creative writing major northwestern

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English Major in Creative Writing

Download the worksheets below to track your progress in your major and college requirements.

Worksheets for multiple years are listed, and you are free to use any from your years as an undergraduate.

• Worksheet from 2024-25 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2023-24 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2022-23 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2021-22 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2020-21 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2019-20 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2018-19 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2017-18 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2016-17 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2015-16 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2014-15 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2013-14 Undergraduate Catalog
• Worksheet from 2012-13 Undergraduate Catalog  

Why are multiple years listed?

A major may have somewhat different requirements when you first consider it than when you graduate. Weinberg College students can follow the requirements in any version of the undergraduate catalog that was in effect while they were undergraduates at Northwestern. (There can be limits to this if you take a long break from your studies.)

For example, students who graduated in 2013 could choose to follow the requirements in the 2012-2013 catalog, which was published during their senior year, or the requirements in the 2009-2010 catalog, which was the newest one when most of them were freshmen.

Creative Writing at Northwestern University

Creative writing degrees available at northwestern, northwestern creative writing rankings.

Popularity of Creative Writing at Northwestern

Creative writing student diversity at northwestern, northwestern creative writing bachelor’s program.

The creative writing program at Northwestern awarded 3 bachelor's degrees in 2020-2021. About 33% of these degrees went to men with the other 67% going to women.

The following table and chart show the ethnic background for students who recently graduated from Northwestern University with a bachelor's in creative writing.

Northwestern Creative Writing Master’s Program

Of the 14 creative writing students who graduated with a master's degree in 2020-2021 from Northwestern, about 21% were men and 79% were women.

The following table and chart show the ethnic background for students who recently graduated from Northwestern University with a master's in creative writing.

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Academic Catalog

2023-2024 Edition

english.northwestern.edu

The Department of English values various kinds of critical inquiry and creativity. While some courses emphasize the formal qualities of literary works, others address such questions as what counts as “literary,” or how to characterize the relationships among literature, culture, and politics. Classes might discuss psychoanalysis, race and gender, or the history of the book. While courses have different approaches, methods, and emphases and the texts examined vary, all courses stress close reading and careful analysis of texts, whether written or visual. Reflecting both range and specificity, the curriculum enables students to pursue their areas of interest within a broader understanding of literary history and the range of literary study. In its creative writing courses the department offers training in verse, fiction, and creative nonfiction. Virtually all courses also include practice in writing clear, concise, and persuasive expository prose.

Rigorous training in thinking and writing is valuable for any career, including law, IT, communications, marketing, consulting, finance, and business as well as writing, publishing, and the teaching of English at all levels. Courses in English and American literature also help students to hone their skills as critical citizens of global communities.

The department takes pride in its diversity of perspectives. In addition to teaching classes in the department, English faculty contribute substantially to the course offerings in theater, drama, and comparative literature, as well as American, African American, Asian American, Latina and Latino, and gender and sexuality studies. Professors have taught courses in conjunction with the Newberry Library and other Chicago institutions.

Majors in English

A complete description of undergraduate English major programs may be obtained from the department office and website. Detailed descriptions of courses to be offered for the year are posted the preceding spring in English Course Listings  on the department website.

English majors may ask any member of the department to serve as an academic adviser. A quarterly meeting with the adviser to discuss course selection and progress is strongly recommended.

Minors in English

The department offers a minor in literature and two minor tracks in creative writing; all offer experience in reading literary texts and writing critical analysis.

The Teaching of English

Weinberg College students pursuing a major in English who also wish to be certified for secondary teaching must be admitted to the Secondary Teaching Program in the School of Education and Social Policy and complete all requirements as outlined in the SESP chapter of this catalog. Students are urged to contact the Office of Student Affairs in SESP as early as possible in their academic careers.

Related Programs

Literature courses appear in the curricula of other Weinberg College departments, including African American studies, American studies, Asian American studies, comparative literary studies, drama, and gender and sexuality studies. See also the Writing Program for a list of composition (expository writing) courses.

Programs of Study

• English Major
• Creative Writing Major
• English Minor
• Creative Writing Sequence-Based Minor
• Creative Writing Cross-Genre Minor

ENGLISH 100-SW Summer Academic Workshop in Writing (1 Unit)   An introduction to college writing. Students learn how to use a process of planning, drafting, revising, and editing to write papers that are clear, concise, interesting, and persuasive.

ENGLISH 101-7 College Seminar (1 Unit)   Small, writing and discussion-oriented course exploring a specific topic or theme, and introducing skills necessary to thriving at Northwestern. Not eligible to be applied towards a WCAS major or minor except where specifically indicated.

ENGLISH 101-8 First-Year Writing Seminar (1 Unit)   Small, writing and discussion-oriented course exploring a specific topic or theme, and focused on the fundamentals of effective, college-level written communication. Not eligible to be applied towards a WCAS major or minor except where specifically indicated.

ENGLISH 105-0 Expository Writing (1 Unit)   Emphasizes all phases of the composition process, research methods, and critical thinking. Careful review of student papers and reports. May be repeated for credit with different topic.

ENGLISH 105-7 College Seminar (1 Unit)   Small, writing and discussion-oriented course exploring a specific topic or theme, and introducing skills necessary to thriving at Northwestern. Not eligible to be applied towards a WCAS major or minor except where specifically indicated.

ENGLISH 105-8 First-Year Writing Seminar (1 Unit)   Small, writing and discussion-oriented course exploring a specific topic or theme, and focused on the fundamentals of effective, college-level written communication. Not eligible to be applied towards a WCAS major or minor except where specifically indicated.

ENGLISH 106-1 Writing in Special Contexts (0.5 Unit)   Introduction to expository writing similar to ENGLISH 105-0 but paired with a course in another discipline.

ENGLISH 106-2 Writing in Special Contexts (0.5 Unit)   Introduction to expository writing similar to ENGLISH 105-0 but paired with a course in another discipline.

ENGLISH 200-0 Literary Histories (1 Unit)   Content varies, but all versions of this course engage with at least 200 years of literature from a particular tradition, genre, or theme, with an emphasis on literary history and narratives of continuity and change over time. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 202-0 Introduction to Creative Writing (1 Unit)   Forms and techniques of poetry, fiction, and creative nonfiction.

ENGLISH 205-0 Intermediate Composition (1 Unit)   Expository writing at an intermediate level. Emphasis on techniques for writing clearly, precisely, and persuasively. May be repeated for credit with different topic.

ENGLISH 206-0 Reading & Writing Poetry (1 Unit)   Forms and techniques of verse. May not be taken earlier than winter quarter of the first year. Seniors may enroll only with department consent.

ENGLISH 207-0 Reading and Writing Fiction (1 Unit)   Forms and techniques of fiction.

ENGLISH 208-0 Reading & Writing Creative Non-Fiction (1 Unit)   Forms and techniques of creative nonfiction.

ENGLISH 209-0 Topics in Genre Writing (1 Unit)   Forms and techniques of genre writing (e.g., screenwriting, young adult fiction, adaptation, memoir). May be repeated for credit with different topic.

ENGLISH 210-1 British Literary Traditions (1 Unit)   Chronological survey of British literature in its cultural contexts from Beowulf to the 18th century. Suitable for majors and nonmajors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 210-2 British Literary Traditions (1 Unit)   Chronological survey of British literature in its cultural contexts from the late 18th century to the present day. Suitable for majors and nonmajors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 211-0 Introduction to Poetry (1 Unit)   Introduction to poetic analysis across a wide range of authors and periods, with emphasis on poetry’s formal elements, genre conventions, and the historical, material, and cultural conditions that shape them. Suitable for majors and nonmajors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 212-0 Introduction to Drama (1 Unit)   Introduction to the fundamental elements of drama as perceived in performance, exploring how dramatic works communicate from text to stage to audience. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 213-0 Introduction to Fiction (1 Unit)   Introduction to the analysis of prose fiction from the 18th century to the present day, with special attention to narrative strategies and their historical and cultural contexts. Suitable for majors and nonmajors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 214-0 Introduction to Film and Its Literatures (1 Unit)   Introduction to the theory and practice of formal film analysis. Students will gain a critical overview of multiple forms of film-related writing, including historical scholarship, film theory, popular reviews, legal documents, manifestos, and movie-inspired fiction. Suitable for majors and nonmajors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 215-0 Topics in Literature, Film, and Media (1 Unit)   In contrast to ENGLISH 214-0 , which introduces students to a wider mix of literary, cinematic, and media traditions, this course explores specific topics, forms, periods, or genres in greater depth. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 220-0 The Bible as Literature (1 Unit)   Selected books of the Hebrew bible and New Testament studied from a literary perspective. Students will consider issues of plot, character, genre, narrative strategy, and theories of interpretation. Suitable for majors and nonmajors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Students may not receive credit if they took the same class as the former COMP_LIT 210-0. Ethical and Evaluative Thinking Foundational Disci Ethics Values Distro Area Interdisciplinary Distro - See Rules Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 234-0 Introduction to Shakespeare (1 Unit)   Introduction to representative Shakespearean plays, including comedies, tragedies, and romances. Suitable for majors and nonmajors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 266-0 Introduction to African American Literature (1 Unit)   Literature of Black people in the United States from slavery to freedom. Works of major writers and significant but unsung bards of the past. Taught with AF_AM_ST 210-0; may receive credit for only 1 of these courses. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline U.S. Perspectives on Power, Justice, and Equity

