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Survey Research – Types, Methods, Examples

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Survey Research

Definition:

Survey Research is a quantitative research method that involves collecting standardized data from a sample of individuals or groups through the use of structured questionnaires or interviews. The data collected is then analyzed statistically to identify patterns and relationships between variables, and to draw conclusions about the population being studied.

Survey research can be used to answer a variety of questions, including:

What are people’s opinions about a certain topic?
What are people’s experiences with a certain product or service?
What are people’s beliefs about a certain issue?

Survey Research Methods

Survey Research Methods are as follows:

Telephone surveys: A survey research method where questions are administered to respondents over the phone, often used in market research or political polling.
Face-to-face surveys: A survey research method where questions are administered to respondents in person, often used in social or health research.
Mail surveys: A survey research method where questionnaires are sent to respondents through mail, often used in customer satisfaction or opinion surveys.
Online surveys: A survey research method where questions are administered to respondents through online platforms, often used in market research or customer feedback.
Email surveys: A survey research method where questionnaires are sent to respondents through email, often used in customer satisfaction or opinion surveys.
Mixed-mode surveys: A survey research method that combines two or more survey modes, often used to increase response rates or reach diverse populations.
Computer-assisted surveys: A survey research method that uses computer technology to administer or collect survey data, often used in large-scale surveys or data collection.
Interactive voice response surveys: A survey research method where respondents answer questions through a touch-tone telephone system, often used in automated customer satisfaction or opinion surveys.
Mobile surveys: A survey research method where questions are administered to respondents through mobile devices, often used in market research or customer feedback.
Group-administered surveys: A survey research method where questions are administered to a group of respondents simultaneously, often used in education or training evaluation.
Web-intercept surveys: A survey research method where questions are administered to website visitors, often used in website or user experience research.
In-app surveys: A survey research method where questions are administered to users of a mobile application, often used in mobile app or user experience research.
Social media surveys: A survey research method where questions are administered to respondents through social media platforms, often used in social media or brand awareness research.
SMS surveys: A survey research method where questions are administered to respondents through text messaging, often used in customer feedback or opinion surveys.
IVR surveys: A survey research method where questions are administered to respondents through an interactive voice response system, often used in automated customer feedback or opinion surveys.
Mixed-method surveys: A survey research method that combines both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods, often used in exploratory or mixed-method research.
Drop-off surveys: A survey research method where respondents are provided with a survey questionnaire and asked to return it at a later time or through a designated drop-off location.
Intercept surveys: A survey research method where respondents are approached in public places and asked to participate in a survey, often used in market research or customer feedback.
Hybrid surveys: A survey research method that combines two or more survey modes, data sources, or research methods, often used in complex or multi-dimensional research questions.

Types of Survey Research

There are several types of survey research that can be used to collect data from a sample of individuals or groups. following are Types of Survey Research:

Cross-sectional survey: A type of survey research that gathers data from a sample of individuals at a specific point in time, providing a snapshot of the population being studied.
Longitudinal survey: A type of survey research that gathers data from the same sample of individuals over an extended period of time, allowing researchers to track changes or trends in the population being studied.
Panel survey: A type of longitudinal survey research that tracks the same sample of individuals over time, typically collecting data at multiple points in time.
Epidemiological survey: A type of survey research that studies the distribution and determinants of health and disease in a population, often used to identify risk factors and inform public health interventions.
Observational survey: A type of survey research that collects data through direct observation of individuals or groups, often used in behavioral or social research.
Correlational survey: A type of survey research that measures the degree of association or relationship between two or more variables, often used to identify patterns or trends in data.
Experimental survey: A type of survey research that involves manipulating one or more variables to observe the effect on an outcome, often used to test causal hypotheses.
Descriptive survey: A type of survey research that describes the characteristics or attributes of a population or phenomenon, often used in exploratory research or to summarize existing data.
Diagnostic survey: A type of survey research that assesses the current state or condition of an individual or system, often used in health or organizational research.
Explanatory survey: A type of survey research that seeks to explain or understand the causes or mechanisms behind a phenomenon, often used in social or psychological research.
Process evaluation survey: A type of survey research that measures the implementation and outcomes of a program or intervention, often used in program evaluation or quality improvement.
Impact evaluation survey: A type of survey research that assesses the effectiveness or impact of a program or intervention, often used to inform policy or decision-making.
Customer satisfaction survey: A type of survey research that measures the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of customers with a product, service, or experience, often used in marketing or customer service research.
Market research survey: A type of survey research that collects data on consumer preferences, behaviors, or attitudes, often used in market research or product development.
Public opinion survey: A type of survey research that measures the attitudes, beliefs, or opinions of a population on a specific issue or topic, often used in political or social research.
Behavioral survey: A type of survey research that measures actual behavior or actions of individuals, often used in health or social research.
Attitude survey: A type of survey research that measures the attitudes, beliefs, or opinions of individuals, often used in social or psychological research.
Opinion poll: A type of survey research that measures the opinions or preferences of a population on a specific issue or topic, often used in political or media research.
Ad hoc survey: A type of survey research that is conducted for a specific purpose or research question, often used in exploratory research or to answer a specific research question.

Types Based on Methodology

Based on Methodology Survey are divided into two Types:

Quantitative Survey Research

Qualitative survey research.

Quantitative survey research is a method of collecting numerical data from a sample of participants through the use of standardized surveys or questionnaires. The purpose of quantitative survey research is to gather empirical evidence that can be analyzed statistically to draw conclusions about a particular population or phenomenon.

In quantitative survey research, the questions are structured and pre-determined, often utilizing closed-ended questions, where participants are given a limited set of response options to choose from. This approach allows for efficient data collection and analysis, as well as the ability to generalize the findings to a larger population.

Quantitative survey research is often used in market research, social sciences, public health, and other fields where numerical data is needed to make informed decisions and recommendations.

Qualitative survey research is a method of collecting non-numerical data from a sample of participants through the use of open-ended questions or semi-structured interviews. The purpose of qualitative survey research is to gain a deeper understanding of the experiences, perceptions, and attitudes of participants towards a particular phenomenon or topic.

In qualitative survey research, the questions are open-ended, allowing participants to share their thoughts and experiences in their own words. This approach allows for a rich and nuanced understanding of the topic being studied, and can provide insights that are difficult to capture through quantitative methods alone.

Qualitative survey research is often used in social sciences, education, psychology, and other fields where a deeper understanding of human experiences and perceptions is needed to inform policy, practice, or theory.

Data Analysis Methods

There are several Survey Research Data Analysis Methods that researchers may use, including:

Descriptive statistics: This method is used to summarize and describe the basic features of the survey data, such as the mean, median, mode, and standard deviation. These statistics can help researchers understand the distribution of responses and identify any trends or patterns.
Inferential statistics: This method is used to make inferences about the larger population based on the data collected in the survey. Common inferential statistical methods include hypothesis testing, regression analysis, and correlation analysis.
Factor analysis: This method is used to identify underlying factors or dimensions in the survey data. This can help researchers simplify the data and identify patterns and relationships that may not be immediately apparent.
Cluster analysis: This method is used to group similar respondents together based on their survey responses. This can help researchers identify subgroups within the larger population and understand how different groups may differ in their attitudes, behaviors, or preferences.
Structural equation modeling: This method is used to test complex relationships between variables in the survey data. It can help researchers understand how different variables may be related to one another and how they may influence one another.
Content analysis: This method is used to analyze open-ended responses in the survey data. Researchers may use software to identify themes or categories in the responses, or they may manually review and code the responses.
Text mining: This method is used to analyze text-based survey data, such as responses to open-ended questions. Researchers may use software to identify patterns and themes in the text, or they may manually review and code the text.

Applications of Survey Research

Here are some common applications of survey research:

Market Research: Companies use survey research to gather insights about customer needs, preferences, and behavior. These insights are used to create marketing strategies and develop new products.
Public Opinion Research: Governments and political parties use survey research to understand public opinion on various issues. This information is used to develop policies and make decisions.
Social Research: Survey research is used in social research to study social trends, attitudes, and behavior. Researchers use survey data to explore topics such as education, health, and social inequality.
Academic Research: Survey research is used in academic research to study various phenomena. Researchers use survey data to test theories, explore relationships between variables, and draw conclusions.
Customer Satisfaction Research: Companies use survey research to gather information about customer satisfaction with their products and services. This information is used to improve customer experience and retention.
Employee Surveys: Employers use survey research to gather feedback from employees about their job satisfaction, working conditions, and organizational culture. This information is used to improve employee retention and productivity.
Health Research: Survey research is used in health research to study topics such as disease prevalence, health behaviors, and healthcare access. Researchers use survey data to develop interventions and improve healthcare outcomes.

Examples of Survey Research

Here are some real-time examples of survey research:

COVID-19 Pandemic Surveys: Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, surveys have been conducted to gather information about public attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions related to the pandemic. Governments and healthcare organizations have used this data to develop public health strategies and messaging.
Political Polls During Elections: During election seasons, surveys are used to measure public opinion on political candidates, policies, and issues in real-time. This information is used by political parties to develop campaign strategies and make decisions.
Customer Feedback Surveys: Companies often use real-time customer feedback surveys to gather insights about customer experience and satisfaction. This information is used to improve products and services quickly.
Event Surveys: Organizers of events such as conferences and trade shows often use surveys to gather feedback from attendees in real-time. This information can be used to improve future events and make adjustments during the current event.
Website and App Surveys: Website and app owners use surveys to gather real-time feedback from users about the functionality, user experience, and overall satisfaction with their platforms. This feedback can be used to improve the user experience and retain customers.
Employee Pulse Surveys: Employers use real-time pulse surveys to gather feedback from employees about their work experience and overall job satisfaction. This feedback is used to make changes in real-time to improve employee retention and productivity.

Survey Sample

Purpose of survey research.

The purpose of survey research is to gather data and insights from a representative sample of individuals. Survey research allows researchers to collect data quickly and efficiently from a large number of people, making it a valuable tool for understanding attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.

Here are some common purposes of survey research:

Descriptive Research: Survey research is often used to describe characteristics of a population or a phenomenon. For example, a survey could be used to describe the characteristics of a particular demographic group, such as age, gender, or income.
Exploratory Research: Survey research can be used to explore new topics or areas of research. Exploratory surveys are often used to generate hypotheses or identify potential relationships between variables.
Explanatory Research: Survey research can be used to explain relationships between variables. For example, a survey could be used to determine whether there is a relationship between educational attainment and income.
Evaluation Research: Survey research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a program or intervention. For example, a survey could be used to evaluate the impact of a health education program on behavior change.
Monitoring Research: Survey research can be used to monitor trends or changes over time. For example, a survey could be used to monitor changes in attitudes towards climate change or political candidates over time.

When to use Survey Research

there are certain circumstances where survey research is particularly appropriate. Here are some situations where survey research may be useful:

When the research question involves attitudes, beliefs, or opinions: Survey research is particularly useful for understanding attitudes, beliefs, and opinions on a particular topic. For example, a survey could be used to understand public opinion on a political issue.
When the research question involves behaviors or experiences: Survey research can also be useful for understanding behaviors and experiences. For example, a survey could be used to understand the prevalence of a particular health behavior.
When a large sample size is needed: Survey research allows researchers to collect data from a large number of people quickly and efficiently. This makes it a useful method when a large sample size is needed to ensure statistical validity.
When the research question is time-sensitive: Survey research can be conducted quickly, which makes it a useful method when the research question is time-sensitive. For example, a survey could be used to understand public opinion on a breaking news story.
When the research question involves a geographically dispersed population: Survey research can be conducted online, which makes it a useful method when the population of interest is geographically dispersed.

