your responsibility to come to the meeting with a plan in mind so that you can use the time you have effectively and efficiently.
"You must be able to manage your time effectively. But if you do fall behind schedule, do not despair. At the undergraduate level there are usually ample opportunities for you to make up time."
In addition to meetings with your supervisor, you are also going to have to arrange meetings and/or other activities with your participants. This might include the scheduling of interviews , the arrangement of observations, etc. You may also need to account for time that you will spend attending the library, searching for sources, and reading key materials. All of this requires you to be organised and to act in a methodical way.
If you do fall behind schedule, do not despair. At the undergraduate level there are usually ample opportunities for you to make up time. The project is rarely long enough for you to go completely off the rails. If you know that you are not a particularly organised person or that you struggle with time management skills, you may benefit from the use of a professional project management tool such as Trello or Asana.
To produce the best dissertation plan possible, there are other key skills that you are going to need to employ. Two that are going to be essential at the start are your listening and social skills. Listening skills come into play as you begin to work with your supervisor. At the undergraduate level, they are likely going to be somehow involved in the assessment of your written work, so if you can identify what exactly they are expecting of you, you are going to be in a better position to succeed. This includes making sure that you not only understand the directions, but that you take into consideration any feedback they are providing you as you progress throughout your project.
When your professor makes a suggestion about your work, they are typically expecting you to change it to align with their requests. You should attempt to do this in all possible cases, and if you want to disagree, you must have an appropriate justification as to why you wish to do so. In addition to listening, you need to be able to get on well with others. This means that you will need to employ appropriate strategies during both email and oral communication. This is a skill that is not only necessary when speaking with your professor, but also relates to working with other students, with your participants, and with administrators.
Below is a list of skills and qualities that you might need to adopt in order to complete your dissertation well:
Skills | Qualities |
---|---|
Time-management | Self-motivation |
Organisation | Self-confidence |
Self-discipline | Self-centredness |
Communication | |
Listening | |
Presentational | |
Social | |
Technical | |
Independent learner |
Now that you have a basic understanding of the skills you need, we can consider the finer points of your dissertation. One of these is understanding how to take advantage of the meetings you have with your supervisor.
Meetings that are well crafted generally offer better opportunities for you to advance with your dissertation. It is very common (and something you want to avoid) for students to arrive at the first meeting with the supervisor with no real idea about what they want to study. Instead, they ask the supervisor for ideas or inspiration on what they might do. This generally sets a bad impression; your supervisor can help you shape your initial ideas, but ultimately you want the ideas to be yours. In some instances, your supervisor may provide you with a topic or title, but this approach (which you may like in the beginning) can be difficult at later stages when you realise that your understanding of the topic is limited. Going back to the skills and qualities described above, if you fail to understand the topic, you are less likely to be motivated and confident when completing the work.
"Take advantage of the meetings you have with your supervisor. Meetings that are well crafted generally offer better opportunities for you to advance with your dissertation."
After you have scheduled your first meeting with your supervisor, ensure that you attend the meeting well equipped with both questions and a means to record the responses (e.g. laptop or pen & paper). In this initial meeting, you should be able to clearly state your area of study, overall aim, your objectives (related to the aim), and a rationale for the topic you have selected. You may also wish to call up some preliminary research studies related to your topic in order to demonstrate that you have taken the notion of this research project seriously and truly understand what it is you want to do.
During this first meeting, your supervisor is looking for the intended focus of your research, clarity of your objectives and that the objectives are achievable within the timescale. You should be posing these questions to your supervisor (e.g. are my objectives clear?).
This is also true for future meetings. It is important that you send your supervisor your work in progress prior to the meeting that you have scheduled. You can do this by email. Ensure that your email is properly formatted with detailed information and instructions that you would like your supervisor to consider. Make sure that you identify who you are, what the new work is that you are submitting, and what you would like the supervisor to do with it. Avoid sending the work at the last minute. Your supervisor is likely to have many different things on the go and so sending them work only 24 hours in advance is not appropriate. If you are unsure about how much in advance to send the information, you should clarify this with your supervisor.
A supervisory session should be more than just a question and answer session where your supervisor asks you questions and you answer them. This would constitute two monologues, but does not achieve the dialogue that is needed for effective communication. Your supervisor is looking to determine how your work is moving forward and to address any issues that s/he thinks are arising as a result of your project. It may be helpful for you to begin with a summary of what you have achieved followed by any issues that are currently concerning you. These meetings should be seen as opportunities to gauge how your supervisor is feeling about your work and as a way to seek corrective action when necessary. Any feedback that you get from your supervisor can be turned into additional marks and grades. Building a rapport with your supervisor is essential and is best achieved when you arrive prepared.
There are a few things that you are going to want to avoid during supervisions. The first is missing the meeting entirely. If you cannot make a meeting with your supervisor, make sure that you email them as soon as you can. In that email make sure that you include a reason and request to make another appointment immediately. Your reasoning for cancelling a meeting should not be due to the fact that you are considerably behind. Putting off the inevitable is never a good thing and you are better off facing the music. Obviously all of this is just considered good manners, so keep this in mind.
Finally, you are going to want to avoid walking into a meeting and uttering the phrase “I can’t find anything on this subject!” The first thing that your professor is likely to do is to plug your topic into Google and come back with thousands of hits on what you just said did not exist. Professors hear this phrase every year, and generally they tend to equate it with laziness on the part of the student and a lack of serious commitment.
"You become the content expert, while your supervisor becomes a guide to keep you on the right track. It requires effort on both parties, but it puts you in the driving seat."
Most students, at least upon first encounter with their supervisor, lack the ability to focus and to ‘run’ the meeting. Remember that your supervisor may not be as passionate about the topic as you are and thus, you may have done more reading than they have on your topic. Through this, you become the content expert, while your supervisor becomes a guide to keep you on the right track. It requires effort on both parties, but it puts you in the driving seat. This might be a new feeling for you, as you may have always felt like the supervisor is the one in charge. Making this transition will better prepare you for graduate school or any future research work that you may wish to undertake.
Finding the literature to become that content expert can be a challenge, especially if you don’t know where to look. It is in your best interest to use your school library to its full advantage. This includes not only borrowing books, but also using the ample online resources that are provided to you through your institution. The material you require is not simply going to appear in front of you. You are going to have to look for it . It may be easier for you to begin with a more random or general search. This can be done using sites such as Google Scholar (scholar.google.com). Remember, however that not everything that Google Scholar finds is of the same quality and if you choose to use this site, you must consider what is scholarly and what is not.