ENGLISH 267-0 Topics in African American Literature (1 Unit)   Content varies. In contrast to ENGLISH 266-0 , which offers a broad survey of the field, this course explores particular topics in African American literature in greater depth. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline U.S. Perspectives on Power, Justice, and Equity

ENGLISH 270-1 American Literary Traditions (1 Unit)   Representative writers and works of American literature in cultural context. Works discussed range from culture contact to the Civil War. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 270-2 American Literary Traditions (1 Unit)   Representative 19th- and 20th-century works of American literature in cultural context. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 273-0 Introduction to 20th-Century American Literature (1 Unit)   Representative works of American literature since World War I. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 274-0 Introduction to Native American and Indigenous Literatures (1 Unit)   Survey of Native American and Indigenous literatures from pre-contact periods to the present. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline U.S. Perspectives on Power, Justice, and Equity

ENGLISH 275-0 Introduction to Asian American Literature (1 Unit)   Survey of Asian American literature from the early 20th century to the present, covering a range of genres and ethnicities. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Taught with ASIAN_AM 275-0 ; may receive credit for only 1 of these courses. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline U.S. Perspectives on Power, Justice, and Equity

ENGLISH 276-0 Topics in Asian American Literature (1 Unit)   Content varies. In contrast to ENGLISH 275-0 , which offers a broad survey of the field, this course explores particular topics in Asian American literature in greater depth. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Taught with ASIAN_AM 276-0 . Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline U.S. Perspectives on Power, Justice, and Equity

ENGLISH 277-0 Introduction to Latinx Literature (1 Unit)   Surveys major writers and movements from the Spanish colonial era to the present, covering a range of genres and ethnicities. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Taught with LATINO 277-0 and SPANISH 277-0 ; may receive credit for only 1 of these courses. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline U.S. Perspectives on Power, Justice, and Equity

ENGLISH 280-0 Introduction to Postcolonial Literature (1 Unit)   Introduction to the field of postcolonial literary studies, including a critical overview of key terms and major debates. Students will read selected postcolonial literary works, paying particular attention to their formal properties, alongside theoretical and historical texts on colonialism and its aftermath. Suitable for majors and nonmajors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Global Perspectives on Power, Justice, and Equity Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 281-0 Topics in Postcolonial & Comparative Literatures (1 Unit)   Content varies. In contrast to ENGLISH 280-0 , which offers a broad survey of the field, this course explores particular topics in postcolonial and comparative literatures in greater depth. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Global Perspectives on Power, Justice, and Equity Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 282-0 Writing and Speaking in Business (1 Unit)   Emphasizes writing and speaking to inform and persuade audiences in business contexts to achieve business goals. Attention to clear, compelling, and well-organized written and oral communication.

ENGLISH 283-0 Introduction to Literature and the Environment (1 Unit)   Studies in literature and other media oriented by ecological thinking. An introduction to the ways in which language, literature, and aesthetic production shape ideas about nature, varying widely across historical and cultural contexts. Suitable for majors and nonmajors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 284-0 Topics in Literature and the Environment (1 Unit)   Content varies. In contrast to ENGLISH 283-0 , which offers a broad survey of the field, this course explores particular topics in greater depth. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 285-0 Topics in Literature and Culture (1 Unit)   Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore literary texts in their cultural contexts. Suitable for majors and non-majors. No prior knowledge of the field is expected. Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 300-0 Seminar in Reading and Interpretation (1 Unit)   Close reading of literary works in the light of various critical methodologies in literary study, with an emphasis on developing skills in qualitative analysis and oral and written expression. Required for English literature majors and minors; recommended for Creative Writing majors and minors. Offers good preparation for higher-level literary study. May be taken only once. Advanced Expression Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 302-0 History of the English Language (1 Unit)  

Examines the history of English from its origins to the present day, with particular attention to the relationship between language and social power, including efforts to elevate the status of certain forms of English and the dynamics of self-consciously “low” registers of language such as slang and obscenity. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, History, or Linguistics.

ENGLISH 304-0 Practical Rhetoric (1 Unit)   The theory of writing and skills that underlie good writing; primarily for teachers in secondary schools and universities.

ENGLISH 305-0 Advanced Composition (1 Unit)   This course is for undergraduate students in their second year or above who want to develop their abilities to write in different styles and for different audiences. Advanced Expression

ENGLISH 306-0 Advanced Poetry Writing (1 Unit)   Content varies. May be repeated for credit with different topic. Prerequisite: ENGLISH 206-0 , ENGLISH 207-0 , ENGLISH 208-0 , or Department consent.

ENGLISH 307-0 Advanced Creative Writing (1 Unit)   Content varies. May be repeated for credit with different topic. Prerequisite: ENGLISH 206-0 , ENGLISH 207-0 , ENGLISH 208-0 , or Department consent.

ENGLISH 308-0 Advanced Creative Nonfiction Writing (1 Unit)   Content varies. May be repeated for credit with different topic. Prerequisite: ENGLISH 206-0 , ENGLISH 207-0 , ENGLISH 208-0 , or department consent.

ENGLISH 309-0 Advanced Creative Cross-Genre Writing (1 Unit)   Content varies. May be repeated twice for credit with a different topic. Prerequisite: ENGLISH 206-0 , ENGLISH 207-0 , ENGLISH 208-0 , or department consent.

ENGLISH 310-0 Studies in Literary Genres (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine the history, deployment, and function of literary genres in a range of texts and periods. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 311-0 Studies in Poetry (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore a wide range of authors and periods, with emphasis on poetry’s formal elements, genre conventions, and the historical, material, and cultural conditions that shape them. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 312-0 Studies in Drama (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore elements of drama as perceived in performance, examining how dramatic works communicate from text to stage to audience. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, Theatre, Performance Studies, or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 313-0 Studies in Fiction (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine how authors have developed and contested fictional forms across a range of texts and periods, with special attention to narrative strategies and their historical and cultural contexts. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 322-0 Medieval Drama (1 Unit)  

Examines the 15th-century English mystery cycles, miracle plays, and morality plays in their cultural contexts. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, Theater, Performance Studies, or a related discipline.

ENGLISH 323-1 Medieval Poetry (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine medieval narrative and lyric poetry in their cultural contexts. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 324-0 Studies in Medieval Literature (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine literature composed during the Middle Ages (c. 500 – c. 1500) across a range of potential themes, forms, and genres. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 331-0 Renaissance Poetry (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine narrative and/or lyric poetry from the early modern period (c. 1500 – 1660) in its cultural context. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 332-0 Renaissance Drama (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine dramatic works from the early modern period (c. 1500 – 1660) in their cultural contexts. Authors studied may include Shakespeare, Marlowe, Jonson, Webster. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, Theater, Performance Studies, or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 334-2 Shakespeare (1 Unit)  

Principal plays after 1600.