How to Conduct Survey Research

Conducting survey research involves several steps that need to be carefully planned and executed. Here is a general overview of the process:

Define the research question: The first step in conducting survey research is to clearly define the research question. The research question should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the population of interest.
Develop a survey instrument : The next step is to develop a survey instrument. This can be done using various methods, such as online survey tools or paper surveys. The survey instrument should be designed to elicit the information needed to answer the research question, and should be pre-tested with a small sample of individuals.
Select a sample : The sample is the group of individuals who will be invited to participate in the survey. The sample should be representative of the population of interest, and the size of the sample should be sufficient to ensure statistical validity.
Administer the survey: The survey can be administered in various ways, such as online, by mail, or in person. The method of administration should be chosen based on the population of interest and the research question.
Analyze the data: Once the survey data is collected, it needs to be analyzed. This involves summarizing the data using statistical methods, such as frequency distributions or regression analysis.
Draw conclusions: The final step is to draw conclusions based on the data analysis. This involves interpreting the results and answering the research question.

Advantages of Survey Research

There are several advantages to using survey research, including:

Efficient data collection: Survey research allows researchers to collect data quickly and efficiently from a large number of people. This makes it a useful method for gathering information on a wide range of topics.
Standardized data collection: Surveys are typically standardized, which means that all participants receive the same questions in the same order. This ensures that the data collected is consistent and reliable.
Cost-effective: Surveys can be conducted online, by mail, or in person, which makes them a cost-effective method of data collection.
Anonymity: Participants can remain anonymous when responding to a survey. This can encourage participants to be more honest and open in their responses.
Easy comparison: Surveys allow for easy comparison of data between different groups or over time. This makes it possible to identify trends and patterns in the data.
Versatility: Surveys can be used to collect data on a wide range of topics, including attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and preferences.

Limitations of Survey Research

Here are some of the main limitations of survey research:

Limited depth: Surveys are typically designed to collect quantitative data, which means that they do not provide much depth or detail about people’s experiences or opinions. This can limit the insights that can be gained from the data.
Potential for bias: Surveys can be affected by various biases, including selection bias, response bias, and social desirability bias. These biases can distort the results and make them less accurate.
L imited validity: Surveys are only as valid as the questions they ask. If the questions are poorly designed or ambiguous, the results may not accurately reflect the respondents’ attitudes or behaviors.
Limited generalizability : Survey results are only generalizable to the population from which the sample was drawn. If the sample is not representative of the population, the results may not be generalizable to the larger population.
Limited ability to capture context: Surveys typically do not capture the context in which attitudes or behaviors occur. This can make it difficult to understand the reasons behind the responses.
Limited ability to capture complex phenomena: Surveys are not well-suited to capture complex phenomena, such as emotions or the dynamics of interpersonal relationships.

Following is an example of a Survey Sample:

Welcome to our Survey Research Page! We value your opinions and appreciate your participation in this survey. Please answer the questions below as honestly and thoroughly as possible.

1. What is your age?

A) Under 18
G) 65 or older

2. What is your highest level of education completed?

A) Less than high school
B) High school or equivalent
C) Some college or technical school
D) Bachelor’s degree
E) Graduate or professional degree

3. What is your current employment status?

A) Employed full-time
B) Employed part-time
C) Self-employed
D) Unemployed

4. How often do you use the internet per day?

A) Less than 1 hour
B) 1-3 hours
C) 3-5 hours
D) 5-7 hours
E) More than 7 hours

5. How often do you engage in social media per day?

6. Have you ever participated in a survey research study before?

7. If you have participated in a survey research study before, how was your experience?

A) Excellent
E) Very poor

8. What are some of the topics that you would be interested in participating in a survey research study about?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

9. How often would you be willing to participate in survey research studies?

A) Once a week
B) Once a month
C) Once every 6 months
D) Once a year

10. Any additional comments or suggestions?

Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. Your feedback is important to us and will help us improve our survey research efforts.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Methodology

Survey Research | Definition, Examples & Methods

Survey Research | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on August 20, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Survey research means collecting information about a group of people by asking them questions and analyzing the results. To conduct an effective survey, follow these six steps:

Determine who will participate in the survey
Decide the type of survey (mail, online, or in-person)
Design the survey questions and layout
Distribute the survey
Analyze the responses
Write up the results

Surveys are a flexible method of data collection that can be used in many different types of research .

What are surveys used for, step 1: define the population and sample, step 2: decide on the type of survey, step 3: design the survey questions, step 4: distribute the survey and collect responses, step 5: analyze the survey results, step 6: write up the survey results, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about surveys.

Surveys are used as a method of gathering data in many different fields. They are a good choice when you want to find out about the characteristics, preferences, opinions, or beliefs of a group of people.

Common uses of survey research include:

Social research : investigating the experiences and characteristics of different social groups
Market research : finding out what customers think about products, services, and companies
Health research : collecting data from patients about symptoms and treatments
Politics : measuring public opinion about parties and policies
Psychology : researching personality traits, preferences and behaviours

Surveys can be used in both cross-sectional studies , where you collect data just once, and in longitudinal studies , where you survey the same sample several times over an extended period.

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Before you start conducting survey research, you should already have a clear research question that defines what you want to find out. Based on this question, you need to determine exactly who you will target to participate in the survey.

Populations

The target population is the specific group of people that you want to find out about. This group can be very broad or relatively narrow. For example:

The population of Brazil
US college students
Second-generation immigrants in the Netherlands
Customers of a specific company aged 18-24
British transgender women over the age of 50

Your survey should aim to produce results that can be generalized to the whole population. That means you need to carefully define exactly who you want to draw conclusions about.

Several common research biases can arise if your survey is not generalizable, particularly sampling bias and selection bias . The presence of these biases have serious repercussions for the validity of your results.

It’s rarely possible to survey the entire population of your research – it would be very difficult to get a response from every person in Brazil or every college student in the US. Instead, you will usually survey a sample from the population.

The sample size depends on how big the population is. You can use an online sample calculator to work out how many responses you need.

There are many sampling methods that allow you to generalize to broad populations. In general, though, the sample should aim to be representative of the population as a whole. The larger and more representative your sample, the more valid your conclusions. Again, beware of various types of sampling bias as you design your sample, particularly self-selection bias , nonresponse bias , undercoverage bias , and survivorship bias .

There are two main types of survey:

A questionnaire , where a list of questions is distributed by mail, online or in person, and respondents fill it out themselves.
An interview , where the researcher asks a set of questions by phone or in person and records the responses.

Which type you choose depends on the sample size and location, as well as the focus of the research.

Questionnaires

Sending out a paper survey by mail is a common method of gathering demographic information (for example, in a government census of the population).

You can easily access a large sample.
You have some control over who is included in the sample (e.g. residents of a specific region).
The response rate is often low, and at risk for biases like self-selection bias .

Online surveys are a popular choice for students doing dissertation research , due to the low cost and flexibility of this method. There are many online tools available for constructing surveys, such as SurveyMonkey and Google Forms .

You can quickly access a large sample without constraints on time or location.
The data is easy to process and analyze.
The anonymity and accessibility of online surveys mean you have less control over who responds, which can lead to biases like self-selection bias .

If your research focuses on a specific location, you can distribute a written questionnaire to be completed by respondents on the spot. For example, you could approach the customers of a shopping mall or ask all students to complete a questionnaire at the end of a class.

You can screen respondents to make sure only people in the target population are included in the sample.
You can collect time- and location-specific data (e.g. the opinions of a store’s weekday customers).
The sample size will be smaller, so this method is less suitable for collecting data on broad populations and is at risk for sampling bias .

Oral interviews are a useful method for smaller sample sizes. They allow you to gather more in-depth information on people’s opinions and preferences. You can conduct interviews by phone or in person.

You have personal contact with respondents, so you know exactly who will be included in the sample in advance.
You can clarify questions and ask for follow-up information when necessary.
The lack of anonymity may cause respondents to answer less honestly, and there is more risk of researcher bias.

Like questionnaires, interviews can be used to collect quantitative data: the researcher records each response as a category or rating and statistically analyzes the results. But they are more commonly used to collect qualitative data : the interviewees’ full responses are transcribed and analyzed individually to gain a richer understanding of their opinions and feelings.

Next, you need to decide which questions you will ask and how you will ask them. It’s important to consider:

The type of questions
The content of the questions
The phrasing of the questions
The ordering and layout of the survey

Open-ended vs closed-ended questions

There are two main forms of survey questions: open-ended and closed-ended. Many surveys use a combination of both.

Closed-ended questions give the respondent a predetermined set of answers to choose from. A closed-ended question can include:

A binary answer (e.g. yes/no or agree/disagree )
A scale (e.g. a Likert scale with five points ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree )
A list of options with a single answer possible (e.g. age categories)
A list of options with multiple answers possible (e.g. leisure interests)

Closed-ended questions are best for quantitative research . They provide you with numerical data that can be statistically analyzed to find patterns, trends, and correlations .

Open-ended questions are best for qualitative research. This type of question has no predetermined answers to choose from. Instead, the respondent answers in their own words.

Open questions are most common in interviews, but you can also use them in questionnaires. They are often useful as follow-up questions to ask for more detailed explanations of responses to the closed questions.

The content of the survey questions

To ensure the validity and reliability of your results, you need to carefully consider each question in the survey. All questions should be narrowly focused with enough context for the respondent to answer accurately. Avoid questions that are not directly relevant to the survey’s purpose.

When constructing closed-ended questions, ensure that the options cover all possibilities. If you include a list of options that isn’t exhaustive, you can add an “other” field.

Phrasing the survey questions

In terms of language, the survey questions should be as clear and precise as possible. Tailor the questions to your target population, keeping in mind their level of knowledge of the topic. Avoid jargon or industry-specific terminology.

Survey questions are at risk for biases like social desirability bias , the Hawthorne effect , or demand characteristics . It’s critical to use language that respondents will easily understand, and avoid words with vague or ambiguous meanings. Make sure your questions are phrased neutrally, with no indication that you’d prefer a particular answer or emotion.

Ordering the survey questions

The questions should be arranged in a logical order. Start with easy, non-sensitive, closed-ended questions that will encourage the respondent to continue.

If the survey covers several different topics or themes, group together related questions. You can divide a questionnaire into sections to help respondents understand what is being asked in each part.

If a question refers back to or depends on the answer to a previous question, they should be placed directly next to one another.

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Before you start, create a clear plan for where, when, how, and with whom you will conduct the survey. Determine in advance how many responses you require and how you will gain access to the sample.

When you are satisfied that you have created a strong research design suitable for answering your research questions, you can conduct the survey through your method of choice – by mail, online, or in person.

There are many methods of analyzing the results of your survey. First you have to process the data, usually with the help of a computer program to sort all the responses. You should also clean the data by removing incomplete or incorrectly completed responses.