Defining scholarly is, perhaps, a somewhat challenging thing to do, as it is a sort of grey area. Generally, in an academic sense, if an article is published in a peer-reviewed journal, it is typically considered to be scholarly. That does not mean that anything else is ‘not scholarly’, but you must use your own judgement to make that determination. In addition, you must be able to differentiate between primary and secondary sources. While both types of sources are likely to be appropriate at the undergraduate level, you are better off to use more primary than secondary sources. Primary sources are classified as original documents with first hand evidence about an event, object, person, or work of art. Things you read in a scholarly book or journal article directly would be primary, as are interviews, fieldwork, communications by email, and empirical studies. Secondary sources describe or discuss the primary sources. Typically, these include things like newspaper articles, popular magazines, book reviews, or articles in journals that discuss someone else’s work. While both are useful, it is up to you to decide which are most appropriate.
Finding sources is sort of like being a detective. In this case, you begin with some questions (in this case research questions or research objectives) that you want answered. You then search for clues as to how to answer these questions within the literature. You then get rid of any information that is irrelevant and use the information that you do find to lead you to other sources. This can be done by using the references of one article to lead you to the next one. Once you have enough ‘clues’ you can then construct a case based on evidence and explain the points as you see them. One way that you can get help with this whole process is by utilising your school librarian. Often there are librarians within the institution that specialise in the subject matter that you are studying. By approaching these librarians, you can often find better ways to search or strategies to locate sources that end up being key components in your research. Check out what your library has to offer and what resources are available.
There is no corresponding number of sources that should appear in your dissertation. Obviously, your list will be extensive, but it also must be balanced. If you use too few sources, your argument may not appear convincing; if you use too many, your argument may be lost because there is no room for you to insert any of your own thoughts or demonstration of criticality. It is up to you to find that balance. In addition, the quality of the sources that you use matters. Using research from decades ago may not be beneficial in the current times, especially if you are focusing on an area that has rapidly changed (e.g. technology, education, etc.).
It’s important to consider your reader as you craft your literature review . It may be beneficial for you to start by reminding the audience of your research objectives. That way, the reader is then better able to understand how it relates to your project. One common mistake that students often make is just jumping from one study they have read to the next - without warning. Providing your reader with an outline at the beginning of the chapter and including your own critical thought shows the reader that you are on the right track and gives them an idea about what to expect.
The common mistake described above often occurs because there has been a lack of planning. Students typically just sit down to write the literature review and find the material as they go. This then offers a very fragmented chapter. While creating a detailed outline is essential, so is the organisation of the literature. As suggested above, perhaps you have a literature review with four sections. You may, in a separate document want to collate and keep track of the useful sources you have found for each section. In these notes, you should maintain the citation of the source, a few notes on the summary, and how it might be useful.
It may also be beneficial to colour code these citations to the section to which they pertain. An example might look like:
How you organise your notes is completely up to you. It really depends on what type of person you are. Some people like to organise their notes in a linear way; others want to organise by colour. Some people write detailed notes, others write very scarce notes and go back to the original article. Regardless of the type of person you are, some sort of organisation is going to be essential. Try a few different strategies to begin and see what works best for you.
Organisation of your sources and good citation is going to be important in the note taking process because you will need to cite these sources within your paper. Learn (if you do not know already) which referencing style is expected within your academic discipline. The above example uses APA, but there are many other referencing styles. You should apply this style throughout your paper. In the actual paper, you are usually going to require page numbers when you employ direct quotes, and sometimes when you paraphrase/summarize. Keep this in mind as you are taking your notes. For example, you could write ‘particularly useful quote on p. 166 about student mistakes in the dissertation.’ Then, you would know where to look in the original article to find the quote. Remember that quotes are only useful in moderation - you don’t want a dissertation filled with them. It is also essential that you provide critical insight into the quote you are using, so quotes should never appear at the end of a paragraph.
At the same time that you are writing about your literature, or possibly just after you have finished, you are going to need to consider planning for your primary research . The dissertation is usually under a fairly tight timeline and so getting these aspects organised early on can save you some struggles as you progress through the dissertation.
You are initially going to need to come up with a research strategy. This strategy is a description of how you are going to implement the research within your own study. It's an essential component of your project, but not something that is going to require a detailed review of general research strategies. This is a common mistake by students who often spend a lot of time discussing all research strategies, rather than focusing on the one that they have chosen and the justification for this choice.
Once you have established a research strategy, you are going to need to consider what types of research instruments you are going to need to use - and how those research instruments are going to come about (i.e. are you going to create one, or are you going to use one that has been used in previous research). If you are creating a questionnaire for example, and you decide to create your own, you are likely going to need to pilot the questionnaire to determine whether or not your questions make sense. This can add additional time to the dissertation process, and so should be factored into your plan. Questionnaires, while a common tool among students, are generally not enough to stand alone as a research instrument. Quite commonly, students will use two or more research instruments.
Another common instrument is the interview. Planning for interviews has several challenges:
First, you must find a time and a location to hold the interview. Generally, this space is a quiet one, like an office or library study room. As an undergraduate student, you may not have access to these spaces at all times and so coordinating your interview participant with time available can be logistically challenging. Once you have secured a location and time for your interview, you must also be aware that other challenges may arise. Interviewees may cancel at the last minute or they may run late. It is your job, as a researcher, to try your best to accommodate their situations, as it is likely they are volunteering to participate in your study. You want to set your interviews up well in advance, but perhaps not too far in advance that people will forget. A reminder email or phone call to your interview subjects can be particularly beneficial in getting them there on time and to the correct location.
The logistics of planning your research can be challenging; from finding the right sources to scheduling interviews, there are many things to consider. One aspect of the writing process that students often fail to consider is the editing and proofreading process. Editing occurs when you need to make considerable changes to parts of your dissertation because they are no longer relevant, or because you need to add/remove words. Sometimes, when students write, the editing process can be a real challenge because it is difficult to cut out words that you have spent considerable time writing. Remember, however, that it is the final mark that counts and having irrelevant information in the dissertation is going to harm you more than it is going to benefit you.
Proofreading is also essential. This is the final stage in your dissertation and considers aspects of grammar, spelling and punctuation. It often takes much longer than you initially anticipate because it is best to do it in short chunks, so you don’t get distracted. There are also additional difficulties with the proofreading process; often because you are so familiar with the work itself, you skip over errors. For example, errors such as using ‘form’ instead of ‘from’ or using the wrong version of ‘there/their/they’re’ can make your work seem unpolished, but it is easy to do.