ENGLISH 338-0 Studies in Renaissance Literature (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine works from the early modern period (c. 1500 – 1660), exploring both literary forms and cultural contexts. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 339-0 Studies in Shakespeare (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine the works of Shakespeare in their cultural contexts. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, Theater, Performance Studies, or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 340-0 Studies in 18th-Century Literature (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore works composed in the 18th century in their intellectual and cultural contexts. Potential genres include poetry, fiction, and nonfiction. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 344-0 18th-Century Fiction (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine 18th century prose fiction, with attention to the development of the novel as literary form. Authors may include Austen, Burney, Defoe, Equiano, Fielding, Radcliffe, Richardson, Sterne. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 351-0 Romantic Poetry (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine poetry composed during the Romantic era (c. 1790-1850) in its cultural context. Authors may include Blake, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, Keats. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 353-0 Studies in Romantic Literature (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine literature composed during the Romantic period (c. 1790-1850) in its cultural context. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 357-0 19th-Century British Fiction (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine 19th century prose fiction in its cultural context, with attention to the development of the novel as a literary form. Authors may include Shelley, the Brontë sisters, Collins, Dickens, Eliot, Gaskell, Hardy, James, Thackeray, Trollope, Wilde. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 359-0 Studies in 19th-Century Literature (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine literature written in English between 1800 and 1900. Students will consider how genre, narrative form, style, and cultural context shaped this era of literature. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 365-0 Studies in Postcolonial Literature (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine postcolonial literary works produced outside of Britain and the United States. Students will read selected works, examine their formal properties, and consider theoretical and historical texts on colonialism and its aftermath. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 366-0 Studies in African American Literature (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine African American literature in its cultural contexts. Students will read selected primary texts alongside theoretical works. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, Black Studies, or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 368-0 Studies in 20th- and 21st-Century Literature (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine literature of the 20th and 21st centuries in its cultural contexts. Students will consider how writers use genre, form, and style to explore identity and grapple with aspects of modernity and postmodernity. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 369-0 Studies in African Literature (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore literature written by African authors, with an emphasis on 20th and 21st century Anglophone texts. Students will read selected primary texts alongside essential theoretical works. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, African Studies, or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 371-0 American Novel (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course situate American novels within their cultural contexts. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 372-0 American Poetry (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine American poetry in its cultural contexts. Students will consider poetry’s formal elements, genre conventions, and the historical, material, and cultural conditions that shape them. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 374-0 Studies in Native American and Indigenous Literatures (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore Native American and Indigenous literatures in their cultural contexts. Texts may be drawn from any era from the pre-contact period to the present. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, Native American and Indigenous Studies, or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 375-0 Studies in Asian American Literature (1 Unit)   Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore Asian American literature in its cultural contexts. Selected texts range from the early 20th century to the present and engage with a range of genres and ethnicities. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, Asian American Studies, or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic. Advanced Expression Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline U.S. Perspectives on Power, Justice, and Equity

ENGLISH 377-0 Topics in Latinx Literature (1 Unit)   Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine Latinx literature in its cultural contexts. Selected texts range from the Spanish colonial era to the present and engage with a range of genres and ethnicities. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, Latinx Studies, or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic. Advanced Expression Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline U.S. Perspectives on Power, Justice, and Equity

ENGLISH 378-0 Studies in American Literature (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore American literature from the contact period to the present day. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 381-0 Literature & Medicine (1 Unit)   Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore medicine through a variety of literary media. Potential subjects of study include illness, ageing, medical treatment, wellness culture, and doctor-patient relationships. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, pre-health fields, or related disciplines. May be repeated for credit with a different topic. Advanced Expression Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 383-0 Special Topics in Theory (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course examine literature and culture through the lens of key topics and debates in literary theory. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 385-0 Studies in Literature and Culture (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore the intersection between literature and culture. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English or a related discipline. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 386-0 Studies in Literature and Film (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore literature and film as complementary modes of narrative communication. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, Radio/Television/Film, or related disciplines. May be repeated for credit with a different topic.

ENGLISH 388-0 Studies in Literature and Ethics (1 Unit)   Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course explore literary texts that emerge from, and speak back to, ethical and/or religious traditions. Recommended for students with prior coursework in English, Religious Studies, Philosophy, or related disciplines. May be repeated for credit with a different topic. Advanced Expression Ethical and Evaluative Thinking Foundational Disci Ethics Values Distro Area Interdisciplinary Distro - See Rules Literature Fine Arts Distro Area Literature and Arts Foundational Discipline

ENGLISH 392-0 The Situation of Writing (1 Unit)   The sociology of writers, writing, publication, dissemination of literature, and reading. Prerequisite: admission to writing major.

ENGLISH 393-1 Theory and Practice of Poetry (1 Unit)   Tenets of poetry in English, including prosody, form, metaphor, voice, experimentation; involves intensive writing practice and culminates in the production of a long poem. Prerequisite: admission to creative writing sequence.

ENGLISH 393-2 Theory and Practice of Poetry (1 Unit)   Tenets of poetry in English, including prosody, form, metaphor, voice, experimentation; involves intensive writing practice and culminates in the production of a long poem. Prerequisite: admission to creative writing sequence.

ENGLISH 393-3 Theory and Practice of Poetry (1 Unit)   Tenets of poetry in English, including prosody, form, metaphor, voice, experimentation; involves intensive writing practice and culminates in the production of a long poem. Prerequisite: admission to creative writing sequence.

ENGLISH 394-1 Theory & Practice of Fiction (1 Unit)   Tenets of fictional realism and its substitutes; practice in different applications of plot, narrative technique, point of view; culminates in the writing of a novella. Prerequisite: admission to creative writing sequence.

ENGLISH 394-2 Theory & Practice of Fiction (1 Unit)   Tenets of fictional realism and its substitutes; practice in different applications of plot, narrative technique, point of view; culminates in the writing of a novella. Prerequisite: admission to creative writing sequence.

ENGLISH 394-3 Theory & Practice of Fiction (1 Unit)   Tenets of fictional realism and its substitutes; practice in different applications of plot, narrative technique, point of view; culminates in the writing of a novella. Prerequisite: admission to creative writing sequence.

ENGLISH 395-1 Theory and Practice of Creative Nonfiction (1 Unit)   Tenets of creative nonfiction; practice in different styles, form, and modes; culminates in the writing of a long creative nonfiction project. Prerequisite: admission to creative writing sequence.

ENGLISH 395-2 Theory and Practice of Creative Nonfiction (1 Unit)   Tenets of creative nonfiction; practice in different styles, form, and modes; culminates in the writing of a long creative nonfiction project. Prerequisite: admission to creative writing sequence.

ENGLISH 395-3 Theory and Practice of Creative Nonfiction (1 Unit)   Tenets of creative nonfiction; practice in different styles, form, and modes; culminates in the writing of a long creative nonfiction project. Prerequisite: admission to creative writing sequence.

ENGLISH 397-0 Research Seminar for Literature Majors (1 Unit)  

Although content varies depending on the course topic, all versions of this course teach the advanced research skills needed to write an extended essay on a literary topic. Students will learn how to develop an original argument and situate it within appropriate theoretical and literary critical frameworks. Recommended for junior and senior English literature majors and senior English literature minors. Students intending to pursue honors in English literature must take this course no later than spring quarter of the junior year.

ENGLISH 398-1 Honors Sequence (1 Unit)   The first course in a two-course sequence for seniors preparing an honors essay in the literature major. Students pursue individual research topics under the direction of the departmental honors coordinator and a faculty advisor. Admission by application only. Students will receive a K grade pending completion of the honors thesis.

ENGLISH 398-2 Honors Sequence (1 Unit)   The second course in a two-course sequence for seniors preparing an honors essay in the literature major. Students pursue individual research topics under the direction of the departmental honors coordinator and a faculty advisor. Admission by application only. Students will receive a K grade pending completion of the honors thesis.

ENGLISH 399-0 Independent Study (1 Unit)   Individual projects with faculty guidance. Open to majors with junior or senior standing and to senior minors. May be elected two times, but only 1 unit at a time. Prerequisite: consent of department.

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DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

• Undergraduate
• Creative Writing

Creative Writing Minors

The application for the sequence-based creative writing minor is currently closed. the application will reopen in spring of 2025 and will be available here..

The department offers two minors in Creative Writing: the Cross-genre Minor in Creative Writing and the Sequence-based Minor in Creative Writing. Both offer experience in reading literary texts and writing critical analysis. Students pursuing either minor will be permitted to pre-register for English department courses.

The cross-genre minor  is open to all and can be declared as soon as a single introductory course has been taken. Admission to the creative writing sequence-based minor  can be competitive .

If you want to pursue the cross-genre minor :

• 1. You can declare  the minor after you have one of our introductory courses (English 206, English 207, or English 208).
• Fill out the form available here to declare the cross-genre minor.
• Once you have completed this form, you should e-mail it to the current Director of Undergraduate Studies: Creative Writing. The DUS will then sign the form and submit it to the WCAS Office of Undergraduate Studies on your behalf.

Students must fulfill the following prerequisites before applying to the sequence-based minor :

• Be a sophomore, junior, or senior . Freshmen are not eligible to apply. Seniors may apply, provided they plan to continue taking classes the following academic year. 
• Take at least two 200-level genre-based creative writing courses. You must complete the 200-level course in your chosen genre (poetry, fiction, or creative non-fiction) before applying to the minor. You must also have either completed or be enrolled in another 200-level genre-based course (ENG 206, 207, or 208) by the time you apply. For example, a poetry student must have taken ENG 206 and have taken or be enrolled in either ENG 207 or ENG 208 at the time of application.
• Prepare and submit a writing sample. You will need to submit a sample of your writing in your chosen genre with your creative writing application. Students often submit work from their 200-level creative writing classes, and are in fact encouraged to do so. This sample should be 7-15 pages for fiction or creative nonfiction, 4-5 poems for poetry.
• Fill out and submit your application HERE. Applications close on April 29th, 2024 at 11:59pm. See application site for specific instructions. Students applying in multiple genres must submit an application in each genre in which they're applying.

What is the difference between the two Creative Writing Minors?