If you asked open-ended questions, you will have to code the responses by assigning labels to each response and organizing them into categories or themes. You can also use more qualitative methods, such as thematic analysis , which is especially suitable for analyzing interviews.

Statistical analysis is usually conducted using programs like SPSS or Stata. The same set of survey data can be subject to many analyses.

Finally, when you have collected and analyzed all the necessary data, you will write it up as part of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper .

In the methodology section, you describe exactly how you conducted the survey. You should explain the types of questions you used, the sampling method, when and where the survey took place, and the response rate. You can include the full questionnaire as an appendix and refer to it in the text if relevant.

Then introduce the analysis by describing how you prepared the data and the statistical methods you used to analyze it. In the results section, you summarize the key results from your analysis.

In the discussion and conclusion , you give your explanations and interpretations of these results, answer your research question, and reflect on the implications and limitations of the research.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Student’s t -distribution
Normal distribution
Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Chi square tests
Confidence interval
Quartiles & Quantiles
Cluster sampling
Stratified sampling
Data cleansing
Reproducibility vs Replicability
Peer review
Prospective cohort study

Research bias

Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Placebo effect
Hawthorne effect
Hindsight bias
Affect heuristic
Social desirability bias

A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analyzing data from people using questionnaires.

A Likert scale is a rating scale that quantitatively assesses opinions, attitudes, or behaviors. It is made up of 4 or more questions that measure a single attitude or trait when response scores are combined.

To use a Likert scale in a survey , you present participants with Likert-type questions or statements, and a continuum of items, usually with 5 or 7 possible responses, to capture their degree of agreement.

Individual Likert-type questions are generally considered ordinal data , because the items have clear rank order, but don’t have an even distribution.

Overall Likert scale scores are sometimes treated as interval data. These scores are considered to have directionality and even spacing between them.

The type of data determines what statistical tests you should use to analyze your data.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

Your research questions and/or hypotheses
Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests or thematic analysis )

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Doing Survey Research | A Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Doing Survey Research | A Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Survey research means collecting information about a group of people by asking them questions and analysing the results. To conduct an effective survey, follow these six steps:

Determine who will participate in the survey
Decide the type of survey (mail, online, or in-person)
Design the survey questions and layout
Distribute the survey
Analyse the responses
Write up the results

Surveys are a flexible method of data collection that can be used in many different types of research .

What are surveys used for, step 1: define the population and sample, step 2: decide on the type of survey, step 3: design the survey questions, step 4: distribute the survey and collect responses, step 5: analyse the survey results, step 6: write up the survey results, frequently asked questions about surveys.

Common uses of survey research include:

Social research: Investigating the experiences and characteristics of different social groups
Market research: Finding out what customers think about products, services, and companies
Health research: Collecting data from patients about symptoms and treatments
Politics: Measuring public opinion about parties and policies
Psychology: Researching personality traits, preferences, and behaviours

Surveys can be used in both cross-sectional studies , where you collect data just once, and longitudinal studies , where you survey the same sample several times over an extended period.

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Populations

The target population is the specific group of people that you want to find out about. This group can be very broad or relatively narrow. For example:

The population of Brazil
University students in the UK
Second-generation immigrants in the Netherlands
Customers of a specific company aged 18 to 24
British transgender women over the age of 50

Your survey should aim to produce results that can be generalised to the whole population. That means you need to carefully define exactly who you want to draw conclusions about.

It’s rarely possible to survey the entire population of your research – it would be very difficult to get a response from every person in Brazil or every university student in the UK. Instead, you will usually survey a sample from the population.

The sample size depends on how big the population is. You can use an online sample calculator to work out how many responses you need.

There are many sampling methods that allow you to generalise to broad populations. In general, though, the sample should aim to be representative of the population as a whole. The larger and more representative your sample, the more valid your conclusions.

There are two main types of survey:

A questionnaire , where a list of questions is distributed by post, online, or in person, and respondents fill it out themselves
An interview , where the researcher asks a set of questions by phone or in person and records the responses

Which type you choose depends on the sample size and location, as well as the focus of the research.

Questionnaires

Sending out a paper survey by post is a common method of gathering demographic information (for example, in a government census of the population).

You can easily access a large sample.
You have some control over who is included in the sample (e.g., residents of a specific region).
The response rate is often low.

You can quickly access a large sample without constraints on time or location.
The data is easy to process and analyse.
The anonymity and accessibility of online surveys mean you have less control over who responds.

If your research focuses on a specific location, you can distribute a written questionnaire to be completed by respondents on the spot. For example, you could approach the customers of a shopping centre or ask all students to complete a questionnaire at the end of a class.

You can screen respondents to make sure only people in the target population are included in the sample.
You can collect time- and location-specific data (e.g., the opinions of a shop’s weekday customers).
The sample size will be smaller, so this method is less suitable for collecting data on broad populations.

You have personal contact with respondents, so you know exactly who will be included in the sample in advance.
You can clarify questions and ask for follow-up information when necessary.
The lack of anonymity may cause respondents to answer less honestly, and there is more risk of researcher bias.

Like questionnaires, interviews can be used to collect quantitative data : the researcher records each response as a category or rating and statistically analyses the results. But they are more commonly used to collect qualitative data : the interviewees’ full responses are transcribed and analysed individually to gain a richer understanding of their opinions and feelings.

Next, you need to decide which questions you will ask and how you will ask them. It’s important to consider:

The type of questions
The content of the questions
The phrasing of the questions
The ordering and layout of the survey

Open-ended vs closed-ended questions

There are two main forms of survey questions: open-ended and closed-ended. Many surveys use a combination of both.

Closed-ended questions give the respondent a predetermined set of answers to choose from. A closed-ended question can include:

A binary answer (e.g., yes/no or agree/disagree )
A scale (e.g., a Likert scale with five points ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree )
A list of options with a single answer possible (e.g., age categories)
A list of options with multiple answers possible (e.g., leisure interests)

Closed-ended questions are best for quantitative research . They provide you with numerical data that can be statistically analysed to find patterns, trends, and correlations .

Open-ended questions are best for qualitative research. This type of question has no predetermined answers to choose from. Instead, the respondent answers in their own words.

The content of the survey questions

When constructing closed-ended questions, ensure that the options cover all possibilities. If you include a list of options that isn’t exhaustive, you can add an ‘other’ field.

Phrasing the survey questions

In terms of language, the survey questions should be as clear and precise as possible. Tailor the questions to your target population, keeping in mind their level of knowledge of the topic.

Use language that respondents will easily understand, and avoid words with vague or ambiguous meanings. Make sure your questions are phrased neutrally, with no bias towards one answer or another.

Ordering the survey questions

The questions should be arranged in a logical order. Start with easy, non-sensitive, closed-ended questions that will encourage the respondent to continue.

If a question refers back to or depends on the answer to a previous question, they should be placed directly next to one another.

Before you start, create a clear plan for where, when, how, and with whom you will conduct the survey. Determine in advance how many responses you require and how you will gain access to the sample.

There are many methods of analysing the results of your survey. First you have to process the data, usually with the help of a computer program to sort all the responses. You should also cleanse the data by removing incomplete or incorrectly completed responses.

If you asked open-ended questions, you will have to code the responses by assigning labels to each response and organising them into categories or themes. You can also use more qualitative methods, such as thematic analysis , which is especially suitable for analysing interviews.

Statistical analysis is usually conducted using programs like SPSS or Stata. The same set of survey data can be subject to many analyses.

Finally, when you have collected and analysed all the necessary data, you will write it up as part of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper .

Then introduce the analysis by describing how you prepared the data and the statistical methods you used to analyse it. In the results section, you summarise the key results from your analysis.

A Likert scale is a rating scale that quantitatively assesses opinions, attitudes, or behaviours. It is made up of four or more questions that measure a single attitude or trait when response scores are combined.

To use a Likert scale in a survey , you present participants with Likert-type questions or statements, and a continuum of items, usually with five or seven possible responses, to capture their degree of agreement.

Individual Likert-type questions are generally considered ordinal data , because the items have clear rank order, but don’t have an even distribution.

Overall Likert scale scores are sometimes treated as interval data. These scores are considered to have directionality and even spacing between them.

The type of data determines what statistical tests you should use to analyse your data.

A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analysing data from people using questionnaires.

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Types of Surveys: All You Need to Know About Survey Research Methods

Choose the right survey method : Your method should always align with your research objectives, target audience, budget, time constraints, and the type of data needed.
Pick distribution channels : You can embed surveys in email and use them in-product, as website pop-ups , or in a mobile app. There are also plenty of offline types of surveys. Each has its advantages and is suitable for different contexts.
Select the types of survey questions : Use closed-ended questions for quantifiable data, open-ended questions for richer insights, and mixed-format questions to combine both strengths. The choice of question type impacts the depth and quality of data you can collect.
Decide on survey frequency : Decide if your research requires a cross-sectional survey for a one-time snapshot or a longitudinal survey (trend, cohort, or panel) for tracking changes over time. This choice affects the insights you can derive from the data. Using a tool with in-built AI survey creation features can significantly speed up the process. ‍
Use surveys for your business case : With surveys, you can understand user needs, refine products, and improve online customer experiences . They inform strategic decisions in market or product research , customer experience, and content strategy, driving growth and customer satisfaction .

If you find your questions are going unheard, consider employing surveys as a strategic listening tool.

Designed for anyone collecting data, this article simplifies the choice of survey research methods to align with specific goals and secure trustworthy findings.

We will explore different survey types, their intended purposes, and practical advice for their use. After reading, you'll clearly understand how to apply survey methods to gather and interpret valuable feedback effectively.

What is survey research?

Survey research is a systematic method of collecting data from individuals to gather information and insights. A survey itself is a tool consisting of a series of questions aimed at extracting specific data from a particular group of people. This technique is widely used across various fields, such as marketing, social science, and public health, to uncover trends, attitudes, and behaviors.

Surveys are characterized by their capacity to provide quantitative data —numerical information that can be analyzed statistically— as well as qualitative insights , which delve into the reasoning behind certain trends or opinions.

The process involves selecting a sample that represents a larger population, formulating questions designed to elicit clear responses, and administering the survey through one of several methods, including online, by mail, or in person.

The strength of this surveying method lies in its flexibility and scalability . Researchers can reach a broad audience quickly and cost-effectively, making it a valuable approach for studies that require a large dataset. The data obtained can inform policy decisions, guide business strategies, and contribute to academic research, making survey research a fundamental tool for data-driven decision-making.

How to choose the right survey method

When deciding on the best survey method for your needs, take into account the following factors:

Research Objective s: Clearly define what you want to achieve with your survey. Different goals require different survey approaches.
Target Audience : Identify where your audience is most likely to be reached and consider their preferred mode of communication.
Budget Constraints : Match the survey method to the financial resources available. Online surveys can be less costly compared to in-person methods.
Time Availability : Choose a method that fits within your timeline. Online surveys provide quicker results than traditional mail surveys.
Data Type Required : Decide if you need quantitative data, which is easily obtained through structured surveys, or qualitative data, which may necessitate more open-ended questions and discussions.

What formats can research surveys take?

Surveys can be distributed through various channels, each with its own set of advantages. Understanding the different types of survey methods based on distribution can help you select the most effective approach for your research needs. Let's explore the types of surveys based on how you distribute them.