For some students, it is better to get someone else to proofread your work . Not only can a third party comment on spelling, grammar, and punctuation, but they can also identify areas that come across as unclear. You may need to pay for a proofreading service - that is unless you have a parent or friend who is willing and able to help you out. When selecting a proofreading service, ensure that you pick one that is reputable - this is your final opportunity to make changes and you want the best possible outcome.
Remember that dissertation writing is a challenging part of your undergraduate degree but with the right planning and strategies, you can be very successful. It is essential that you select a topic that is interesting to you from the outset, as long as it is related to your academic discipline. Further, you must ensure that you make a good first impression with your supervisor and that you utilize all the resources that you have available to you.
By reading this post, you are starting out well. Learn to develop the time-management, organisational and confidence-based skills for dissertation writing in your quest for success!
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Writing a winning thesis or dissertation: guidance for an education graduate student.
Posted on July 31, 2024 on Graduate School , Seahawk Nation
Whether you’re thinking about pursuing an advanced degree in education or are already in such a program, one thing you will need to be prepared for is writing a thesis or dissertation. In most graduate-level education programs, a thesis or dissertation is the culmination of years of challenging work, serving as your own independent research that marks the final step before earning your graduate degree.
If writing a dissertation or thesis sounds like a daunting task, it does not have to be. With a little preparation and some best practices in mind, you can approach writing a thesis or dissertation with confidence.
Before writing a thesis or dissertation, it’s important to understand their general scope and purpose, along with some key differences between a thesis and a dissertation. After all, while there are some similarities between the two, a dissertation and a thesis are not the same thing.
The primary purpose of a thesis or dissertation in an education graduate program is for students to demonstrate what they have learned in their respective programs while applying their own research, theory, analysis and synthesis. Ultimately, the author of a thesis or dissertation should successfully contribute something new to the existing topic. In dissertations specifically, students may also be required to articulate, discuss and defend their research orally in front of professors or other faculty members. This oral defense is not required for a master’s thesis.
When it comes to writing a thesis or a dissertation, the terms “dissertation” and “thesis” are sometimes used interchangeably. That said, it is crucial to understand that these are two different things. Generally, a dissertation is primarily focused on filling a gap in existing literature or extending upon current research regarding a specific topic. The goal is to analyze literature to the point of saturation and determine where there is a need for further research. In a dissertation, a doctoral student will then explain where the problem exists given current research and develop a research study to explore or evaluate the problem, thus filling the gap and contributing meaningfully to the field.
On the other hand, a thesis is more of a presentation of information that’s already out there with no obligation to conduct additional research.
One of the most important aspects of drafting a great thesis or dissertation begins with choosing the right topic. Here, it is paramount to select a topic that not only interests you but is relevant to your future professional goals and aspirations. After all, there’s a good chance you may use your thesis or dissertation as a basis for future work or further research.
In selecting a topic, you will also want to consider current research trends in your field. What is trending in the realm of education and what could you contribute to existing research? There are research gaps or questions that remain unanswered about certain educational topics that could be addressed through your research.
In most graduate programs, you will need to write and present a research proposal before you can really get started on your thesis or dissertation. Most research proposals are reviewed and approved by a professor or other faculty.
A literature review is to discover the research available on your research topic. This review should detail each source you plan to use in your own research with plenty of detail. More specifically, a literature review is a comprehensive summary of the current literature on a given topic that demonstrates the need for additional research to be conducted. Literature reviews comprise a major portion of a proposal, including a summary of each source as it relates to the need for additional research.
Quality is vital when it comes to selecting literature for your research or literature review. Ideally, your literature review should include plenty of recent and reputable sources that come from academic journals, books, articles and even other dissertations.
Once you have a better understanding for what is already out there, you can craft a research proposal that discusses your specific research topic, the current problem, the purpose behind your research, the methodology you plan to use and the relevant literature that further defends a need for your topic to be investigated.
An important part of your research proposal will be your methodology selection, which will explain exactly how you plan to go about your research. For example, will your research be qualitative, quantitative or a mix of both and why? How will the methodology you choose answer your research questions?
After your research proposal is approved, you will have the green light to begin working on your thesis or dissertation. You will receive feedback or thesis guidance from the faculty member who reviewed your proposal. It is important to reflect on the feedback and make revisions as needed.
One of the most helpful things you can do as you get started with your dissertation or thesis is to create an outline. This allows you to develop the most critical aspects of your final project that include your thesis, your main points and other key details to ensure that they flow logically.
For reference, an outline for a dissertation will typically include the following:
In creating an outline, include designated sections for each of your main points with specific research, statistics, or other data to support it. This will ensure that your arguments are made clearly and that your thought process is clear.
Even if writing is not necessarily your strong suit, you will need to be able to put together a cohesive document for your thesis or dissertation. There are some basic strategies worth keeping in mind to help you get started.
First, it can be helpful to write your introduction and conclusion paragraphs last once you have completed all your research. While it might seem counterintuitive to do it this way, it can help set the tone for the rest of your writing. Likewise, this strategy ensures that you include your main points while preparing your readers for the information to come.
Additionally, meet with your advisor or faculty sponsor regularly to gain valuable feedback and keep your project on track.
Whether you are writing a thesis or dissertation, you will need to do a fair amount of your own qualitative or quantitative research. It’s important to understand the various data collection methods available to you, plus the best practices for analyzing and interpreting data.
There are two main types of data collection:
Once you have all the data you need to write your thesis or dissertation, the challenging part is often analyzing and interpreting the data to apply to your own research. The most important thing to keep in mind when looking at hard data is how it relates back to your research and specific research questions.
When working with quantitative data, it can also be helpful to look for specific trends and correlations that you can share in your research.
Once you have completed the first draft of your thesis or dissertation, the process of reviewing, revising and editing your work before submission is important to ensure that the document is free of errors and that it effectively communicates your main points to the reader.
One of the best ways to improve upon the first draft of your dissertation or thesis is through peer review and feedback. By having others read your draft and provide feedback, you can gain some valuable insights into how your arguments are being interpreted. Even if the person you ask to read your draft is not familiar with the subject matter, they can still provide useful feedback on the organization of the information, structure and grammar/spelling.