The Sequence-based Minor provides an apprenticeship in one genre of writing, and admission is through the same application process as that for the Creative Writing Major. 

The Cross-genre Minor offers students the opportunity to explore all genres of creative writing (poetry, fiction, and creative nonfiction) in advanced workshops. It is open to all interested students.

The Weinberg Dean's Office has created electronic major and minor declaration forms, available  here . Use this form to declare a Cross-genre Minor.

Requirements for the Sequence-based Minor in Creative Writing

7 courses, as follows.   No writing course may be audited or taken pass/fail.

Two Introductory Courses   [1]

• ENG 206 - Reading & Writing Poetry
• ENG 207 - Reading & Writing Fiction
• ENG 208 - Reading & Writing Creative Nonfiction

Year-long Writing Sequence [2] One of the following three credit courses:

• ENG 393 - Theory & Practice of Poetry 
• ENG 394 - Theory & Practice of Fiction 
• ENG 395 - Theory & Practice of Creative Nonfiction

Two 300-level literature classes   [3] These courses must be “pure literature”; that is, courses in which the bulk of the reading is literature and not criticism or theory. They must be selected from English Department offerings ONLY:  

• One on material written prior to 1830 
• One on material written after 1830

The application for the creative writing major is open and will close at midnight on April 29th. Click here to apply.

Notes: [1]   The School of Professional Studies   also offers courses under the listings English 206, 207, and 208. These courses do not count toward the Sequence-based Minor.

[2] First year students may not apply to the creative writing sequence, even if they complete both pre-requisite classes in the first year.

[3]   Students who have completed both parts of either British Literary Traditions (210-1   and   210-2) or American Literary Traditions (270-1   and   270-2) can use these two courses to count as ONE of these literature courses.

Requirements for the Cross-genre Minor in Creative Writing

Two Introductory Courses from the following list   [1]

Any Two Core Courses from the following list You may take any two of these courses, in any combination, including two in the same genre (ie, two ENG 306s offered during different quarters).

• Poetry: ENG 306
• Fiction: ENG 307
• Creative Nonfiction: ENG 308
• Mixed-genre: ENG 309

One Course in a different genre, chosen from the following list

• Mixed-Genre: ENG 309

Two 300-level literature classes   [2] These courses must be “pure literature”; that is, courses in which the bulk of the reading is literature and not criticism or theory. They must be selected from English Department offerings ONLY: 

You may declare any time after you have completed the pre-requisites.

[1]   The School of Professional Studies  also offers courses under the listings English 206, 207, and 208. These courses do not count toward the Creative Writing Major.

[2] Students who have completed two parts of either British Literary Traditions (210-1 or 210-2) or American Literary Traditions (270-1 or 270-2) can use these two courses to count as ONE of these literature courses.

Libraries | Research Guides

• Getting Started
• Research & Writing

Introduction

Writing resources, northwestern publications.

• Related Guides

This section of the English guide provides resources for undergraduate and graduate students taking classes or pursuing degrees in Creative Writing. For more about Creative Writing at Northwestern, please visit Department of English's webpages for the Creative Writing Major and the Litowitz Creative Writing Graduate Program .

Below are just a few of the many books in the library collection on Creative Writing. To find more, begin with this keyword search in the library catalog .

• The Writing Place Northwestern’s center for peer writing consultations.
• Writing Resources for Students A guide full of useful writing resources
• BlackBoard Northwestern University’s Black student magazine that serves as an open forum for student expression.
• Helicon Northwestern's premier literary and arts magazine, publishing the best in student art twice a year with submissions from poetry and prose to music and videos to visual art and multimedia works.
• NU Asian Magazine Northwestern’s Asian American-interest publication whose mission is to serve as a voice for all of the members of Northwestern’s Asian and Asian American community.
• TriQuarterly The literary magazine of Northwestern University, edited by students in the Litowitz MFA+MA Graduate Creative Writing Program and the MFA in Prose and Poetry in the School of Professional Studies. Alumni of these programs and other readers also serve as editorial staff.
• << Previous: Research & Writing
• Next: Poetry >>
• Last Updated: Aug 31, 2023 2:02 PM
• URL: https://libguides.northwestern.edu/eng

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Contribution of agroforestry practices to income and poverty status of households in Northwestern Ethiopia

• Open access
• Published: 25 August 2024
• Volume 2 , article number  48 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

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• Mekuanent Tebkew 1 ,
• Zebene Asfaw 2 ,
• Adefires Worku 3 &
• Mikael Jacobson 4  

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Agroforestry practices (AFPs) play a critical role in enhancing income and reducing poverty. This study assessed the effect of AFPs on income and poverty status of farmers in Lay Armachiho (LA), Bahir Dar Zuria (BDR), and Banja districts of Northwestern Ethiopia. 387 households, and 63 key informants were interviewed. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, FGT index, Gini coefficient, and multiple linear regression. About 49.35% of the respondents are categorized poor with a poverty gap of 18.93 and a poverty severity level of 9.7. Banja was the greatest with persons below poverty level (59.2%), followed by BDR (49.72%). Agroforestry practices contribute 28.43% to household income. Income from AFPs lowered the poverty ratio, poverty gap index, and poverty severity level of households by 13%, 9%, and 7%, respectively. Income from AFPs lowered the area between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve, as well as the Gini coefficient, by 7.97%. AFPs also lowered the income disparity of households in all districts. Age, AFPs land size, road accessibility, irrigation, AFPs experience, and AFPs types affect households AFPs income positively. Family size and membership to credit institutions had a negative effect. Thus, in order to lower poverty and raise household income, labor productivity, the credit service system, the road and irrigation infrastructure, and AFPs all need to be improved and scaled up.

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Agroforestry has been a land use system that purposely incorporates trees and shrubs with crops and/or livestock in the same land management system [ 1 ]. Various institutions, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Center for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), and World Bank, acknowledge the significance of trees and agroforestry in sustainable production due to their crucial ecosystem functions [ 1 , 2 ]. Agroforestry is a widely recognized natural resource management approach that tries to conserve soil, water, and climate in many parts of Africa, Latin America, and Asia [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Agroforestry provides farmers with a wide range of ecosystem services, including livelihoods [ 4 ], food security [ 6 ], climate change mitigation [ 7 ], biodiversity conservation [ 8 ], and the preservation of scenic and economically valuable species [ 9 ]. For example, [ 2 ] found that agroforestry could be an effective way to improve farmers’ livelihoods, promote sustainable agricultural development, and prevent risks in China. Despite this, smallholder farmers deal with many challenges, including relying on rain-fed agriculture, low productivity, environmental degradation, and poverty [ 5 ].

According to the [ 10 ], 1.1 billion people (18%) of the world live in multidimensional poverty, and nearly two-thirds of all poor people (730 million people) live in middle- and low-income countries, making action in these countries vital for reducing global poverty. In countries with high populations, climate change, and environmental degradation, like Ethiopia, poverty is one of the most serious problems in communities [ 11 , 12 ]. Poverty predominantly affects rural areas, where 84% of poor people live in rural areas [ 10 ]. Poverty eradication is one of the core goals of sustainable development, and it has gained significant attention from the international community [ 13 ].

Reducing poverty, income inequality, and ensuring food security is a crucial first step in addressing development challenges in Ethiopia [ 14 ]. Declines in national poverty were observed over time, but it is still a distressing concern as a significant proportion of the population have experienced high poverty rates [ 15 ] and income inequality in the last three decades [ 14 , 16 ]. Studies indicate that income poverty and inequality varies among households [ 17 ]. For instance, Debebe and Zekarias, [ 14 ] reported a 34% head count ratio, an 11% poverty gap index, and a 5.6% severity index in southern Ethiopia. Teka et al. [ 17 ] in the Afar Regional State, Ethiopia, found a 47.6% poverty ratio, a 0.178 poverty gap index, and a 0.092 poverty severity index. Similarly, in the Banja district, 44% of households were below the poverty line [ 11 ].

As a result, introducing diversified income sources, improving livelihoods, and eradicating poverty and inequality in Ethiopia remains a daunting task. Livelihood improvement and poverty reduction initiatives in rural areas are frequently tied to effective and sustainable land management strategies [ 2 , 18 ]. One such strategy that has been included in the nation's green development plans to enhance the standard of living for rural populations is agroforestry [ 19 ]. Araya et al. [ 20 ] highlighted the benefits of promoting agroforestry in Malawi to address social and environmental concerns such as food security, income generation, reducing rural poverty, and building resistance to climate change. Cash trees and agroforestry among small farm households have been found to help farmers enhance and recover the rural farmland management system, as well as to maximize farm households’ production and revenue [ 5 , 21 , 22 ]. Further, agroforestry is expected to narrow down poverty gap among communities [ 23 ].