Email surveys

Email surveys are sent directly to participants' inboxes. This method is highly targeted, reaching individuals who have already engaged with your brand or service. It is convenient for recipients, allowing them to respond at their leisure.

➡️ To improve response rates , ensure your survey tool collects partial responses. With this feature, surveys embedded in emails will collect every single answer, even if your respondent doesn't continue to fill out the survey.

One of the online types of surveys - email survey

In-product surveys

In-product surveys are embedded directly within your service or application. They capture feedback at the moment of user interaction, which can lead to more accurate and actionable insights.

➡️ This method is less intrusive and benefits from high engagement rates as it is part of the natural user experience.

Website surveys

Website surveys are a type of online surveys that can take the form of pop-ups, sidebar forms, or embedded questionnaires on a webpage. They are useful for capturing the opinions of site visitors in real-time, providing insights into user experience and satisfaction.

➡️ They should be easy to complete to ensure effectiveness and not disrupt the browsing experience.

One of the online types of surveys - pop-up survey

Link surveys

Surveys distributed via a link can be shared across multiple platforms, including social media, SMS, or digital workspaces. This online survey method offers flexibility in reaching a wider audience and can be used to gather a diverse range of responses.

➡️ It's important to track which platforms yield the best response rates to optimize future survey distributions.

Mobile surveys

With mobile surveys , you can easily collect in-app feedback . They should be brief and optimized for mobile interfaces to fit smaller screens and on-the-go lifestyles.

➡️ Design mobile surveys with concise content and straightforward navigation to maximize engagement.

One of the online types of surveys - in-app mobile survey

Phone surveys

You can achieve a more personal touch with a telephone survey and clarify any ambiguities in real-time. However, they require trained interviewers and may not reach respondents who favor communication via text or email.

➡️ Ensure questions are direct and the call script is standardized to maintain consistency across telephone surveys.

In-person interviews

Face-to-face interviews or in-person surveys can yield comprehensive and nuanced information, as body language and tone provide additional context. They are highly interactive but can be costly and time-consuming.

➡️ Prepare a structured interview guide to keep the face-to-face interviews focused and efficient.

Paper surveys

Paper surveys are traditional tools useful in environments lacking digital access. They do not require internet connectivity, but data entry and analysis for a paper survey research can be labor-intensive.

➡️ To manage this, create questions that are easy to process and analyze from collected paper surveys.

Kiosk surveys

Kiosk surveys are interactive, often touch-screen questionnaires placed in high-traffic areas in a survey kiosk, allowing for immediate feedback.

➡️ They are ideal for capturing real-time customer reactions or satisfaction levels at the point of experience, such as in retail stores or service centers.

Focus groups

Focus groups are small, diverse groups of people whose reactions to specific topics are studied. Moderators lead discussions to gain deep insights into participant attitudes and perceptions, making it a qualitative method valuable for exploring complex issues.

Panel surveys

A panel survey involves a pre-recruited group of individuals who agree to participate in multiple surveys over a period. This method ensures a reliable sample for longitudinal studies, tracking changes in opinions or behaviors among the same set of respondents.

Types of survey questions

When designing a survey, your questions can make or break the data you collect. It is vital to understand the different question types and when to use them to gather meaningful insights effectively.

Closed-ended questions

Closed-ended questions are designed to receive a specific response, such as "yes" or "no," a numerical rating, or a choice from a set list of options. These types of questions are quantifiable, making them straightforward to analyze. Examples include multiple-choice questions and rating scales.

➡️ Best for: quick, concise data collection.

Open-ended questions

Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words, providing richer, more nuanced information. This format is less restrictive and can yield insights that closed-ended questions might miss. Utilizing open-ended questions can be invaluable for understanding the reasons behind behaviors or opinions, though the data can be more challenging to analyze due to its qualitative nature.

➡️ Best for: understanding the reasons behind behaviors or opinions

Mixed-format questions

Mixed-format questions combine elements of both open and closed-ended questions. They might start with a closed-ended question and then offer an "Other" option where respondents can elaborate. This hybrid approach provides the structured data of closed-ended questions with the depth of open-ended ones, making it a versatile choice for complex topics.

➡️ Best for: Mixed-format questions enable you to gather a wide range of data without limiting respondent expression.

Types of surveys based on frequency

Surveys can be categorized by how often they are conducted. This frequency affects the type of data collected and the insights that can be drawn.

Cross-Sectional Surveys : These are one-time snapshots of a population at a specific point in time. They help in understanding current attitudes or behaviors but do not track changes over time.

Longitudinal Surveys: In contrast, longitudinal surveys are conducted repeatedly over an extended period. They can be further broken down into:

Trend Surveys: measure changes over time within a population, where different individuals may be surveyed in each wave.
Cohort Surveys: Cohort surveys follow a specific sub-group or cohort over time, observing how their responses change.
Panel Surveys: Similar to cohort surveys, panel surveys involve repeatedly surveying the same individuals over time, allowing for detailed tracking of individual changes.

The choice between cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys depends on whether your research aims to capture a momentary picture or observe trends and developments. Each type offers unique benefits and should align with your specific research objectives.

What can businesses do with these types of surveys?

Surveys are powerful tools for businesses seeking to understand their market, customers, and products. They can inform a range of strategic decisions and drive growth when used effectively.

Customer experience

Customer experience surveys are essential for gauging satisfaction and identifying areas for service improvement to enhance customer loyalty.

Net Promoter Score® (NPS) Survey : Measure customer loyalty and predict business growth.

Customer Satisfaction (CSAT) Survey : Obtain immediate feedback on customer satisfaction with a product, service, or interaction.

Product surveys

Product surveys allow businesses to collect user feedback on their offerings, guiding product development and feature optimization.

Product Development Feedback Survey : Gain insights into customers' desired features or improvements.

Product Use and Satisfaction Survey : Understand how customers use your product and their satisfaction levels.

Market research survey

Market research surveys help businesses understand their audience and market landscape. They provide critical insights for informed decision-making and strategic planning.

Customer Demographics Survey : Gather data on age, gender, income, and more to tailor marketing strategies.

Competitor Analysis Survey : Assess how your business stacks up against competitors to identify areas for improvement.

Exit intent surveys

Exit intent surveys reveal the reasons behind user departures, providing actionable insights to reduce churn rates.

Website Exit Survey : Discover why visitors leave without converting to address potential issues.

Brand surveys

Brand surveys measure public perception and awareness, offering valuable data to shape branding and marketing initiatives.

Brand Awareness Survey : Determine how well customers recognize and recall your brand.

Brand Perception Survey : Learn how customers perceive your brand values and positioning.

Lead generation survey

Lead generation surveys assist in identifying potential customers and understanding their needs, optimizing the sales funnel.

Lead Qualification Survey : Identify and understand potential leads to increase conversion rates.

Pre-Sales Survey : Collect information from prospects to personalize sales approaches and improve close rates.

Content evaluation survey

Content evaluation surveys assess the impact and effectiveness of marketing content, helping to refine content strategy and audience engagement.

Blog Feedback Survey : Obtain reader feedback to enhance content relevance and engagement.

Content Effectiveness Survey : Measure how well your content meets audience needs and supports your marketing goals.

Each survey type serves a specific purpose and, when utilized correctly, can provide valuable insights to inform business decisions and strategies. Whether you're looking to delve into market trends, evaluate customer satisfaction, or refine your content strategy, there's a survey designed to meet your needs.

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With Survicate, you can easily collect feedback and turn it into insights that can help improve your business. Using our AI survey builder you can launch your first survey in seconds. Whether gauging customer satisfaction or adjusting product features, this tool assists you in making informed decisions and analyzing the insights you collect. It's straightforward to use and designed to provide valuable information efficiently.

So, why not give it a try? Sign up now , and take advantage of Survicate's 10-day free trial that unlocks all the Business Plan features . It's time to uncover the insights to steer your strategies toward success.

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Survey Research: Types, Examples & Methods

Surveys have been proven to be one of the most effective methods of conducting research. They help you to gather relevant data from a large audience, which helps you to arrive at a valid and objective conclusion.

Just like other research methods, survey research had to be conducted the right way to be effective. In this article, we’ll dive into the nitty-gritty of survey research and show you how to get the most out of it.

What is Survey Research?

Survey research is simply a systematic investigation conducted via a survey. In other words, it is a type of research carried out by administering surveys to respondents.

Surveys already serve as a great method of opinion sampling and finding out what people think about different contexts and situations. Applying this to research means you can gather first-hand information from persons affected by specific contexts.

Survey research proves useful in numerous primary research scenarios. Consider the case whereby a restaurant wants to gather feedback from its customers on its new signatory dish. A good way to do this is to conduct survey research on a defined customer demographic.

By doing this, the restaurant is better able to gather primary data from the customers (respondents) with regards to what they think and feel about the new dish across multiple facets. This means they’d have more valid and objective information to work with.

Why Conduct Survey Research?

One of the strongest arguments for survey research is that it helps you gather the most authentic data sets in the systematic investigation. Survey research is a gateway to collecting specific information from defined respondents, first-hand.

Surveys combine different question types that make it easy for you to collect numerous information from respondents. When you come across a questionnaire for survey research, you’re likely to see a neat blend of close-ended and open-ended questions, together with other survey response scale questions.

Apart from what we’ve discussed so far, here are some other reasons why survey research is important:

It gives you insights into respondents’ behaviors and preferences which is valid in any systematic investigation.
Many times, survey research is structured in an interactive manner which makes it easier for respondents to communicate their thoughts and experiences.
It allows you to gather important data that proves useful for product improvement; especially in market research.

Characteristics of Survey Research

Usage : Survey research is mostly deployed in the field of social science; especially to gather information about human behavior in different social contexts.
Systematic : Like other research methods, survey research is systematic. This means that it is usually conducted in line with empirical methods and follows specific processes.
Replicable : In survey research, applying the same methods often translates to achieving similar results.
Types : Survey research can be conducted using forms (offline and online) or via structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews .
Data : The data gathered from survey research is mostly quantitative; although it can be qualitative.
Impartial Sampling : The data sample in survey research is random and not subject to unavoidable biases.
Ecological Validity : Survey research often makes use of data samples obtained from real-world occurrences.

Types of Survey Research

Survey research can be subdivided into different types based on its objectives, data source, and methodology.

Types of Survey Research Based on Objective

Exploratory Survey Research

Exploratory survey research is aimed at finding out more about the research context. Here, the survey research pays attention to discovering new ideas and insights about the research subject(s) or contexts.

Exploratory survey research is usually made up of open-ended questions that allow respondents to fully communicate their thoughts and varying perspectives on the subject matter. In many cases, systematic investigation kicks off with an exploratory research survey.

Predictive Survey Research

This type of research is also referred to as causal survey research because it pays attention to the causative relationship between the variables in the survey research. In other words, predictive survey research pays attention to existing patterns to explain the relationship between two variables.

It can also be referred to as conclusive research because it allows you to identify causal variables and resultant variables; that is cause and effect. Predictive variables allow you to determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to be predicted.

Descriptive Survey Research

Unlike predictive research, descriptive survey research is largely observational. It is ideal for quantitative research because it helps you to gather numeric data.