It may take several rounds of revisions before your dissertation or thesis is approved. Even when you feel like the entire thing is ready to submit, it is important to complete another round of proofreading and editing to be sure that the entire document is polished and in the best shape possible. This includes not just running a basic spell check but taking the time to read your paper word for word.
In most education programs, you will be instructed to use the American Psychological Association (APA) style when writing and formatting your thesis or dissertation. It is important to follow all formatting guidelines here, especially as they relate to citations or references.
In many doctorate programs and some graduate programs, students will also be expected to defend their dissertations in front of other scholars, usually professors or other faculty from the department. This process can be daunting, even for those who know their research well and have crafted thoughtful dissertations.
In preparing for a dissertation defense, it is imperative to craft a presentation that covers the basics of your dissertation topic, how you researched it and what your findings were. Following your presentation, you can expect to be asked questions by those in attendance about your topic and other aspects of your research.
The best way to prepare for a dissertation defense is to practice as much as possible. This way, you will be prepared for the kinds of questions that may be asked, and you will feel a little more confident when completing your defense.
Mock defense sessions can be especially helpful for practicing your presentation and answering questions from a real crowd. Do not hesitate to ask your fellow students or even some trusted professors to practice with you to provide feedback or ask questions.
One of the most difficult aspects of defending a dissertation is often answering questions from the audience. One important tip to keep in mind here is to prepare some answers in advance to some of the questions you think might be asked during your dissertation defense. This way, you will be completely prepared to knock these out of the park.
As you can see, there is a lot that goes into writing a dissertation or thesis as part of your graduate education program. With this dissertation guidance in mind, you will be prepared to craft and even defend your thesis or dissertation with success.
Still looking for the right graduate education program to suit your interests and professional goals? Keiser University is proud to offer a number of advanced degrees in education, including our Master of Science in Education, Teaching and Learning program. If you’re interested in earning your doctorate degree, we also offer a Doctor of Education and a Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Leadership .
Learn more about any of the graduate programs offered at Keiser University by contacting a graduate admissions counselor today, or get started with your online application for enrollment.
Graduate students working on dissertation projects are welcome and encouraged to use our individual consultation service to discuss their writing process or get feedback on drafts. You also may want to consider our new Dissertation Buddies program, which allows you to work up to once weekly with the same consultant who can also act as an accountability partner and someone with whom you can discuss the “soft skills” of dissertation writing such as time management, focus, goal setting, overcoming obstacles, working with your advisor, and so on. Your dissertation buddy will be a fellow dissertation writer who has received special training in productivity strategies, but the program is designed to be one of mutual support for forward progress. In addition to your weekly appointment with your dissertation buddy, you are welcome to schedule additional appointments (up to 3 per week) with other consultants to work on drafts.
Sign up here!
It is totally up to you. The program is designed for a weekly appointment, but if you prefer every other week or even monthly, we can set that up. You can withdraw from the appointment at any time by just emailing [email protected]. You can also send us an email if you feel that your buddy is not the best match, and we can facilitate a switch. If you decide to leave the Dissertation Buddies program, you will always have access to the support of consultation services when you need them.
A variety of our PhD consultants are working on their dissertations and have expressed interest in the Dissertation Buddies program. The consultants who are available for this program are indicated on our Consultant’s page . Perhaps you have already formed a good partnership with a particular consultant and would like to choose them to be your buddy. Or you might request a particular consultant based upon their biographical description. You may want to select multiple possible consultants or leave it open because you and the consultant will need to have compatible schedules.
This program is different from our regular consultation service in that it
"Trust your gut. If you see something that makes you uncomfortable, there's a reason — even if you don't know what it is yet."
BuzzFeed Staff
1. "never talk money on public transportation, and never count money in a parking lot.".
— u/Sn0wpooka
— u/The_Patriot
"If you are walking alone and someone says something to you, it's a good idea to respond politely but do not stop walking. Allowing a stranger to control your actions with only a word is as good as painting a 'mark' on your forehead. If you stop, you're vastly increasing the likelihood of getting mugged or worse. If they follow you, start running. Don't worry about your pride — run."
"I was just in NYC where the CD scam is prevalent (a con artist asks you your name, they write your name on their music CD, and when you accept the CD, they intimidate you to pay for it). Just keep walking. Don't even smile at them. "
— u/TMdownton916
"Now take it a step further. As you walk around, pick a landmark in the neighborhood you are moving through. Maybe it's a corner store, a park, a prominent intersection, or a house with a funny roof. It doesn't matter. Between the big city landmark and the smaller neighborhood landmark, you're basically triangulated to a pretty narrowly defined area. You can explore with a lot of confidence just by keeping your bearings on which direction your two landmarks are and if you're moving closer or further away from them."
— u/faceintheblue
— u/Grindler9
— u/Cause_Such
"Keep important stuff in pockets that can be zipped up. Keep all pockets zipped up — almost impossible for a pickpocket. Don't keep keys in the same pocket as your wallet. If a pickpocket gets both, your driving license will direct them where to break into."
— u/tsnotaboutthefiat
"Similarly, don't break your stride. If someone comes up to you, don't be rude or aggressive, but don't stop walking. They will have to walk next to you if they want to talk; it's much harder to casually get in front and in the face of someone who won't stop moving. That said, I give this advice as an over 6-foot man with a naturally quick stride, so your experience may vary."
— u/mad_cheese_hattwe
— u/Evaleenora
— u/darrellbear
— u/FamImWoke
"Always be aware of your surroundings and what's going on, especially in an unfamiliar area. Every so often, do a scan of your environment. A good example is when I was walking in an unfamiliar neighborhood in San Francisco (I'm originally from about 30 minutes south of SF), and I wasn't paying that much attention. I quickly scanned my environment and noticed a guy following me and dipping in and out of the shadows, trying not to be noticed. Once I noticed him, he looked startled and stopped following me. I'm not sure what he was planning on doing, but it could've ended poorly."
— u/swoopydog
— u/Galloping_Scallop
— u/personpickerupper
"Keep an eye on their hands, too. This might sound obvious. But they start telegraphing their intentions way earlier than swinging an arm. Stretching their fingers or balling and un-balling their hands is a not-so-subtle way of telling you they are planning to take a swing and not just talk sh*t."
— u/Forward-Village1528
"Similarly, don't let anyone know where you sleep, and try not to bother anybody. If you bother people, or you consistently sleep in your car somewhere, eventually someone will notice and that's always a recipe for trouble. Keep safe, keep secret, and keep out of sight. "
— u/CedarWolf
"Don't judge and confront; set up boundaries and back away. Loads of people don't want to hurt you if you set up a rapport with them."