Agroforestry addresses issues of income inequality through restoring degraded lands [ 23 , 24 ], maintaining healthy environments [ 25 ], controlling soil erosion [ 26 ], and improving landscape productivity and resilience [ 27 ]. Agroforestry is a more suitable and sustainable strategy under rain-fed conditions than monocropping systems [ 28 ]. Agroforestry allows farmers to gain a thorough understanding of ecological concepts and adaptive management solutions for climate change, such as soil management, food production, and tree and tree product management [ 29 ].

Agroforestry is an essential component of the farming system in Ethiopia, despite its prevalence in the south [ 25 ]. Some of the most widely employed practices in Ethiopia and northwestern Ethiopia include home gardens, coffee shade, woodlots, and Gesho-based practices [ 9 , 25 , 30 , 31 , 32 ]. Smallholder farmers in the country integrate fruit trees with crops, livestock, or pastures for economic, food production, material, environmental, and cultural reasons [ 5 , 33 , 34 ]. Evidence indicates that agroforestry practices provide a higher estimated gross mixed revenue than arable systems [ 22 ].

Several studies have examined the impact of AF on socioeconomic security [ 18 , 22 , 35 ] and rural households incomes [ 5 , 33 ], as well as agricultural productivity and ecosystem services [ 5 , 36 ]. However, empirical evidence indicating the impact of agroforestry on household income, poverty status, and economic inequality remains inadequate in Sub-Saharan Africa, including Ethiopia. Miller et al. [ 38 ] reported that AF represents a 6% share to the total annual gross household income in sub-Sharan countries (i.e., taking farmers with and without trees on their farms together). Hirons et al. [ 17 ] reported that agroforestry cash crops contribute 45% and 54% of total income in Ghana and Ethiopia, respectively. On the contrary, the income shares of AF reported by Miller et al. [ 38 ] was 7% in Nigeria, 9% in Tanzania, 6% in Ethiopia and Uganda, and 4% in Malawi. These evidences indicate the contribution of AF practices to household income vary across sites. Income of farmers from agroforestry are influenced by various factors such as lack of skills, technical experience, and capital endowment [ 5 ]. Nevertheless, studies on factors determining the income contribution of agroforestry are inadequate.

This study aimed to evaluate the significance of agroforestry practices for enhancing household income and minimizing poverty status in three districts of Northwestern Ethiopia. The study employed mixed approach to collect data. Such an approach provides the opportunity to come up with policy and development measures taking into account eliminating poverty and reducing income disparities in rural areas [ 14 ].

2 Materials and methods

2.1 site description, 2.1.1 location.

This study was conducted in three districts of Amhara regional state, Northwestern Ethiopia. Three districts namely: Lay Armachiho, Bahir Dar Zuria, and Banja were used as case study sites (Fig.  1 ). The districts are located 12°35ʹ-12°58ʹ N, 37°10ʹ-37°34ʹ E for Lay Armachiho; 11°16ʹ-11°56ʹ N, 37°6ʹ-37°39ʹ E for Bahir Dar Zuria; and 10°50ʹ-11°05ʹ N, 37°28ʹ-37°46ʹ E for Banja [ 8 ].

Map of the study area showing study districts (source: [ 8 ])

2.1.2 Biophysical set up

The Lay Armachiho district has an area of 1059.33 km 2 . The Bahir Dar Zuria district covered an area of 2062.62 km 2 , whereas the Banja district covered 473.08 km 2 . The elevation of Lay Armachiho, Bahir Dar Zuria, and Banja is 1019–2974, 1786–1886, and 1800–2966 m above sea level (m.a.s.l), respectively. According to FAO soil classification, vertisols, leptosols, cambisols, luvisols, and alilosols are the dominant soil types at the study districts. Lay Armachiho had a humid and subhumid climate, while Bahir Dar Zuria and Banja districts had a humid climate [ 39 ]. The average total annual rainfall (in millimeters) in the districts ranged from 995 to 1175 for Lay Armachiho, from 895 to 2037 for Bahir Dar Zuria and 912.1 to 3741 for Bahir Dar Zuria. The average monthly temperature ranges from 11 to 32 ºC in Lay Armachiho, 13–32 ºC in Bahir Dar Zuria, and 9.24–29.36 ºC in Banja.

2.1.3 Demography and socioeconomic conditions

The districts’ total population was 194,919 for Lay Armachiho, 211,051 for Bahir Dar Zuria, and 100,836 for Baja [ 40 ]. The communities living at the study districts include Amhara, Qimant, and Agew communities. Crop production, livestock husbandry, and agroforestry production are the main sources of income at the study districts. Wheat, barley, teff ( Eragrostis tef Zucc.), maize ( Zea Mays L.), millet ( Eleusine coracana L.), potato, garlic, onion, pepper, and niger seed ( Guizotia abyssinica ) are the most grown crops in the districts [ 41 ]. Dominant agroforestry practices in the districts include homegardens, coffee-based agro-forestry practices, eucalyptus woodlot; Gesho based agro-forestry , and A. decurrens woodlot.

The most common woody species grown in AFPs are Rhamnus prinoides L'Herit (Gesho), Coffea arabica (coffee), Acacia decurrens (decurrens), Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh . Eucalyptus globulus Labill., eucalyptus citriodora Hook , Yushania alpina (bamboo), Mangifera indica , and other indigenous species. Cordia africana , Albizia gummifera , and Melitia ferruginia are examples of multipurpose tree species. According to Miller et al. [ 37 ], coffee accounts for 65% of total cash income from trees in Ethiopia. Organic coffee grown in the HGs of the Banja area is known as “Awi coffee”. It is one of the region’s high quality coffee sources. ‘Awi coffee’ is a well-known exported coffee bean in the region. Gesho has been widely planted in homegardens and farms, particularly in the Lay Armachiho district, for economic and cultural reasons. Agroforestry practices products such as dogwood leaves, coffee, fruits, poles, charcoal, and spices are sold in the market to supplement household income. Livestock resources in study areas include cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, and horses.

Poverty is one of the greatest challenges of communities in northwestern Ethiopia [ 11 , 42 ]. Most rural households in the sites are dependent on rain-fed agriculture who are widely exposed to poverty and its risk factors [ 42 ]. For instance, 44% of rural households were poor in 2020 in Banja district [ 11 ]. In Bahir Dar Zuria district, consumption-based measure of poverty in rural areas was 19.43 percent in 2020 [ 42 ].

2.2 Model specification, variables used, and hypothesized effects

We developed a multiple linear regression model to determine if the dependent and independent variables were substantially correlated and to gauge the degree of that association [ 43 ]. In order to find the multiple correlation (R), multiple coefficient of determination (R 2 ), beta weight (ß) of each independent variable, and standard regression coefficient, the dependent variable—the net income of a household from agroforestry—was regressed against the independent variables. The independent variables that were believed to account for a greater proportion of the variation in the dependent variable include age, education, wealth status, family size, farm size, tropical livestock unit (TLU), AF land size, credit access, road access, extension contact, engagement in irrigation, AF experience, and types of AF practices. The model for linear regression was as follows:

where Yi = ith observed value of income from household farm production (dependent variable). A = Intercept, b1 = to be independent variable coefficients. X1 = age, X2 = education, X3 = family size, X45 = farm size, X5 = tropical livestock unit (TLU), X6 = AF land size, X7 = credit access, X8 = road access, X9 = extension contact, X10 = engagement in irrigation, X11 = AF experience, and X12 = types of AF practices, and ei = random error.

2.2.1 Dependent variable

The dependent variable is household income from agroforestry in the study area, which is a continuous variable. Angelsen et al. [ 44 ] defined income as the value added during a specific time period from assets that a household owns or has access to, such as labor, land, and cattle. These assets can be used in their production and income-generating activities (for example, wage labor). Net transfers of cash or in-kind products are also included in income. Thus, rural household income includes three broad components: value added from self-employment, for example, agriculture, agroforestry, forestry, or other business; wage earnings and rents from renting out land or other forms of capital; and transfers, for example, remittances and pensions. The basic income equation for income from self-employment (in agriculture or business) is:

where I, income; p, price; q, quantities of products; n, number of products; j, costs; m, purchased inputs, such as fertilizers, seeds, tools, and hired labor.

2.2.2 Independent variables

It is theorized that the factor influencing farmer’s income from AFPs or any farm is related to the farmer’s socioeconomic, demographic, and institutional characteristics [ 5 , 17 , 34 ] (Table  1 ).

2.3 Sampling procedures

2.3.1 selection of study area.