The questions listed in descriptive survey research help you to uncover new insights into the actions, thoughts, and feelings of survey respondents. With this data, you can know the extent to which different conditions can be obtained among these subjects.

Types of Survey Research Based on Data Source

Secondary Data

Survey research can be designed to collect and process secondary data. Secondary data is a type of data that has been collected from primary sources in the past and is readily available for use. It is the type of data that is already existing.

Since secondary data is gathered from third-party sources, it is mostly generic, unlike primary data that is specific to the research context. Common sources of secondary data in survey research include books, data collected through other surveys, online data, data from government archives, and libraries.

Primary Data

This is the type of research data that is collected directly; that is, data collected from first-hand sources. Primary data is usually tailored to a specific research context so that reflects the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation.

One of the strongest points of primary data over its secondary counterpart is validity. Because it is collected directly from first-hand sources, primary data typically results in objective research findings.

You can collect primary data via interviews, surveys, and questionnaires, and observation methods.

Types of Survey Research Based on Methodology

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a common research method that is used to gather numerical data in a systematic investigation. It is often deployed in research contexts that require statistical information to arrive at valid results such as in social science or science.

For instance, as an organization looking to find out how many persons are using your product in a particular location, you can administer survey research to collect useful quantitative data. Other quantitative research methods include polls, face-to-face interviews, and systematic observation.

Qualitative Research

This is a method of systematic investigation that is used to collect non-numerical data from research participants. In other words, it is a research method that allows you to gather open-ended information from your target audience.

Typically, organizations deploy qualitative research methods when they need to gather descriptive data from their customers; for example, when they need to collect customer feedback in product evaluation. Qualitative research methods include one-on-one interviews, observation, case studies, and focus groups.

Survey Research Scales

Nominal Scale

This is a type of survey research scale that uses numbers to label the different answer options in a survey. On a nominal scale , the numbers have no value in themselves; they simply serve as labels for qualitative variables in the survey.

In cases where a nominal scale is used for identification, there is typically a specific one-on-one relationship between the numeric value and the variable it represents. On the other hand, when the variable is used for classification, then each number on the scale serves as a label or a tag.

Examples of Nominal Scale in Survey Research

1. How would you describe your complexion?

2. Have you used this product?

Ordinal Scale

This is a type of variable measurement scale that arranges answer options in a specific ranking order without necessarily indicating the degree of variation between these options. Ordinal data is qualitative and can be named, ranked, or grouped.

In an ordinal scale , the different properties of the variables are relatively unknown, and it also identifies, describes, and shows the rank of the different variables. With an ordered scale, it is easier for researchers to measure the degree of agreement and/or disagreement with different variables.

With ordinal scales, you can measure non-numerical attributes such as the degree of happiness, agreement, or opposition of respondents in specific contexts. Using an ordinal scale makes it easy for you to compare variables and process survey responses accordingly.

Examples of Ordinal Scale in Survey Research

1. How often do you use this product?

Prefer not to say

2. How much do you agree with our new policies?

Totally agree
Somewhat agree
Totally disagree
Interval Scale

This is a type of survey scale that is used to measure variables existing at equal intervals along a common scale. In some way, it combines the attributes of nominal and ordinal scales since it is used where there is order and there is a meaningful difference between 2 variables.

With an interval scale, you can quantify the difference in value between two variables in survey research. In addition to this, you can carry out other mathematical processes like calculating the mean and median of research variables.

Examples of Interval Scale in Survey Research

1. Our customer support team was very effective.

Completely agree
Neither agree nor disagree
Somewhat disagree
Completely disagree

2. I enjoyed using this product.

Another example of an interval scale can be seen in the Net Promoter Score.

Ratio Scale

Just like the interval scale, the ratio scale is quantitative and it is used when you need to compare intervals or differences in survey research. It is the highest level of measurement and it is made up of bits and pieces of the other survey scales.

One of the unique features of the ratio scale is it has a true zero and equal intervals between the variables on the scale. This zero indicates an absence of the variable being measured by the scale. Common occurrences of ratio scales can be seen with distance (length), area, and population measurement.

Examples of Ratio Scale in Survey Research

1. How old are you?

Below 18 years
41 and above

2. How many times do you shop in a week?

Less than twice
Three times
More than four times

Uses of Survey Research

Health Surveys

Survey research is used by health practitioners to gather useful data from patients in different medical and safety contexts. It helps you to gather primary and secondary data about medical conditions and risk factors of multiple diseases and infections.

In addition to this, administering health surveys regularly helps you to monitor the overall health status of your population; whether in the workplace, school, or community. This kind of data can be used to help prevent outbreaks and minimize medical emergencies in these contexts.

Survey research is also useful when conducting polls; whether online or offline. A poll is a data collection tool that helps you to gather public opinion about a particular subject from a well-defined research sample.

By administering survey research, you can gather valid data from a well-defined research sample, and utilize research findings for decision making. For example, during elections, individuals can be asked to choose their preferred leader via questionnaires administered as part of survey research.

Customer Satisfaction

Customer satisfaction is one of the cores of every organization as it is directly concerned with how well your product or service meets the needs of your clients. Survey research is an effective way to measure customer satisfaction at different intervals.

As a restaurant, for example, you can send out online surveys to customers immediately when they patronize your business. In these surveys, encourage them to provide feedback on their experience and to provide information on how your service delivery can be improved.

Survey research makes data collection and analysis easy during a census. With an online survey tool like Formplus , you can seamlessly gather data during a census without moving from a spot. Formplus has multiple sharing options that help you collect information without stress.

Survey Research Methods

Survey research can be done using different online and offline methods. Let’s examine a few of them here.

Telephone Surveys

This is a means of conducting survey research via phone calls. In a telephone survey, the researcher places a call to the survey respondents and gathers information from them by asking questions about the research context under consideration.

A telephone survey is a kind of simulation of the face-to-face survey experience since it involves discussing with respondents to gather and process valid data. However, major challenges with this method include the fact that it is expensive and time-consuming.

Online Surveys

An online survey is a data collection tool used to create and administer surveys and questionnaires using data tools like Formplus. Online surveys work better than paper forms and other offline survey methods because you can easily gather and process data from a large sample size with them.

Face-to-Face Interviews

Face-to-face interviews for survey research can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured depending on the research context and the type of data you want to collect. If you want to gather qualitative data , then unstructured and semi-structured interviews are the way to go.

On the other hand, if you want to collect quantifiable information from your research sample, conducting a structured interview is the best way to go. Face-to-face interviews can also be time-consuming and cost-intensive. Let’s mention here that face-to-face surveys are one of the most widely used methods of survey data collection.

How to Conduct Research Surveys on Formplus

With Formplus, you can create forms for survey research without any hassles. Follow this step-by-step guide to create and administer online surveys for research via Formplus.

1. Sign up at www.formpl.us to create your Formplus account. If you already have a Formplus account, click here to log in.

5. Use the form customization options to change the appearance of your survey. You can add your organization’s logo to the survey, change the form font and layout, and insert preferred background images.

Advantages of Survey Research

It is inexpensive – with survey research, you can avoid the cost of in-person interviews. It’s also easy to receive data as you can share your surveys online and get responses from a large demographic
It is the fastest way to get a large amount of first-hand data
Surveys allow you to compare the results you get through charts and graphs
It is versatile as it can be used for any research topic
Surveys are perfect for anonymous respondents in the research

Disadvantages of Survey Research

Some questions may not get answers
People may understand survey questions differently
It may not be the best option for respondents with visual or hearing impairments as well as a demographic with no literacy levels
People can provide dishonest answers in a survey research

Conclusion

In this article, we’ve discussed survey research extensively; touching on different important aspects of this concept. As a researcher, organization, individual, or student, it is important to understand how survey research works to utilize it effectively and get the most from this method of systematic investigation.

As we’ve already stated, conducting survey research online is one of the most effective methods of data collection as it allows you to gather valid data from a large group of respondents. If you’re looking to kick off your survey research, you can start by signing up for a Formplus account here.

Connect to Formplus, Get Started Now - It's Free!

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In this post, we will discuss the origin of the Cobra effect, its implication, and some examples

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Survey Research — Types, Methods and Example Questions