— u/PresidentHurg
"No. If someone isn't a POS they will realize that the situation was misinterpreted. If they're actually dangerous, they will most likely make a big deal about how they're not going to hurt you. Don't be afraid to make a scene if you're afraid."
— u/ToastedMaple
"I'm glad I grew up in a big city. Traveling around the world was much easier than for others I've seen."
— u/Malignantrumor99
And finally..., 21. "if you are driving and think a car is following you but aren't sure, make a right turn, then right again, then right again, and get back on your original path, essentially making a loop. if the suspect vehicle is still behind you after you drive a pointless loop, they are indeed following you, and you need to call someone for help.".
— u/Cheese_Gr8tr
Note: Some responses have been edited for length and/or clarity.
Last Updated: September 05, 2023
Medically reviewed by NKF Patient Education Team
About your lab values and other ckd health numbers, measuring your general health, measuring your kidney health, measuring your balance of important minerals and acidity, measuring ckd complications: nutrition & malnourishment, measuring ckd complications: anemia, measuring ckd complications: mineral and bone disorder (ckd-mbd), measuring ckd complications: cardiovascular disease (cvd), measuring ckd risk factors: diabetes, questions for your healthcare team, more resources.
It is normal to feel like living with chronic kidney disease (CKD) sometimes means you need to learn a new language. CKD is a complex condition that worsens over time. Early on, only a small number of tests may be needed. As CKD gets worse, your kidneys have a harder time doing all their jobs like helping make red blood cells, balancing important minerals, and keeping your bones healthy. So, you may notice more tests being checked and/or checked more often as your CKD gets worse. You may also need extra tests to monitor for other health conditions that are related to kidney disease.
Having regular visits with your healthcare professionals and getting your recommended lab work done can help you stay up to date with your health. But you may not be familiar with why some of these measures of your kidney-related health and wellbeing are used. So, the information below serves as a quick guide to the different types of health information that you may see in your medical record that is important for people living with CKD. Some of these tests require a blood or urine sample (also called “lab tests” or “labs”) – these are usually sent to a laboratory for measurement. Other measures, like weight or blood pressure, are usually done in an exam room.
If you have questions about your results, always talk with your healthcare professional first before taking any action.
Everybody's situation is different - some of these tests may not apply to you. Similarly, your situation may need a test that is not included in this list. Also, having test results that are not in the "normal" range (as provided on your lab sheet) doesn't always mean there is a problem or concern.
A healthy blood pressure is very important for your kidneys and overall health.
Your blood pressure is reported as 2 separate numbers – for example “120/80” or “120 over 80”. The first/top number (called “systolic pressure”) is the pressure in your blood vessels during each heartbeat - when blood is actively pumped out of your heart to the rest of your body. The second/bottom number (called “diastolic pressure”) is the pressure in your blood vessels when your heart is resting between each beat.
The recommended blood pressure target may vary depending on factors like your age, other health conditions, risk of falling, and whether you are on dialysis . Ask your healthcare professional what your goal blood pressure should be.
Maintaining a healthy weight is important for your overall health. The definition of healthy weight depends on many other factors like your height, age, and other health conditions. So, ask your healthcare professional what a healthy body weight is for you.
In either of these situations, working with a dietitian can help you find ways to safely add or remove extra calories to your diet and make sure you get the right nutrition.
If you are on dialysis and/or living with heart failure, it is important to ask your healthcare professional what your dry weight is – your “normal” weight without any extra fluid in your body. As part of your treatment plan, your healthcare professional may recommend weighing yourself at a certain time every day. After you check your weight, compare the number to your dry weight number. If your weight has gone up or down by too much (as defined by your healthcare professional’s directions), contact your dialysis center or clinic for further instructions.
Creatinine is a waste product in your blood that comes from the digestion of protein in your food and the normal breakdown of muscle tissue. It is removed from your body through the kidneys. If you have kidney disease, the kidneys can have trouble removing creatinine from your blood. So, the level of creatinine in your blood starts to go up. High creatinine levels can be a sign of acute kidney injury and/or chronic kidney disease . A “normal” creatinine level in the blood is hard to define because it can change depending on your age, sex, body size, and other factors.
Cystatin C is a protein that is produced by the cells in your body. Like creatinine, it is also removed from the body through the kidneys. If you have kidney disease, the kidneys can have trouble removing cystatin C from your blood. So, the level of cystatin C in your blood starts to go up. For some people, this blood test can be helpful to measure instead of (or in addition to) your serum creatinine to check your kidney health. This test is not as common as the creatinine test and can be more expensive.
The estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) is an estimate of how well your kidneys are removing waste products from the blood. It is calculated using your serum (blood) creatinine level, age, and sex. It can also be calculated using your cystatin C level instead of, or in addition to, your serum (blood) creatinine level. A “normal” eGFR varies according to age – it naturally decreases as you get older. For this test, a higher number is better .
If you have chronic kidney disease (CKD) , the eGFR is used to determine your CKD stage . In general, an eGFR value lower than 60 is a sign that the kidneys may not be working properly. An eGFR lower than 15 is a marker of kidney failure .
In less common situations where a more accurate measure of your kidney function is needed, your healthcare provider may order a measured glomerular filtration rate (mGFR) . The mGFR is a direct measure of how well your kidneys are removing waste products from the blood. It can be a complicated and lengthy process. So, it is not used as often as the estimated GFR (eGFR).
Your healthcare professional may recommend this test if a more accurate measure of your kidney function is needed. There are many ways to complete this test – some involve collecting all the urine you make in 24 hours; others involve multiple blood samples taken from your arm over several hours. The mGFR is sometimes called a different name - measured creatinine clearance (mCrCl).
Urea nitrogen is a waste product in your blood that comes from the breakdown of protein in the foods you eat. It is removed from the body through the kidneys. A “normal” BUN level varies, and usually increases as you get older. Checking your BUN level is usually not very helpful by itself. So, your healthcare provider will likely compare your BUN level to your creatinine and eGFR levels when evaluating your kidney health.
The urine albumin-creatinine ratio (uACR) test measures the amount of two different substances in your urine (pee) – albumin (protein) and creatinine. Healthy kidneys keep the albumin in your blood while filtering the creatinine out into the urine. So, this test checks to see how well your kidneys are keeping albumin in your body and sending creatinine out.