Objective and stratified random sampling procedures were employed to choose zones, districts, Kebeles, and then household respondents. First, discussions were made with the departments of Agriculture in Central Gondar, West Gojam, and Awi Zones about the availability of agroforestry practices, research priorities, and data accessibility. Those administrative zones were selected considering the different socioeconomic, climatic, and landscape contexts, and the availability of diverse agroforestry practices. In Ethiopia, a zone is an administrative entity comparable to a province. Based on the results of the interview supplemented by literature review, three districts were chosen (one district from each zone) as case study sites, namely: Lay Armachiho, Bahir Dar Zuria, and Banja district. Despite the widespread agro-forestry practices, these districts were explored least [ 39 ]. Target Kebeles (the lowest administrative units) were chosen in consultation with agroforestry experts. In the Lay Armachiho area, seven Kebeles have found substantially implemented agroforestry practices. In Bahir Dar Zuria, eight Kebeles embraced various AF techniques, whereas in Banja, all Kebeles used AFs. Finally, three KAs were picked at random from the AF practitioner KAs. In addition, annual reports from the districts’ agriculture offices were reviewed to learn more about agroforestry practices, livelihood activities, and vulnerability situations. As a result, Shumara Lomiye, Adisgie, and Aynet Wuha of Lay Armachiho, Robit, Wogelisa, and Wonjeta of Bahir Dar Zuria, and Kesa Chewusa, Mesela Chaiti, and Askuna Abo of Banja were chosen to collect data.

2.3.2 Selection of agroforestry practices and respondents

Based on key informant interviews and field observations, homegarden, coffee-shade, eucalyptus woodlot, Gesho , and A. decurrens are the most economically desired and commonly practiced types of agroforestry in the study area. Hence, to understand the impact of agroforestry management on the poverty status and income inequality of farmers, these AF practices were considered for this study.

Sixty-three Key informants (46 male, 17 female), or seven Key informant (KIs) in each KA, who are aware of their community’s status, climate conditions, culture, and overall development, were selected and interviewed. A stratified random sample procedure was utilized to conduct a household interview. First, the simplified [ 48 ] was used to compute sample size ( 3 ):

where n is the sample size and N is the total household.

According to the Kebles Agricultural Office (2019), the chosen KAs have 9575 households (N). Using 5% precision, the sample size for this study was computed. Ten households were additionally taken to replace households who missed/were not volunteered during data collection. Second, lists of target households were received from the KAs' agriculture office. Third, sample households determined using the Yamane formula were proportionally allocated to each selected KA. With KIs and development agents (DAs), households in each KA were grouped as AF practitioners and non-practitioners. Based on local wealth classification, each stratum was further classified into low, medium, and better off. Key informants verified that wealth is a cause of diversity in livelihood strategies at our study sites. Major factors include cattle, land, and woodlot size. Finally, using the proportionate allocation technique, sample households were chosen at randomly from each wealth level.

2.4 Data collection

Both primary and secondary data were collected. Primary data were collected using key informant interview, household interview, and focus group discussions, field observations. Checklists and structured and semi-structured questionnaires were prepared to collect data the primary data. All KIs, in-depth study participants, and household interviewees were met on a one-to-one basis using Amharic language (local and state language) with their oral consent. Secondary data were collected from journal articles, international and national websites such as the as the World Agroforestry Center, the Central Statistical Agency, and the study district’s annual reports of the offices of agriculture, livestock management, rural land protection and administration, and agricultural departments at the study zones.

Data collected using KI comprises income sources such as crops, agroforestry products, trees, livestock, off-farm and non-farm activities, amount of income generated from different sources. The data collected through household interviews includes household demographics and socioeconomic features such as family size, age, sex of household head, farm experience, educational status, total land size, AFPs size, and farm tools. In addition, income from various livelihood activities such as agriculture, agroforestry, livestock, off-farm work, and non-farm income, were collected. For this study, following [ 44 ], we have defined income as both subsistence and cash. To estimate households’ total income from each source, all production costs other than land and family labor were collected and converted into monetary value. Three enumerators or field assistants were hired for household data collection. This data collection process took about 30–50 min to obtain individual household data.

Nine FGDs (one from each KA) were performed to gather additional data on community views toward agroforestry revenue contribution and to ensure the veracity of household data. The FGD participants included 8–15 persons from various social groups (sex, age, and wealth). The focus group discussions lasted 40–50 min.

2.5 Data analysis

All the collected data were entered and processed with Microsoft Excel (version 10) and STATA (version 17) software. Data were analyzed using descriptive and econometric techniques. Descriptive statistics such as mean, percentage, standard deviation, and frequency are used to describe the demographic, socioeconomic, and institutional characteristics of the sampled households.

Chi-square test and the t-test were used to compare households and income status of agroforestry practitioner and non-practitioner households, respectively. This study uses a quantitative household survey to analyze poverty and income inequality, including its distribution and severity.

The Forster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) index was used to examine the status of poverty among households [ 49 ]. The Forster-Greer-Thorbecke index is a new poverty measure that is additively decomposable with population-share weights and is acceptable under the relative deprivation concept of poverty [ 49 ]. It is a popular, flexible, and straightforward family of poverty metrics. The FGT poverty index takes into account not only the proportion of the population below a certain income threshold but also the depth and severity of poverty. Poverty is a relative concept that depends on social norms and cultural context. Poverty is characterized by both depth (distance from the median income) and severity (magnitude of income below the median). Since the effects of poverty vary among people and groups, population weights are needed to account for overrepresentation. Income deviations from the median are important for capturing the depth and severity of poverty. There is no clear-cut definition of poverty, and it may vary across contexts and cultures. Income and well-being have non-linear relationships; hence, small variations in income can have a big influence on wellbeing.

To assess the prevalence of poverty, we used the official level of poverty in Ethiopia. The official line of poverty during the day was ETB 3,781 (37.8058 Ethiopian birr = $1 USD) per year per adult equivalent [ 50 ]. This poverty line considers the amount of money required to fulfill basic needs to maintain average physical life. Using this poverty line, we estimated the three poverty measurement indices of FGT: head count index, poverty gap index, and poverty severity index. The headcount index determines the proportion of households living in poverty. The poverty gap index estimates the percentage of low-income households living below the poverty line. The poverty severity index takes into account both the degree of inequality and the poverty gap [ 49 ]. Mathematically, the FGT index 0, 1 or 2 is given as:

where n is the number of people, q is the number of poor people (usually below the poverty threshold), Z is the poverty line, Yi is the real income (adult equivalent) of those below the poverty line, and α is the poverty aversion parameter (0, 1, or 2). When alpha closes to zero (α = 0), the FGT (Pα) is reduced to the Head Count Index (P0). At α = 1, Pα denotes the Poverty Gap Index (P1). At α = 2, the Pα represents the poverty severity index (P2).

Income equity is a central aspect of interventions targeted at enhancing community wellbeing. We measured income inequality and distribution among households using the Gini coefficient (GC), and the Lorenz curve, respectively. The Gini coefficient is the most widely used measure of income inequality that estimates the proportion of total income earned by various categories of individuals. The Gini- coefficient (GC) is given by the formula:

where Xi is the cumulative percentage of the population, Yi is the value of the cumulative percentage of income, and N is sample size.

The Gini coefficient measures inequality on a scale of 0 to 1, with zero indicating that income is (completely) evenly distributed, whereas as GC approaches 1, the income is skewed toward specific groups, resulting in an unequal distribution. A multiple linear regression model was used to find out how several socioeconomic and institutional factors affect households income from agroforestry practices.

3.1 Household’s income portfolios

The research identified ten sources of income: agricultural crops, livestock, agroforestry, forests, off-farm jobs, paid work/day workers, transfers, local small-scale companies, fishing, and craftwork. The six income portfolios, which included agricultural produce, livestock, agroforestry, off-farm employment, paid work/daily laborers, transfers, and local trade, were the most important sources of income for households. The average household total income (Ethiopian birr) was 68,857.87 in LA, 78,592.13 in BDR, and 47,262.29 in Banja. Agricultural crops provide 35.67% of total income, followed by AF (28.43%) and livestock (22.79%). The remaining sources account for 13.11% of total household income.

The contributions of major income sources to total income vary among districts (Fig.  2 ). In LA, agricultural crops accounted for 37.78% of income, followed by AF (35.2%) and livestock rearing (34%). In the BDR district, crop production contributes 37.5%, AF 30.08%, and livestock 20.08%. However, livestock rearing is the most important income source, contributing 33.4% of the total income in the Banja district. Crop production (29.3%) and agroforestry practices (18.09%) are the second and third important income sources in the Banja district, respectively.

Income contribution of different livelihood activities at the study districts, northwestern Ethiopia

Agroforestry income significantly varied among districts (F = 21.17, P = 0.000) (Table  2 ). The mean AF income (both cash and household consumption) was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in LA and BDR than in Banja.

Cash income makes up 68.96% of AF’s total revenue, 71.98% at LA, 65.75% at BDR, and 69.02% at Banja. The t-test results also revealed that cash income was considerably greater than non-cash income in all study districts (Table  3 ).