Survey research The world of research is vast and complex, but with the right tools and understanding, it's an open field of discovery. Welcome to a journey into the heart of survey research. What is survey research? Survey research is the lens through which we view the opinions, behaviors, and experiences of a population. Think of it as the research world's detective, cleverly sleuthing out the truths hidden beneath layers of human complexity. Why is survey research important? Survey research is a Swiss Army Knife in a researcher's toolbox. It’s adaptable, reliable, and incredibly versatile, but its real power? It gives voice to the silent majority. Whether it's understanding customer preferences or assessing the impact of a social policy, survey research is the bridge between unanswered questions and insightful data. Let's embark on this exploration, armed with the spirit of openness, a sprinkle of curiosity, and the thirst for making knowledge accessible. As we journey further into the realm of survey research, we'll delve deeper into the diverse types of surveys, innovative data collection methods, and the rewards and challenges that come with them. Types of survey research Survey research is like an artist's palette, offering a variety of types to suit your unique research needs. Each type paints a different picture, giving us fascinating insights into the world around us. Cross-Sectional Surveys: Capture a snapshot of a population at a specific moment in time. They're your trusty Polaroid camera, freezing a moment for analysis and understanding. Longitudinal Surveys: Track changes over time, much like a time-lapse video. They help to identify trends and patterns, offering a dynamic perspective of your subject. Descriptive Surveys: Draw a detailed picture of the current state of affairs. They're your magnifying glass, examining the prevalence of a phenomenon or attitudes within a group. Analytical Surveys: Deep dive into the reasons behind certain outcomes. They're the research world's version of Sherlock Holmes, unraveling the complex web of cause and effect. But, what method should you choose for data collection? The plot thickens, doesn't it? Let's unravel this mystery in our next section. Survey research and data collection methods Data collection in survey research is an art form, and there's no one-size-fits-all method. Think of it as your paintbrush, each stroke represents a different way of capturing data. Online Surveys: In the digital age, online surveys have surged in popularity. They're fast, cost-effective, and can reach a global audience. But like a mysterious online acquaintance, respondents may not always be who they say they are. Mail Surveys: Like a postcard from a distant friend, mail surveys have a certain charm. They're great for reaching respondents without internet access. However, they’re slower and have lower response rates. They’re a test of patience and persistence. Telephone Surveys: With the sound of a ringing phone, the human element enters the picture. Great for reaching a diverse audience, they bring a touch of personal connection. But, remember, not all are fans of unsolicited calls. Face-to-Face Surveys: These are the heart-to-heart conversations of the survey world. While they require more resources, they're the gold standard for in-depth, high-quality data. As we journey further, let’s weigh the pros and cons of survey research. Advantages and disadvantages of survey research Every hero has its strengths and weaknesses, and survey research is no exception. Let's unwrap the gift box of survey research to see what lies inside. Advantages: Versatility: Like a superhero with multiple powers, surveys can be adapted to different topics, audiences, and research needs. Accessibility: With online surveys, geographical boundaries dissolve. We can reach out to the world from our living room. Anonymity: Like a confessional booth, surveys allow respondents to share their views without fear of judgment. Disadvantages: Response Bias: Ever met someone who says what you want to hear? Survey respondents can be like that too. Limited Depth: Like a puddle after a rainstorm, some surveys only skim the surface of complex issues. Nonresponse: Sometimes, potential respondents play hard to get, skewing the data. Survey research may have its challenges, but it also presents opportunities to learn and grow. As we forge ahead on our journey, we dive into the design process of survey research. Limitations of survey research Every research method has its limitations, like bumps on the road to discovery. But don't worry, with the right approach, these challenges become opportunities for growth. Misinterpretation: Sometimes, respondents might misunderstand your questions, like a badly translated novel. To overcome this, keep your questions simple and clear. Social Desirability Bias: People often want to present themselves in the best light. They might answer questions in a way that portrays them positively, even if it's not entirely accurate. Overcome this by ensuring anonymity and emphasizing honesty. Sample Representation: If your survey sample isn't representative of the population you're studying, it can skew your results. Aiming for a diverse sample can mitigate this. Now that we're aware of the limitations let's delve into the world of survey design. {loadmoduleid 430} Survey research design Designing a survey is like crafting a roadmap to discovery. It's an intricate process that involves careful planning, innovative strategies, and a deep understanding of your research goals. Let's get started. Approach and Strategy Your approach and strategy are the compasses guiding your survey research. Clear objectives, defined research questions, and an understanding of your target audience lay the foundation for a successful survey. Panel The panel is the heartbeat of your survey, the respondents who breathe life into your research. Selecting a representative panel ensures your research is accurate and inclusive. 9 Tips on Building the Perfect Survey Research Questionnaire Keep It Simple: Clear and straightforward questions lead to accurate responses. Make It Relevant: Ensure every question ties back to your research objectives. Order Matters: Start with easy questions to build rapport and save sensitive ones for later. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions: Stick to one idea per question. Offer a Balanced Scale: For rating scales, provide an equal number of positive and negative options. Provide a ‘Don't Know’ Option: This prevents guessing and keeps your data accurate. Pretest Your Survey: A pilot run helps you spot any issues before the final launch. Keep It Short: Respect your respondents' time. Make It Engaging: Keep your respondents interested with a mix of question types. Survey research examples and questions Examples serve as a bridge connecting theoretical concepts to real-world scenarios. Let's consider a few practical examples of survey research across various domains. User Experience (UX) Imagine being a UX designer at a budding tech start-up. Your app is gaining traction, but to keep your user base growing and engaged, you must ensure that your app's UX is top-notch. In this case, a well-designed survey could be a beacon, guiding you toward understanding user behavior, preferences, and pain points. Here's an example of how such a survey could look: "On a scale of 1 to 10, how would you rate the ease of navigating our app?" "How often do you encounter difficulties while using our app?" "What features do you use most frequently in our app?" "What improvements would you suggest for our app?" "What features would you like to see in future updates?" This line of questioning, while straightforward, provides invaluable insights. It enables the UX designer to identify strengths to capitalize on and weaknesses to improve, ultimately leading to a product that resonates with users. Psychology and Ethics in survey research The realm of survey research is not just about data and numbers, but it's also about understanding human behavior and treating respondents ethically. Psychology: In-depth understanding of cognitive biases and social dynamics can profoundly influence survey design. Let's take the 'Recency Effect,' a psychological principle stating that people tend to remember recent events more vividly than those in the past. While framing questions about user experiences, this insight could be invaluable. For example, a question like "Can you recall an instance in the past week when our customer service exceeded your expectations?" is likely to fetch more accurate responses than asking about an event several months ago. Ethics: On the other hand, maintaining privacy, confidentiality, and informed consent is more than ethical - it's fundamental to the integrity of the research process. Imagine conducting a sensitive survey about workplace culture. Ensuring respondents that their responses will remain confidential and anonymous can encourage more honest responses. An introductory note stating these assurances, along with a clear outline of the survey's purpose, can help build trust with your respondents. Survey research software In the age of digital information, survey research software has become a trusted ally for researchers. It simplifies complex processes like data collection, analysis, and visualization, democratizing research and making it more accessible to a broad audience. LimeSurvey, our innovative, user-friendly tool, brings this vision to life. It stands at the crossroads of simplicity and power, embodying the essence of accessible survey research. Whether you're a freelancer exploring new market trends, a psychology student curious about human behavior, or an HR officer aiming to improve company culture, LimeSurvey empowers you to conduct efficient, effective research. Its suite of features and intuitive design matches your research pace, allowing your curiosity to take the front seat. For instance, consider you're a researcher studying consumer behavior across different demographics. With LimeSurvey, you can easily design demographic-specific questions, distribute your survey across various channels, collect responses in real-time, and visualize your data through intuitive dashboards. This synergy of tools and functionalities makes LimeSurvey a perfect ally in your quest for knowledge. Conclusion If you've come this far, we can sense your spark of curiosity. Are you eager to take the reins and conduct your own survey research? Are you ready to embrace the simple yet powerful tool that LimeSurvey offers? If so, we can't wait to see where your journey takes you next! In the world of survey research, there's always more to explore, more to learn and more to discover. So, keep your curiosity alive, stay open to new ideas, and remember, your exploration is just beginning! We hope that our exploration has been as enlightening for you as it was exciting for us. Remember, the journey doesn't end here. With the power of knowledge and the right tools in your hands, there's no limit to what you can achieve. So, let your curiosity be your guide and dive into the fascinating world of survey research with LimeSurvey! Try it out for free now! Happy surveying! {loadmoduleid 429}

Table Content

Survey research.

The world of research is vast and complex, but with the right tools and understanding, it's an open field of discovery. Welcome to a journey into the heart of survey research.

What is survey research?

Survey research is the lens through which we view the opinions, behaviors, and experiences of a population. Think of it as the research world's detective, cleverly sleuthing out the truths hidden beneath layers of human complexity.

Why is survey research important?

Survey research is a Swiss Army Knife in a researcher's toolbox. It’s adaptable, reliable, and incredibly versatile, but its real power? It gives voice to the silent majority. Whether it's understanding customer preferences or assessing the impact of a social policy, survey research is the bridge between unanswered questions and insightful data.

Let's embark on this exploration, armed with the spirit of openness, a sprinkle of curiosity, and the thirst for making knowledge accessible. As we journey further into the realm of survey research, we'll delve deeper into the diverse types of surveys, innovative data collection methods, and the rewards and challenges that come with them.

Types of survey research

Survey research is like an artist's palette, offering a variety of types to suit your unique research needs. Each type paints a different picture, giving us fascinating insights into the world around us.

Cross-Sectional Surveys: Capture a snapshot of a population at a specific moment in time. They're your trusty Polaroid camera, freezing a moment for analysis and understanding.
Longitudinal Surveys: Track changes over time, much like a time-lapse video. They help to identify trends and patterns, offering a dynamic perspective of your subject.
Descriptive Surveys: Draw a detailed picture of the current state of affairs. They're your magnifying glass, examining the prevalence of a phenomenon or attitudes within a group.
Analytical Surveys: Deep dive into the reasons behind certain outcomes. They're the research world's version of Sherlock Holmes, unraveling the complex web of cause and effect.

But, what method should you choose for data collection? The plot thickens, doesn't it? Let's unravel this mystery in our next section.

Survey research and data collection methods

Data collection in survey research is an art form, and there's no one-size-fits-all method. Think of it as your paintbrush, each stroke represents a different way of capturing data.

Online Surveys: In the digital age, online surveys have surged in popularity. They're fast, cost-effective, and can reach a global audience. But like a mysterious online acquaintance, respondents may not always be who they say they are.
Mail Surveys: Like a postcard from a distant friend, mail surveys have a certain charm. They're great for reaching respondents without internet access. However, they’re slower and have lower response rates. They’re a test of patience and persistence.
Telephone Surveys: With the sound of a ringing phone, the human element enters the picture. Great for reaching a diverse audience, they bring a touch of personal connection. But, remember, not all are fans of unsolicited calls.
Face-to-Face Surveys: These are the heart-to-heart conversations of the survey world. While they require more resources, they're the gold standard for in-depth, high-quality data.

As we journey further, let’s weigh the pros and cons of survey research.

Advantages and disadvantages of survey research

Every hero has its strengths and weaknesses, and survey research is no exception. Let's unwrap the gift box of survey research to see what lies inside.

Advantages:

Versatility: Like a superhero with multiple powers, surveys can be adapted to different topics, audiences, and research needs.
Accessibility: With online surveys, geographical boundaries dissolve. We can reach out to the world from our living room.
Anonymity: Like a confessional booth, surveys allow respondents to share their views without fear of judgment.

Disadvantages:

Response Bias: Ever met someone who says what you want to hear? Survey respondents can be like that too.
Limited Depth: Like a puddle after a rainstorm, some surveys only skim the surface of complex issues.
Nonresponse: Sometimes, potential respondents play hard to get, skewing the data.

Survey research may have its challenges, but it also presents opportunities to learn and grow. As we forge ahead on our journey, we dive into the design process of survey research.

Limitations of survey research

Every research method has its limitations, like bumps on the road to discovery. But don't worry, with the right approach, these challenges become opportunities for growth.

Misinterpretation: Sometimes, respondents might misunderstand your questions, like a badly translated novel. To overcome this, keep your questions simple and clear.

Social Desirability Bias: People often want to present themselves in the best light. They might answer questions in a way that portrays them positively, even if it's not entirely accurate. Overcome this by ensuring anonymity and emphasizing honesty.

Sample Representation: If your survey sample isn't representative of the population you're studying, it can skew your results. Aiming for a diverse sample can mitigate this.

Now that we're aware of the limitations let's delve into the world of survey design.

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Survey research design

Designing a survey is like crafting a roadmap to discovery. It's an intricate process that involves careful planning, innovative strategies, and a deep understanding of your research goals. Let's get started.

Approach and Strategy

Your approach and strategy are the compasses guiding your survey research. Clear objectives, defined research questions, and an understanding of your target audience lay the foundation for a successful survey.

The panel is the heartbeat of your survey, the respondents who breathe life into your research. Selecting a representative panel ensures your research is accurate and inclusive.

9 Tips on Building the Perfect Survey Research Questionnaire

Keep It Simple: Clear and straightforward questions lead to accurate responses.
Make It Relevant: Ensure every question ties back to your research objectives.
Order Matters: Start with easy questions to build rapport and save sensitive ones for later.
Avoid Double-Barreled Questions: Stick to one idea per question.
Offer a Balanced Scale: For rating scales, provide an equal number of positive and negative options.
Provide a ‘Don't Know’ Option: This prevents guessing and keeps your data accurate.
Pretest Your Survey: A pilot run helps you spot any issues before the final launch.
Keep It Short: Respect your respondents' time.
Make It Engaging: Keep your respondents interested with a mix of question types.

Survey research examples and questions

Examples serve as a bridge connecting theoretical concepts to real-world scenarios. Let's consider a few practical examples of survey research across various domains.

User Experience (UX)

Imagine being a UX designer at a budding tech start-up. Your app is gaining traction, but to keep your user base growing and engaged, you must ensure that your app's UX is top-notch. In this case, a well-designed survey could be a beacon, guiding you toward understanding user behavior, preferences, and pain points.