The uACR is calculated by comparing the amount of albumin in your urine with the amount of creatinine in your urine to find the ratio. A “normal” uACR level is less than 30 mg/g. For this test, a lower number is better . A uACR level of 30 mg/g or more can be a sign of albuminuria .
When you check the results from this test on your lab report, you may see many different numbers. Focus on the result that has the word ratio in the name. For example, the name on your report may be “alb/creat ratio”, “albumin/creat ratio”, or “albumin/creat ratio, random urine”.
This test is very similar to the uACR test described above. But instead of measuring only the amount of albumin in your urine (pee), it measures all the different proteins that may be present. In some forms of kidney disease (like IgA nephropathy , lupus nephritis , or glomerulonephritis ) or when testing children for protein in their urine , your healthcare professional may choose to measure your uPCR instead of uACR. A “normal” uPCR level is less than 150 mg/g. For this test, a lower number is better . A uPCR level of 150 mg/g or more can be a sign of proteinuria .
Potassium is an important mineral found throughout your body. It is needed for many of your body’s functions – like keeping your heart beating regularly and muscles working properly. Your kidneys help keep the right amount of potassium in the blood.
In more advanced stages of chronic kidney disease , your kidneys may have a hard time removing extra potassium from the blood, especially if you are on dialysis. People living with CKD can also be at risk for low potassium, especially during earlier stages of CKD. The recommended goal potassium level for most people is between 3.5 and 5.
Sodium is an important mineral that helps balance the amount of fluid in your body. It also helps your nerves and muscles to work properly. Your kidneys play an active role in keeping your fluid levels balanced, partly by helping get rid of any extra sodium in your body through your urine.
In more advanced stages of chronic kidney disease , your kidneys may have a hard time balancing your fluid and blood sodium levels. This can increase your risk of high blood pressure, edema (swelling), and/or heart failure.
Having a sodium level higher or lower than the goal range can be a result of many things. So, your healthcare professional will likely compare your results from this test with your other test results (such as serum creatinine, glucose, potassium, carbon dioxide, and/or urine tests). When looked at together, your healthcare professional can provide you with custom guidance for resolving the issue (if applicable).
However, it is also possible to have a normal sodium level while still consuming too much sodium (salt). When your blood sodium level goes up, your body tries to balance it out by holding on to extra water. This is what causes symptoms like thirst, swelling, high blood pressure, and/or shortness of breath. It is important to limit your sodium (salt) intake to less than 2300 mg per day. Your healthcare professional may advise an even lower target depending on your other health conditions.
Bicarbonate is needed in your blood to stop it from getting too acidic. Most of the bicarbonate in your body is in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2), a waste product from when your body turns food into energy. So, another name for this blood test is your “serum carbon dioxide (CO2)” level.
The kidneys work together with the lungs to keep your bicarbonate (carbon dioxide) level in your blood in the goal range. In more advanced stages of chronic kidney disease , your kidneys may have a hard time removing extra acidic waste products from the blood. This is also known as metabolic acidosis . A bicarbonate/CO2 level less than 22 mEq/L can be a sign your blood has too much acid – talk with your healthcare professional about a treatment plan if your labs show a CO2 (bicarbonate) level less than 22.
Serum albumin
Good nutrition is important for providing your body with the resources to fight infections, repair body tissue, and build new muscle. Having a more advanced stage of chronic kidney disease increases your risk of problems with your nutritional health and malnourishment, especially for people who are on dialysis . It is not possible to measure your nutritional health directly, so a variety of tests can be used to check the highest risk areas for health problems.
Albumin is an important protein normally found in the blood that serves many roles in the body. These roles include building muscle, repairing tissue, and fighting infection. A low level of albumin in your blood may be caused by not getting enough protein or calories in your diet, especially if you are on hemodialysis . Since albumin is made in the liver, low albumin levels can also be a sign of liver problems. A low albumin level may lead to health problems such as difficulty fighting off infections. When compared against your other health information and test results, your serum albumin level can help your healthcare professional see if you are getting enough nutrients in your diet.
Normalized protein nitrogen appearance (nPNA)
If you are on dialysis , the nPNA can be a helpful tool that your healthcare professional may use to see if you are eating enough protein. This number is calculated using your blood urea nitrogen (BUN) level just before your dialysis session, your weight, and the amount of protein you ate (including food, drink, and supplements) during a specific period of time. The amount of urea nitrogen in your urine may also be used.
When compared against your other health information and test results, your nPNA results can help your healthcare professional see if you are getting enough protein in your diet.
Another name for this test is the normalized protein catabolic rate (nPCR).
Subjective global assessment (SGA)
If you are on dialysis , your dietitian may use the SGA to help check for signs of nutrition problems. The dietitian will ask you a few questions about your daily diet and any symptoms you may have, measure your weight, and then check your fat and muscle stores in your face, hands, arms, shoulders, and legs. All this information can help your dietitian see if you are getting enough nutrition in your diet. If there are any concerns, your dietitian will work with you to create a plan to help you get the nutrition you need.
Anemia happens when you have low levels of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. The kidneys play a very active role in helping your body make these red blood cells. Also, people living with advanced CKD can have problems absorbing iron from food. They are also at high risk for repeated blood loss from frequent blood tests and during dialysis . This makes the kidneys try to make even more red blood cells when they are having trouble keeping up in the first place. So, having a more advanced stage of chronic kidney disease increases your risk of anemia, especially for people who are on dialysis .
Keep in mind that anemia is not always caused by CKD and the descriptions below are general guides to the most common tests. If you have anemia, talk with your healthcare professional about what the primary cause may be and how you can treat it.
Hemoglobin (Hgb)
Hemoglobin is the protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen. For adults and children over 15 years living with CKD, anemia is suspected when the hemoglobin level is under 13 g/dL (in males) or under 12 g/dL (in females).
Hematocrit (Hct)
Hematocrit is very similar to hemoglobin. It is a measure of how many red blood cells your body is making. The number is the actual percentage of your blood sample that is made up of red blood cells.
Ferritin (pronounced FAIR-ritt-in) is the stored form of iron found in your body. So, your ferritin level is a measure of how much iron your body has available to use at any given moment. Iron is an important ingredient for making hemoglobin. Having enough iron (ferritin) available is important for being able to make more red blood cells. Having a low level of ferritin means you may need an iron supplement to help treat your anemia.