3.2 Distribution of agroforestry income across quintile groups and practices

The quartile distribution reveals increasing patterns of relative agroforestry income across the sample families (Fig.  3 ). The relative proportion of income from agroforestry rises with income quantile. The fifth quantile earns the most (43%) from agroforestry, followed by the fourth quintile (26.19%) and the third quintile (17.62%). The first quantile group earns the least, with 3.72%.

Distribution of agroforestry income across quintile groups in northwestern Ethiopia

The percentage of income generated from agroforestry practices differs in study districts (Table  4 ). Of the average annual income (ETB 7,309,893.08) acquired from agroforestry products at LA, 39% was obtained from homegarden activities, and 34% from Gesho management. Coffee and eucalyptus management account for 22% and 6% of AF income at LA, respectively. In BDR, homegarden techniques produce 60% of revenue, whereas Eucalyptus provides 40% of AF household income. In the Banja district, the income contribution of eucalyptus woodlots (38%) was greater than that of HG (31%), and A. decurrens (32%).

3.3 Poverty reduction and income inequality

The findings show that 49.35% of respondents in the study districts live below the national poverty line (Fig.  4 ). Poor households were 18.93% (ETB 715.75) below the poverty line, with a poverty severity level of 9.7. The head count ratio of households was highest in Banja district (59.2%), followed by BDR district (49.72%). The Banja district also had the greatest poverty gap index (0.28) and poverty severity index (0.16). The LA and BDR districts had a 0.145, 0.157 poverty gap, 0.069, and 0.071 poverty severity, respectively.

Poverty headcount ratio (P0), poverty gap (p1), and poverty severity (P2) of households across the study districts

More poor households were encountered by non-agroforestry practitioners compared to those that engage in AF practices (Fig.  5 ). The Pearson X 2 -test shows that AF practices considerably reduced household poverty in LA (X 2  = 2.8322; P = 0.092) and BDR districts (X 2  = 2.7483; P = 0.097). The proportion of practitioners who lifted themselves out of poverty was 18.88% in LA and 13.33% in BDR. Although there was no significant difference (X 2  = 0.271; P = 0.603), there were 4.67% more poor non-agroforestry practitioners than practitioner households in the Banja district.

Poverty headcount ratio (P0), poverty gap (p1), and poverty severity (P2) of households across household groups in the study districts

Agroforestry not only helped to lower head count ratios, but it also played an important role in reducing poverty gaps and severity (Fig.  5 ). Non-practitioners had a 9.7% higher poverty gap and a 7% higher severity level compared to practitioners in the LA district. Agroforestry non-practitioners require an average of ETB 1738.44 to meet their basic needs at LA district, which is 13.15% more than what AF practitioners require. In Banja, AF practitioners had a poverty gap index of 0.24 and a poverty severity index of 0.12, while non-practitioners had 0.33 and 0.20, respectively. Agroforestry non-practitioners require an average of 2013.277 Ethiopian birr per year to get out of poverty. This adult equivalent income is 11.70% higher than the minimum required for AF practitioners. In the BDR District, the average adult equivalent income required per year to meet the basic needs of AF non-practitioners was ETB 1264.514, while it was 1155.074 ETB for practitioners.

If poverty-reduction strategies can also address economic disparities and achieve a more equitable distribution while preserving society's overall well-being, these efforts will be more valuable. The Gini coefficient (income inequality) in the study area is 0.32. As shown in Fig.  6 , the Gini coefficients of the LA district were higher (0.34) than those of Banja (0.28) and BDR (0.25).

Income inequality Lorenz curve across districts

The importance of AF income in reducing income inequality is high. Agroforestry income reduced the area between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve. It reduced the Gini coefficient by 7.97% in the study area (Fig.  7 ). The income poverty level of agroforestry practitioners was 0.237, whereas that of non-practitioners was 0.316. Agroforestry reduced the Gini coefficient by 5.03%, 1.29%, and 0.9% in the BDR, Banja, and LA districts, respectively.

Lorenz curve of agroforestry practitioner and non-practitioner households in northwestern ( a ), Lay Armachiho ( b ), Bahir Dar Zuria ( c ), and Banja ( d ) districts

3.4 Determinants of agroforestry income

Table 5 displays socioeconomic factors determining agroforestry income in the study area. The model's higher R 2 (0.88) indicates that a greater percentage of the variation in income due to agroforestry practices can be accounted for by the explanatory variables included in the model. The results show age (p = 0.035), land size put under AF practice (p = 0.000), road accessibility (p = 0.009), engagement in irrigation (p = 0.000), experience in engaging in AF practices (p = 0.003), and types of AF practices implemented (p = 0.09) are strongly and positively correlated with AF income. Nonetheless, there is a negative correlation between agroforestry income and family size (p = 0.08) and membership in a credit institution (p = 0.022).

4 Discussion

4.1 income portfolio.

The study identified 10 sources of income: crop production, livestock, agroforestry, forests, off-farm activities, wages, remittances, small-scale businesses, fishing, and crafts. Households often engage in several income-generating activities but mostly rely on crop production, agroforestry management, and livestock production. This finding is consistent with the findings of authors elsewhere [ 28 , 51 , 52 ] that crop production, agroforestry management, and livestock rearing were the three most important income-generating activities of the respondent households. The current finding differs from some other reports. For instance, Adane et al. [ 34 ] reported agriculture contributes most (77.39%) to smallholder farmers income in Dale District, Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia, which is far larger than its contribution in the current study areas. Different studies exist (53, 18] that show the major production objective significantly affects the contribution and diversity of income sources in different areas.

The findings on AF income in our study area are higher than reports from Ethiopia and elsewhere. In southern Ethiopia, [ 54 ] found that agroforestry practices contribute 14.21% (average ETB 24,742.09) of the total household income. In Dera district, farmland agroforestry provides 7% of the total household annual income (ETB 10,300) [ 9 ]. In the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, agroforestry products and services have contributed < 10% of the total households’ income [ 18 ]. The result confirms that agroforestry practices in our study sites play a key role in maintaining household income. The income shares of AF found in our study sites are also higher than national-level reports of several sub-Saharan countries. In Nigeria, it is reported at 7%, in Tanzania at 9%, in Ethiopia and Uganda at 6%, and in Malawi at 4% [ 38 ]. This implies a site-specific study is needed to understand the real contribution of agroforestry practices in Ethiopia. On the contrary [ 17 ], reported a higher level of income contribution from AF compared to our finding that agroforestry cash crops contribute 45% and 54% of total income in selected areas of Ghana and Ethiopia, respectively. Production extent, age of practices, agroclimate condition, and level of operation, marketing, and value addition activity to products are critical for enhancing the income contribution of agroforestry [ 23 , 55 ].

The AF income differed across districts. The LA and BDR districts have a higher income. Gebremedhin et al. [ 55 ] highlighted that adopting multiple agroforestry practices increases the income of farmers by 29%. Charles et al. [ 53 ] stated that the type of tree and crop produced determine the amount of AF income. The extensive presence of high-value cash crops such as coffee, Gesho , and fruit trees in LA and BDR districts may contribute to households fetching higher prices, leading to a higher income in those districts. Consistent with our findings, the participants in agroforestry in Kirya village earned a higher average income than any other village due to the integration of high-market-value crops [ 53 ]. Charles et al. [ 53 ] described that different environmental and socioeconomic challenges affect the income contribution of AF practices, such as land degradation, climate conditions, disease, and soil conditions.

The contribution of agroforestry practices in households’ cash income at the research area is huge, accounting for 69% of the total income. Much evidence exists [ 23 , 35 ] that agroforestry practices play an important role in enhancing the cash income and livelihoods of farmers. Cash income from agroforestry practices is significantly higher than non-cash income in all study districts, enabling people to fulfill basic needs such as food, health, shelter and transport cost. Fruits, coffee beans, Gesho leaves, annual crops, and wood products were the major income sources at the study sites. This is in agreement with a study by [ 34 ] who did a study in the Sidama Zone southern region and reported 24.75% contribution of fruit trees to the total income of the households. Cash income from cocoa and coffee farming enables households to purchase food in Ghana and Ethiopia, respectively [ 17 ]. The study also indicates that income from agro-forestry practices could help farmers accumulate other livelihood assets. Hirons et al. [ 17 ] concluded that cash crops are very important in improving households' welfare.

4.2 Distribution of agroforestry income

The study revealed varying patterns of relative agroforestry income distribution among households. The fifth, fourth, and third quintiles contained the largest portion of income (43%). Similar to the current study, the results of Hirons et al. [ 17 ] in Ghana and Ethiopia show that households in the top quartile earn a high agroforestry income from cocoa and coffee. The result implies that rich households benefit more from agroforestry products than the poor do. This could be due to the variation in AF plot size (ha), management, the types of practices, and the nature of plant species implemented. Households with a large AF plot size, good farm management, and economically high-value species can earn more income from agroforestry practices [ 17 , 34 ]. Rich households have large woodlot and farm tools to manage and grow economically high-value species [ 23 , 34 , 35 ]. This suggests that the government should provide support to the poor farmers to improve their income from agroforestry.