Here's an example of how such a survey could look:

"On a scale of 1 to 10, how would you rate the ease of navigating our app?"
"How often do you encounter difficulties while using our app?"
"What features do you use most frequently in our app?"
"What improvements would you suggest for our app?"
"What features would you like to see in future updates?"

This line of questioning, while straightforward, provides invaluable insights. It enables the UX designer to identify strengths to capitalize on and weaknesses to improve, ultimately leading to a product that resonates with users.

Psychology and Ethics in survey research

The realm of survey research is not just about data and numbers, but it's also about understanding human behavior and treating respondents ethically.

Psychology: In-depth understanding of cognitive biases and social dynamics can profoundly influence survey design. Let's take the 'Recency Effect,' a psychological principle stating that people tend to remember recent events more vividly than those in the past. While framing questions about user experiences, this insight could be invaluable.

For example, a question like "Can you recall an instance in the past week when our customer service exceeded your expectations?" is likely to fetch more accurate responses than asking about an event several months ago.

Ethics: On the other hand, maintaining privacy, confidentiality, and informed consent is more than ethical - it's fundamental to the integrity of the research process.

Imagine conducting a sensitive survey about workplace culture. Ensuring respondents that their responses will remain confidential and anonymous can encourage more honest responses. An introductory note stating these assurances, along with a clear outline of the survey's purpose, can help build trust with your respondents.

Survey research software

In the age of digital information, survey research software has become a trusted ally for researchers. It simplifies complex processes like data collection, analysis, and visualization, democratizing research and making it more accessible to a broad audience.

LimeSurvey, our innovative, user-friendly tool, brings this vision to life. It stands at the crossroads of simplicity and power, embodying the essence of accessible survey research.

Whether you're a freelancer exploring new market trends, a psychology student curious about human behavior, or an HR officer aiming to improve company culture, LimeSurvey empowers you to conduct efficient, effective research. Its suite of features and intuitive design matches your research pace, allowing your curiosity to take the front seat.

For instance, consider you're a researcher studying consumer behavior across different demographics. With LimeSurvey, you can easily design demographic-specific questions, distribute your survey across various channels, collect responses in real-time, and visualize your data through intuitive dashboards. This synergy of tools and functionalities makes LimeSurvey a perfect ally in your quest for knowledge.

If you've come this far, we can sense your spark of curiosity. Are you eager to take the reins and conduct your own survey research? Are you ready to embrace the simple yet powerful tool that LimeSurvey offers? If so, we can't wait to see where your journey takes you next!

In the world of survey research, there's always more to explore, more to learn and more to discover. So, keep your curiosity alive, stay open to new ideas, and remember, your exploration is just beginning!

We hope that our exploration has been as enlightening for you as it was exciting for us. Remember, the journey doesn't end here. With the power of knowledge and the right tools in your hands, there's no limit to what you can achieve. So, let your curiosity be your guide and dive into the fascinating world of survey research with LimeSurvey! Try it out for free now!

Happy surveying!

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Types of Survey: What It Is with Examples

Technically, a survey is a method of gathering and compiling information from a group of people, more often known as the sample, to gain knowledge by organizations, businesses, or institutions. This information or opinion collected from the sample is more often a generalization of what a large population thinks.

Different types of survey helps provide important or critical information in the form of meaningful data, which is further used by businesses or organizations to make informed and sound decisions. The collected data offers good insights only when the administered questionnaire is carefully designed to promote response rates and includes both open-ended questions and closed-ended questions and answers options. There is much variety when it comes to surveys, and we can identify their types based on the frequency of their administration or the way of deployment.

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Types of Survey

Now that we know what a survey is and why do we need to survey people, let’s explore its types. These can be classified in different ways, as mentioned earlier, depending upon the frequency of administration or deployment and how the distribution/deployment occurs. There are other types of surveys like random sample surveys (to understand public opinion or attitude) and self-selected type of studies.

LEARN ABOUT: Candidate Experience Survey

Types of a survey based on deployment methods:

1. online surveys:.

One of the most popular types is an online survey . With technology advancing many folds with each passing day, an online survey is becoming more popular. This survey consists of survey questions that can be easily deployed to the respondents online via email, or they can access the survey if they have an internet connection. These surveys are easy to design and simple to deploy. Respondents are given ample time and space to the respondent to answer these surveys, so researchers can expect unbiased responses. They are less expensive, and data can be collected and analyzed quickly.

LEARN ABOUT: Event Surveys

2. Paper surveys:

As the name suggests, this survey uses the traditional paper and pencil approach. Many would believe that paper surveys are a thing of the past. However, they are quite handy when it comes to field research and data collection. These surveys can go where computers, laptops or other handheld devices cannot go.

There is a flip side to it too. This survey type is the most expensive method of data collection. It includes deploying a large number of human resources, along with time and money.

LEARN ABOUT: course evaluation survey examples

3. Telephonic Surveys:

Researchers conduct these over telephones. Respondents need to answer questions related to the research topic by the researcher. These surveys are time-consuming and sometimes non-conclusive. The success of these depends on how many people answer the phone and want to invest their time answering questions over the telephone.

4. One-to-One interviews:

The one-to-one interview helps researchers gather information or data directly from a respondent. It’s a qualitative research method and depends on the knowledge and experience of a researcher to frame and ask relevant questions one after the other to collect meaningful insights from the interview . These interviews can last from 30 minutes up to a few hours.

Types of a survey based on the frequency of deployment

1. cross-sectional studies.

These surveys are administered to a small sample from a larger population within a small time frame. This type offers a researcher a quick summary or analysis of what respondents think at that given time. These surveys are short and ready to answer and can measure opinion in one particular situation.

Consider hypothetically, an organization conducts a study related to breast cancer in America, and they choose a sample to obtain cross-sectional data. This data indicated that breast cancer was most prevalent in women of African-American origin. The information is from one point in time. Now, if the researcher wants to dwell more in-depth into the research, he/she can deploy a longitudinal survey.

Learn more: Cross-sectional Study

2. Longitudinal surveys:

Longitudinal surveys are those surveys that help researchers to make an observation and collect data over an extended period. There are three main types of longitudinal studies: trend surveys, panel surveys, and cohort surveys.

Trend surveys are deployed by researchers to understand the shift or transformation in the thought process of respondents over some time. They use these surveys to understand how people’s inclination change with time.

Another longitudinal survey type is a panel survey . Researchers administer these surveys to the same set or group of people over the years. Panel surveys are expensive in nature, and researchers try to stick to their panel to gather unbiased opinions.

The third type of longitudinal survey is the cohort survey. In this type, categories of people that meet specific similar criteria and characteristics form the target audience. The same people don’t need to create a group. However, people forming a group should have certain similarities.

Learn more: Longitudinal Study

3. Retrospective survey:

A retrospective survey is a type of study in which respondents answer questions to report on events from the past. By deploying this kind of survey, researchers can gather data based on past experiences and beliefs of people. This way, unlike a longitudinal survey, they can save the cost and time required.

Learn more: Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal Study

Random public opinion/attitude type of survey research:

When an agency needs reliable, projectable data about the attitudes and opinions of its citizens or a select group of its citizens, it is essential to conduct a valid, random sample survey. Telephone interview surveys are considerably more common than in-person interviews because they are far less expensive to administer and act as a standard tool for gathering information.

There is a margin of error based on the sample size (generally, a minimum population sample of 200 is the industry standard for reliable data about any population segment). Overall, random sample telephone interview surveys provide reasonably accurate information about the population.

While there is a statistical margin of error (the sample of 200 provides an error range of +/- 7% with a 95% confidence), this type of survey is the most democratic and reliable process for learning about the opinions of an entire community.

A random sample survey is inappropriate for educating people about an issue or assessing what people will do at some future point (i.e., “Will you vote for this bond issue?”). But, the results provide a reasonably accurate portrait of the person’s opinions in the present moment (i.e., a person’s feelings or attitudes about the issues relating to the need to approve a bond). Questions in the past and present tense provide a reasonable degree of accuracy about a person’s usage and habit patterns.

If you are trying to calculate the ideal margin of error for your research, you can use tools like our margin of error calculator .

LEARN ABOUT: telephone survey

Self-selected type of survey research – Newspapers, mail, Internet, written questionnaires:

When an agency has a political need to create a survey process that allows anyone interested in responding, it can do a self-selected process. A written survey can be distributed in public locations, such as the City Hall or Library, emailed directly, emailed, or published in the city newsletter or the local newspaper.

When reporting data from a self-selected survey, it is essential, to begin with, the understanding and the language, “Of those who chose to respond…..” Most often, those who volunteer to respond to a self-selected survey have a strong opinion (frequently negative) about the issue in question.

A self-selected survey can be an excellent public relations tool and the right way to inform the public. But, it’s crucial to be cautious in drawing any conclusion about what the public, in general, thinks based on the results of a survey when the respondents are volunteers.

Learn more: Research Design

Types of surveys with examples

A researcher must have a proper medium to conduct research and collect meaningful information to make informed decisions. Also, it is essential to have a platform to create and deploy these various types of market research surveys.

LEARN ABOUT: Top 12 Tips to Create A Good Survey

QuestionPro is a platform that helps not only to create but also to deploy different types of surveys. We have 350+ types of survey templates and survey examples, including:

Customer survey templates: Customers are crucial to success for any business or organization, and so are customer satisfaction surveys. It is essential for organizations or companies to understand their customers and what their needs and preferences are. Use the customer survey template to understand your customers better and work on their feedback to grow and flourish your business.
Market research & Marketing survey templates : Use marketing survey templates for market research to determine what consumers think about products or services. These are also helpful for a brand to assess whether products are reasonably priced, gather feedback from consumers, measure their level of awareness, and more.
Community survey templates : Community survey templates can be administered to members of associations or foundations to get feedback regarding the various activities conducted within the association. This helps understand the member’s experiences and collect feedback regarding what kind of programs add value, feedback of previously held events, etc. and more.
Human Resource survey templates : The human resource survey template can be used by businesses and organizations for employee evaluation, employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and more. Organizations can send these out to employees, and their feedback can be collected and implemented.

LEARN ABOUT: Workforce Planning Model

Industrial survey templates : Expertly designed survey templates that are customized for the different industries help to collect in-depth feedback or information from consumers of various industries like event management, hotel industry , fast food industry, transportation, just to name a few. Through these survey templates, the industry player can understand what good they are already doing and what needs more attention from a consumer’s point of view.
Academic survey templates : Academic survey templates are one of the best ways to understand how students and their parents respond to the efforts taken by your education institution. A online questionnaire designed by industry experts helps to assess the parent/student feedback on a course evaluation, curriculum planning, training sessions, etc.
Nonprofit survey templates : These Nonprofit survey templates are designed by domain experts to collect targeted information and feedback from various donors, volunteers, stakeholders, and any other participants of a nonprofit’s activities. The questionnaires address various important touchpoints and collect data from event attendees, collect donor survey feedback, or run an internal survey among volunteers.

LEARN ABOUT: best time to send out surveys

One can choose from these existing survey format templates or create a survey of their own, all this just at the click of a button.