Transferrin saturation (TSAT)
Transferrin (pronounced trans-FAIR-rin) is a protein that helps move iron throughout your body. So, your transferrin saturation (TSAT, pronounced TEE-sat) number helps show what percent of the transferrin in your blood is currently attached to iron. Your healthcare professional will likely look at your TSAT number in combination with your ferritin level to decide the best way to treat your anemia. In general, a TSAT number of 20% or more is considered “normal”.
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV)
The mean corpuscular volume (MCV) is a blood test that measures the average size of your blood cells. When combined with your other test results and medical history, it can help your healthcare professionals identify the best treatment for your anemia.
For example, an MCV below the reference range suggests the anemia may be caused by low iron. Similarly, an MCV above the reference range suggests the anemia may be caused by low vitamin B12 and/or folic acid.
Your kidneys play a very active role in balancing the ingredients needed for healthy bones – calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D. In more advanced stages of chronic kidney disease , your kidneys may have a hard time activating vitamin D (which is needed to absorb calcium from your food) and removing extra phosphorus from the blood. This increases your risk of having calcium and phosphorus levels that are out of balance (also known as secondary hyperparathyroidism ). Without close monitoring and treatment, this can cause CKD-related bone disease (also known as CKD-mineral and bone disorder or CKD-MBD).
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Parathyroid hormone (PTH), also known as intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH), helps balance the levels of calcium and phosphorus in your blood. When your blood level of calcium goes down, your body makes more PTH to raise it, usually by releasing calcium (and phosphorus) from your bones. PTH also helps remove extra phosphorus from your blood through the kidneys. So, the kidneys play a very active role in this complex process.
Even though this test has the word “thyroid” in the name, it is entirely separate from anything related to your thyroid function. The name “parathyroid” comes from the place where the hormone comes from - very small glands in your neck that sit very close to your thyroid.
A “normal” PTH level in the blood is hard to define because it depends on many other factors (including your stage of CKD, phosphorus level, and calcium level). Ask your healthcare professional what your custom target PTH level should be.
Serum calcium
Calcium is an important mineral your body needs for strong bones, and for your nerves, muscles, and heart to work properly. Your kidneys play a very active role in balancing your calcium levels to make sure the level is just right. If your body needs more calcium, your kidneys activate vitamin D to help absorb more calcium from your food and drink. Your body is not able to absorb the calcium without it. In more advanced stages of chronic kidney disease , your kidneys may have a hard time activating vitamin D. This makes it very hard for your body to absorb enough calcium from your food. So, your body starts breaking down bones to supply the calcium. This increases your risk of CKD-related bone disease .
For people living with advanced CKD, your healthcare professional will likely compare your results from this test with your phosphorus and PTH levels. Looking at these three tests together will help them provide you with custom guidance about your target for each item.
Serum Phosphorus
Phosphorus (sometimes called phosphate) is an important mineral that your body needs to make strong bones, store energy, and maintain your tissues and cells. Your kidneys play a very active role in keeping your phosphorus levels in the goal range. In more advanced stages of chronic kidney disease , your kidneys may have a hard time removing extra phosphorus from the blood, especially if you are on dialysis. This increases your risk of having phosphorus levels that are too high, and can also lead to CKD-related bone disease .
For people living with advanced CKD, your healthcare professional will likely compare your results from this test with your calcium and PTH levels. Looking at these three tests together will help them provide you with custom guidance about your target for each item.
Vitamin D (25-hydroxyvitamin D; 25(OH)D; calcidiol)
Vitamin D is something your body needs to absorb calcium from your food. Vitamin D is needed for strong teeth and bones. It also helps keep your muscles, nerves, and immune system working well. Your body gets vitamin D from sun exposure and the food that you eat. Once absorbed, your liver converts the vitamin D into its storage form to save for later, also known as 25-hydroxyvitamin D or calcidiol. Your kidneys are responsible for activating the stored vitamin D when your body needs it.
In more advanced stages of chronic kidney disease , your kidneys may have a hard time activating vitamin D. This increases your risk of not absorbing enough calcium from your food. So, your body can start breaking down bones to get the calcium it needs. This increases your risk of CKD-related bone disease . Having a low 25-hydroxyvitamin D (calcidiol) level suggests you may not have enough stored vitamin D ready to use when your body needs it.
People living with chronic kidney disease are at an increased risk of having cardiovascular disease (heart attack or stroke). This is especially true if you have an advanced stage of CKD and/or if you have albuminuria . Your risk of CVD (heart attack or stroke) is increased even more if you also have high cholesterol.
Cholesterol is a fat-like substance found throughout your body and in your blood. It is important for keeping your cells and organs healthy. Your body gets cholesterol from two places – it is absorbed from food and made in your liver. Too much cholesterol in your blood can lead to it attaching to the walls of your blood vessels, making them narrow or blocking them altogether.
A typical cholesterol test usually checks your blood for four different things:
Total cholesterol (TC)
Total cholesterol is the total level of cholesterol in your blood. This number includes all the major types of cholesterol that exist in your blood (LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides). For most people, a level below 200 mg/dL is considered the goal. However, there may be situations where a higher TC number is okay – for example, people who have very high HDL (“good”) cholesterol levels. So, your healthcare professional may advise you to focus more attention on the numbers for the different types of cholesterol listed below.
HDL cholesterol (HDL-C)
HDL cholesterol is the level of “good cholesterol” in your blood. It has this name because it helps remove extra fats from your blood. This lowers the risk of having blocked arteries and lowers your risk of heart disease. For this test, a higher number is better , especially if it is 40 mg/dL or higher.
LDL cholesterol (LDL-C)
LDL cholesterol is the level of “bad cholesterol” in your blood. It has this name because it increases the amount of fat that attaches to the walls of your blood vessels. This increases the risk of blockages in your arteries and raises your risk of heart disease. For this test, a lower number is better . A number less than 100 mg/dL is generally considered to be at goal. People who already have heart disease or are at very high risk for developing heart disease may have an even lower LDL-C goal.
Triglycerides (TG or “trigs”)
Triglycerides are a mixture of fats and carbohydrates (sugars) that your body uses as an energy source. A high triglyceride level can increase the risk of heart disease and pancreatitis. For this test, a lower number is better , especially if it is less than 150 mg/dL.
High blood glucose (sugar) levels over a long period of time can damage the kidneys. So, diabetes is a very strong risk factor for developing chronic kidney disease. This is especially true if your blood sugar levels are higher than your goal range for long periods of time. Two of the most common tests used to diagnose and monitor diabetes are the hemoglobin A1C and serum (blood) glucose level.