The income contribution of agroforestry practices to households varies among districts. Various factors determine the income contribution of a given agroforestry practice to households, such as the type of agroforestry practices adopted and their productivity [ 28 , 56 ], the market [ 46 ], and the type of tree species established (56]. The relative income contribution of homegarden agroforestry was higher in LA and BDR. This could be due to the intensity of production and management for homegardens. Homegardens have a proven effect on income in several countries in Asia and Africa [ 52 ].

4.3 Poverty status and income inequality of households

The findings showed that there were more poor households at these study sites. On average, every poor household needs ETB 715.75 (0.189*3781) per adult per year to be not poor. This indicates that a portion of low-income households are dispersed below the poverty line, signifying the direst situation for these households. This finding is consistent with those research studies carried out on poverty in Ethiopia [ 14 , 16 ] and the national average [ 57 ]. In southern Ethiopia, [ 14 ] found a 34% headcount, an 11% poverty gap, and a 5.6% severity of poverty. The result suggests that a lack of income triggers the poverty ratio, poverty gap, and poverty severity status of households in study sites.

The result reveals that poverty indices substantially vary among districts and income quantiles. Teka et al. [ 16 ] described that the poverty status of households in different areas depends on the intensity and dependence of farming practices, the nature and diversity of livelihoods, community-level variables, and geographical differences. Thus, the higher poverty status in Banja might be associated with various factors that limit the productivity of farming practices.

The P0, P1, and P2 values showed that agroforestry practices reduce the poverty level of households. Other authors reported similar findings. Mugure and Oino [ 58 ] reported that agroforestry practices have reduced the poverty level of farmers implementing AFs. Dou et al. [ 2 ] also found that agroforestry management had decreased the poverty level of farmers in China. This implies that the implementation of various agroforestry practices is important to lift many communities out of poverty. The P1 value demonstrated that many of the poor agroforestry practitioner farmers were bundled close to the poverty line. This is a wonderful position to lift them out of poverty.

Our study revealed that practicing agroforestry makes a notable contribution to reducing household income inequality, although it varies across study sites. In a similar vein, [ 23 ] in the Uluguru Mountains, Tanzania, and [ 35 ] in the Southern Province of Rwanda found that agroforestry practices lower income inequality among smallholder farmers. The variation in income inequality levels at the study sites could be linked to the implementation of various agroforestry practices and the nature of plant species cultivated. Practicing different agroforestry practices [ 55 ] and cultivating high value cash crops and trees [ 53 ]. Thus, the presence of different agroforestry practices with high-value cash crops such as coffee, Gesho, and fruit trees in LA and BDR districts may contribute to households fetching a higher price.

4.4 Determinants of agroforestry income

The results show that various factors have a significant impact on agroforestry income. The age of households is associated significantly and positively with the agroforestry income of households. This could be attributed to the farming knowledge, experience, and ownership of various production capitals of elder family leaders. These findings are consistent with recent research [ 23 , 46 ], which found that elder families benefited more from agroforestry farming.

Our study shows the income of farmers’ from AFPs drops by 467.2091 Ethiopian Birr for every additional family member. The farm's characteristics and the scarcity of farmland may be the reason for this, as less family labor is required. A large number of families converted to small farms, resulting in reduced diversification and the misuse of agroforestry elements. Tega and Bojago [ 5 ] observed that increasing family work by one unit decreased agroforestry income by − 5079.618 ETB in southern Ethiopia. In contrast, several researchers in Ethiopia [ 59 ] and elsewhere [ 60 ] discovered that having a large family size boosts agroforestry income. The fact that farming activities are labor-intensive and require more family effort may have a positive effect. Households with larger family sizes are more likely to do extra family work.

The result in our study area indicates that households with a large AF land area have more income, which could be due to more tree possessions. Households that grow different tree species in large areas can produce more products and fruits, which can provide more income. This study supports the assertion that farmers with a large land area attain higher incomes farming practices [ 17 , 34 , 46 ]. Other scholars in Ethiopia and elsewhere also reported similar findings. Adane et al. [ 34 ] in southern Ethiopia found a positive relationship between land size and income. Likewise, Dessie et al. [ 46 ] in northwestern Ethiopia reported that household heads with large woodlots produce and sell large amounts of Eucalyptus woodlot products to generate a high level of income. In Tanzania, incomes rose as household land size increased [ 23 ]. Land size also has a beneficial influence on household agroforestry income in hilly areas of Yemen [ 60 ] and Rwanda's southern province [ 35 ]. In contrast, the size of AF land owned by households has a negative influence on household income in Southern Cape Town because of the increasing expense of cultivating a larger area [ 18 ]. This implies that a household’s income increases as the land size of AF increases if there is sufficient labor availability and efficient farm management.

Despite its access, credit results in farmers flashing to harvest agroforestry products at an early stage for loan repayment. It can also be inferred that they did not use the credit for agroforestry production purposes but rather used it for other purposes. Similar to our finding, access to credit services has a negative influence on the commercial value of woodlot products in the highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia [ 46 ]. As the distance to the major road increases, revenue from farming drops. If the farmers were located far from the major road, the transaction costs of agroforestry products, particularly time and transportation, would increase. Furthermore, because farm households are located far from marketplaces and roadways, they will have limited access to market information. Kassie [ 21 ] also reported a similar finding in Mecha district, Northwestern Ethiopia.

Extension services are key to farmers to get information, knowledge and skill that enhance farm income. This was confirmed by the current study that extension services significantly and positively affect agroforestry income. In the same vein [ 34 ], in Southern Ethiopia found a positive relationship between extension service and fruit-tree-based agroforestry system income. Technical advice on different farm management techniques, input type and level, market information, and awareness campaigns significantly improve total yield [ 61 ]. Thus, the government should deliver extension services to improve poor framers’ income.

The results indicate that engaging in irrigation and experience AF practices increase income from agroforestry. Studies indicate irrigation is for improving the productivity of farms and reducing the wilting of young plants. Kiyani et al. [ 35 ] claim that the experience of AFs would increase technical efficiency in adopting innovations and managing farms, and this may affect farmers’ income. Farmers with more experience in farming are better able to understand the benefits of innovations. On the contrary, [ 46 ] found a negative relationship between experience and woodlot income in the highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia. Thus, the effect of experience on income depended on the types of practices and socioeconomic contexts of households.

Adoption of multiple agroforestry practices statistically affects agroforestry income in the study sites. Simultaneous adoption of multiple agroforestry land practices offers an opportunity for farmers to fetch more income. A similar finding was reported by [ 47 ] who concluded that the amount and diversity of farm income for farmers were improved as a result of multiple agroforestry systems.

5 Conclusions

Households in the study area engaged in diverse livelihood activities, which have a key role to the household’s income diversification. The result revealed that farmers who implement agroforestry practices earn a higher mean annual income than non-practitioners do. The study demonstrated that households in the top quintile earn a higher AF income. The result indicated that a lack of income triggered household poverty level in rural areas. Agroforestry practices have played a key role in marinating household income, and reducing poverty and income disparity, although rural poverty continues. Farmers who practice AF have additional income and better well-being than those who depend on conventional agriculture and livestock keeping alone. Agroforestry practitioner farmers obtain extra income from selling and use of AF products and from other livelihood activities. Agroforestry reduced the area between the line of equality, the Lorenz curve, and the Gini coefficient by 7.97%. However, the achievement of wellbeing is also contingent on other dimensions, such as health and education. Therefore, more research should be conducted to examine how agroforestry affects other aspects of poverty. The result confirm that the income from agroforestry is affected by age of household head, size of AF, road access, engagement in irrigation, AF farming experience, type of AF practices, family size, extension service, and credit service. To help the less resource-endowed farmers raise their economic portfolios, social status, and combat income poverty, policies, and programs should place greater emphasis on designing and implementing tailor-made training and farm-financing mechanisms. Besides, key challenges such as responsive extension services and access to markets must be addressed.

Data availability

Data will be made available on a reasonale request.

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Department of Forestry, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Gondar, P. O. Box 196, Gondar, Ethiopia

Mekuanent Tebkew

Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, P. O. Box 128, Shashemene, Ethiopia

Zebene Asfaw

Forest Sector Development, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Adefires Worku

Department of Ecosystem Services, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA

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MT: conception, data collection, analysis, writing the manuscript ZA: supervision and editing. AW: Supervision and editing MJ: Supervision All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Tebkew, M., Asfaw, Z., Worku, A. et al. Contribution of agroforestry practices to income and poverty status of households in Northwestern Ethiopia. Discov Agric 2 , 48 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44279-024-00062-x

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s44279-024-00062-x

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