Hemoglobin A1C
Your hemoglobin A1C, often just called “A1C”, is a blood test that describes your average blood sugar over the past 2-3 months.
The A1C test may not be as accurate for people on dialysis or receiving erythropoietin stimulating agents (ESAs, a medication for anemia caused by CKD).
Serum (blood) glucose (sugar)
Glucose (sugar) is an important source of energy for your body, including your brain and red blood cells. This test describes the amount of glucose that is in your blood at the time of testing.
We want to hear about your unique experience with a kidney transplant, living donation, or kidney disease. Your story may be the one that gives someone hope.
Related kidney topics, albuminuria (proteinuria), understanding african american and non-african american egfr laboratory results, kidney biopsy, estimated glomerular filtration rate (egfr), urinalysis (urine test), related news and stories.
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This engaging and interactive quiz is designed to guide you through a series of thought-provoking questions, unlocking a world of exciting research possibilities along the way. From the depths of history to cutting-edge technologies, this quiz will tap into your curiosity and provide tailored suggestions to inspire your academic journey.
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Time to recap…. And there you have it - the traditional dissertation structure and layout, from A-Z. To recap, the core structure for a dissertation or thesis is (typically) as follows: Title page. Acknowledgments page. Abstract (or executive summary) Table of contents, list of figures and tables.
Choosing your college or university dissertation topic is not easy. It's a cause of anxiety for students everywhere! But, a thesis is a big project that will take up a lot of your time. It's important to select something that you're passionate about, interested and invested in.
Craft a convincing dissertation or thesis research proposal. Write a clear, compelling introduction chapter. Undertake a thorough review of the existing research and write up a literature review. Undertake your own research. Present and interpret your findings. Draw a conclusion and discuss the implications.
Select the appropriate statistical tests for data analysis in your dissertation by considering the nature of your research questions, the type of data collected (e.g., categorical or continuous ...
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A dissertation is a lengthy research paper written as a requirement to earn an academic degree. Typically, students must write a dissertation toward the end of their program to both prove their knowledge and contribute new research to their field. The term dissertation is sometimes used interchangeably with thesis paper.
3. Don't be too vague. A dissertation or research project must be a tightly-written, academic piece of work. Each sentence should contribute to the construction of the research or argument and the overall piece must follow a clear structure. Choosing an idea that is too broad may make it impossible to explore the topic fully in the word count ...
Here are the most common questions we hear about writing dissertations and earning your doctorate. 1. What is a dissertation? A dissertation is a published piece of academic research. Through your dissertation research, you become an expert in a specific academic niche.
A good research question is essential to guide your research paper, dissertation, or thesis. All research questions should be: Focused on a single problem or issue. Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources. Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints. Specific enough to answer thoroughly.
15 Essential Dissertation Questions Answered. This National Dissertation Day, we asked our dissertation advisers to answer some of the most common questions they get asked by students. These range from what you need to know before you start, tips for when you're writing, and things to check when you've finished. 1. Before you start writing.
Get support at planning, completing and writing of your research based thesis. By using examples and check lists, this book leads you through the entire process encompassing each chapter of the dissertation. Let the question and answer writing style encourage you and boost your confidence when embarking on what is probably your largest piece of ...
gle honours students and an option for all joint degree students. The dissertation is weighted at 30 CATS and must be based on a final year History or CAS module that the student is enro. ed on, a Special Subject, an Advanced Option, or Historiography. It is expected that most student will attach their dissertation to their Special Subject, as.
Revised on 5 May 2022. A dissertation is a large research project undertaken at the end of a degree. It involves in-depth consideration of a problem or question chosen by the student. It is usually the largest (and final) piece of written work produced during a degree. The length and structure of a dissertation vary widely depending on the ...
That way, you can manage your time to chip away at the task throughout the length of the program. 5. Topic Flexibility: It's okay to change subject matters and rethink the point of your dissertation. Just try as much as possible to do this early in the process so you don't waste too much time and energy.
Here are a few tips to help you. 1. Write sooner. The dissertation writing process can quickly become paralyzing because of its size and importance. It is a project that will be reviewed rigorously by your advisor and your committee, and your graduation depends on your successful completion and defense.
The first thing you should know is that your defense has already begun. It started the minute you began working on your dissertation— maybe even in some of the classes you took beforehand that helped you formulate your ideas. This, according to Dr. Celeste Atkins, is why it's so important to identify a good mentor early in graduate school.
Summarise your results in the text, drawing on the figures and tables to illustrate your points. The text and figures should be complementary, not repeat the same information. You should refer to every table or figure in the text. Any that you don't feel the need to refer to can safely be moved to an appendix, or even removed.
What Should I Research? Quiz. Are you stuck wondering what to research for your next project or even your dissertation? Look no further! Welcome to the "What Should I Research? Qu
When it comes to conducting research for a master's dissertation, questionnaire surveys feature prominently as the method of choice. Using the post for bulky and lengthy surveys is normal. Sometimes questionnaires go by hand. The popularity of questionnaire surveys is principally due to the benefits of using online web-based questionnaires.
Dissertation Structure & Layout 101: How to structure your dissertation, thesis or research project. By: Derek Jansen (MBA) Reviewed By: David Phair (PhD) | July 2019. So, you'v
Managing your time and staying organised. An essential component of producing a great dissertation plan is good time management. You must be able to manage your time effectively. This can be done through the adoption of two specific time management strategies: the macro-management of time, and the micro-management of time.
Ultimately, the author of a thesis or dissertation should successfully contribute something new to the existing topic. In dissertations specifically, students may also be required to articulate, discuss and defend their research orally in front of professors or other faculty members. This oral defense is not required for a master's thesis.
Graduate students working on dissertation projects are welcome and encouraged to use our individual consultation service to discuss their writing process or get feedback on drafts. You also may want to consider our new Dissertation Buddies program, which allows you to work up to once weekly with the same consultant who can also act as an accountability partner and ...
5. "When visiting a new city, pick a landmark you can see from anywhere. Maybe it's a big tower in the downtown core. Maybe it's a mountain in the distance — or the city is on the shore of a ...
Ask your healthcare professional what your goal blood pressure should be. Weight. Maintaining a healthy weight is important for your overall health. The definition of healthy weight depends on many other factors like your height, age, and other health conditions. So, ask your healthcare professional what a healthy body weight is for you.