Explore: 350+ Free survey templates

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A Comprehensive Guide to Survey Research Methodologies

For decades, researchers and businesses have used survey research to produce statistical data and explore ideas. The survey process is simple, ask questions and analyze the responses to make decisions. Data is what makes the difference between a valid and invalid statement and as the American statistician, W. Edwards Deming said:

“Without data, you’re just another person with an opinion.” - W. Edwards Deming

In this article, we will discuss what survey research is, its brief history, types, common uses, benefits, and the step-by-step process of designing a survey.

What is Survey Research

A survey is a research method that is used to collect data from a group of respondents in order to gain insights and information regarding a particular subject. It’s an excellent method to gather opinions and understand how and why people feel a certain way about different situations and contexts.

Brief History of Survey Research

Survey research may have its roots in the American and English “social surveys” conducted around the turn of the 20th century. The surveys were mainly conducted by researchers and reformers to document the extent of social issues such as poverty. ( 1 ) Despite being a relatively young field to many scientific domains, survey research has experienced three stages of development ( 2 ):

- First Era (1930-1960)

- Second Era (1960-1990)

- Third Era (1990 onwards)

Over the years, survey research adapted to the changing times and technologies. By exploiting the latest technologies, researchers can gain access to the right population from anywhere in the world, analyze the data like never before, and extract useful information.

Survey Research Methods & Types

Survey research can be classified into seven categories based on objective, data sources, methodology, deployment method, and frequency of deployment.

Types of survey research based on objective, data source, methodology, deployment method, and frequency of deployment.

Surveys based on Objective

Exploratory survey research.

Exploratory survey research is aimed at diving deeper into research subjects and finding out more about their context. It’s important for marketing or business strategy and the focus is to discover ideas and insights instead of gathering statistical data.

Generally, exploratory survey research is composed of open-ended questions that allow respondents to express their thoughts and perspectives. The final responses present information from various sources that can lead to fresh initiatives.

Predictive Survey Research

Predictive survey research is also called causal survey research. It’s preplanned, structured, and quantitative in nature. It’s often referred to as conclusive research as it tries to explain the cause-and-effect relationship between different variables. The objective is to understand which variables are causes and which are effects and the nature of the relationship between both variables.

Descriptive Survey Research

Descriptive survey research is largely observational and is ideal for gathering numeric data. Due to its quantitative nature, it’s often compared to exploratory survey research. The difference between the two is that descriptive research is structured and pre-planned.

The idea behind descriptive research is to describe the mindset and opinion of a particular group of people on a given subject. The questions are every day multiple choices and users must choose from predefined categories. With predefined choices, you don’t get unique insights, rather, statistically inferable data.

Survey Research Types based on Concept Testing

Monadic concept testing.

Monadic testing is a survey research methodology in which the respondents are split into multiple groups and ask each group questions about a separate concept in isolation. Generally, monadic surveys are hyper-focused on a particular concept and shorter in duration. The important thing in monadic surveys is to avoid getting off-topic or exhausting the respondents with too many questions.

Sequential Monadic Concept Testing

Another approach to monadic testing is sequential monadic testing. In sequential monadic surveys, groups of respondents are surveyed in isolation. However, instead of surveying three groups on three different concepts, the researchers survey the same groups of people on three distinct concepts one after another. In a sequential monadic survey, at least two topics are included (in random order), and the same questions are asked for each concept to eliminate bias.

Based on Data Source

Primary data.

Data obtained directly from the source or target population is referred to as primary survey data. When it comes to primary data collection, researchers usually devise a set of questions and invite people with knowledge of the subject to respond. The main sources of primary data are interviews, questionnaires, surveys, and observation methods.

Compared to secondary data, primary data is gathered from first-hand sources and is more reliable. However, the process of primary data collection is both costly and time-consuming.

Secondary Data

Survey research is generally used to collect first-hand information from a respondent. However, surveys can also be designed to collect and process secondary data. It’s collected from third-party sources or primary sources in the past.

This type of data is usually generic, readily available, and cheaper than primary data collection. Some common sources of secondary data are books, data collected from older surveys, online data, and data from government archives. Beware that you might compromise the validity of your findings if you end up with irrelevant or inflated data.

Based on Research Method

Quantitative research.

Quantitative research is a popular research methodology that is used to collect numeric data in a systematic investigation. It’s frequently used in research contexts where statistical data is required, such as sciences or social sciences. Quantitative research methods include polls, systematic observations, and face-to-face interviews.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a research methodology where you collect non-numeric data from research participants. In this context, the participants are not restricted to a specific system and provide open-ended information. Some common qualitative research methods include focus groups, one-on-one interviews, observations, and case studies.

Based on Deployment Method

Online surveys.

With technology advancing rapidly, the most popular method of survey research is an online survey. With the internet, you can not only reach a broader audience but also design and customize a survey and deploy it from anywhere. Online surveys have outperformed offline survey methods as they are less expensive and allow researchers to easily collect and analyze data from a large sample.

Paper or Print Surveys

As the name suggests, paper or print surveys use the traditional paper and pencil approach to collect data. Before the invention of computers, paper surveys were the survey method of choice.

Though many would assume that surveys are no longer conducted on paper, it's still a reliable method of collecting information during field research and data collection. However, unlike online surveys, paper surveys are expensive and require extra human resources.

Telephonic Surveys

Telephonic surveys are conducted over telephones where a researcher asks a series of questions to the respondent on the other end. Contacting respondents over a telephone requires less effort, human resources, and is less expensive.

What makes telephonic surveys debatable is that people are often reluctant in giving information over a phone call. Additionally, the success of such surveys depends largely on whether people are willing to invest their time on a phone call answering questions.

One-on-one Surveys

One-on-one surveys also known as face-to-face surveys are interviews where the researcher and respondent. Interacting directly with the respondent introduces the human factor into the survey.

Face-to-face interviews are useful when the researcher wants to discuss something personal with the respondent. The response rates in such surveys are always higher as the interview is being conducted in person. However, these surveys are quite expensive and the success of these depends on the knowledge and experience of the researcher.

Based on Distribution

The easiest and most common way of conducting online surveys is sending out an email. Sending out surveys via emails has a higher response rate as your target audience already knows about your brand and is likely to engage.

Buy Survey Responses

Purchasing survey responses also yields higher responses as the responders signed up for the survey. Businesses often purchase survey samples to conduct extensive research. Here, the target audience is often pre-screened to check if they're qualified to take part in the research.

Embedding Survey on a Website

Embedding surveys on a website is another excellent way to collect information. It allows your website visitors to take part in a survey without ever leaving the website and can be done while a person is entering or exiting the website.

Post the Survey on Social Media

Social media is an excellent medium to reach abroad range of audiences. You can publish your survey as a link on social media and people who are following the brand can take part and answer questions.

Based on Frequency of Deployment

Cross-sectional studies.

Cross-sectional studies are administered to a small sample from a large population within a short period of time. This provides researchers a peek into what the respondents are thinking at a given time. The surveys are usually short, precise, and specific to a particular situation.

Longitudinal Surveys

Longitudinal surveys are an extension of cross-sectional studies where researchers make an observation and collect data over extended periods of time. This type of survey can be further divided into three types:

- Trend surveys are employed to allow researchers to understand the change in the thought process of the respondents over some time.

- Panel surveys are administered to the same group of people over multiple years. These are usually expensive and researchers must stick to their panel to gather unbiased opinions.

- In cohort surveys, researchers identify a specific category of people and regularly survey them. Unlike panel surveys, the same people do not need to take part over the years, but each individual must fall into the researcher’s primary interest category.

Retrospective Survey

Retrospective surveys allow researchers to ask questions to gather data about past events and beliefs of the respondents. Since retrospective surveys also require years of data, they are similar to the longitudinal survey, except retrospective surveys are shorter and less expensive.

Why Should You Conduct Research Surveys?

“In God we trust. All others must bring data” - W. Edwards Deming

In the information age, survey research is of utmost importance and essential for understanding the opinion of your target population. Whether you’re launching a new product or conducting a social survey, the tool can be used to collect specific information from a defined set of respondents. The data collected via surveys can be further used by organizations to make informed decisions.

Furthermore, compared to other research methods, surveys are relatively inexpensive even if you’re giving out incentives. Compared to the older methods such as telephonic or paper surveys, online surveys have a smaller cost and the number of responses is higher.

What makes surveys useful is that they describe the characteristics of a large population. With a larger sample size , you can rely on getting more accurate results. However, you also need honest and open answers for accurate results. Since surveys are also anonymous and the responses remain confidential, respondents provide candid and accurate answers.

Common Uses of a Survey

Surveys are widely used in many sectors, but the most common uses of the survey research include:

- Market research : surveying a potential market to understand customer needs, preferences, and market demand.

- Customer Satisfaction: finding out your customer’s opinions about your services, products, or companies .

- Social research: investigating the characteristics and experiences of various social groups.

- Health research: collecting data about patients’ symptoms and treatments.

- Politics: evaluating public opinion regarding policies and political parties.

- Psychology: exploring personality traits, behaviors, and preferences.

6 Steps to Conduct Survey Research

An organization, person, or company conducts a survey when they need the information to make a decision but have insufficient data on hand. Following are six simple steps that can help you design a great survey.

Step 1: Objective of the Survey

The first step in survey research is defining an objective. The objective helps you define your target population and samples. The target population is the specific group of people you want to collect data from and since it’s rarely possible to survey the entire population, we target a specific sample from it. Defining a survey objective also benefits your respondents by helping them understand the reason behind the survey.

Step 2: Number of Questions

The number of questions or the size of the survey depends on the survey objective. However, it’s important to ensure that there are no redundant queries and the questions are in a logical order. Rephrased and repeated questions in a survey are almost as frustrating as in real life. For a higher completion rate, keep the questionnaire small so that the respondents stay engaged to the very end. The ideal length of an interview is less than 15 minutes. ( 2 )

Step 3: Language and Voice of Questions

While designing a survey, you may feel compelled to use fancy language. However, remember that difficult language is associated with higher survey dropout rates. You need to speak to the respondent in a clear, concise, and neutral manner, and ask simple questions. If your survey respondents are bilingual, then adding an option to translate your questions into another language can also prove beneficial.

Step 4: Type of Questions

In a survey, you can include any type of questions and even both closed-ended or open-ended questions. However, opt for the question types that are the easiest to understand for the respondents, and offer the most value. For example, compared to open-ended questions, people prefer to answer close-ended questions such as MCQs (multiple choice questions)and NPS (net promoter score) questions.

Step 5: User Experience

Designing a great survey is about more than just questions. A lot of researchers underestimate the importance of user experience and how it affects their response and completion rates. An inconsistent, difficult-to-navigate survey with technical errors and poor color choice is unappealing for the respondents. Make sure that your survey is easy to navigate for everyone and if you’re using rating scales, they remain consistent throughout the research study.

Additionally, don’t forget to design a good survey experience for both mobile and desktop users. According to Pew Research Center, nearly half of the smartphone users access the internet mainly from their mobile phones and 14 percent of American adults are smartphone-only internet users. ( 3 )

Step 6: Survey Logic

Last but not least, logic is another critical aspect of the survey design. If the survey logic is flawed, respondents may not continue in the right direction. Make sure to test the logic to ensure that selecting one answer leads to the next logical question instead of a series of unrelated queries.

How to Effectively Use Survey Research with Starlight Analytics

Designing and conducting a survey is almost as much science as it is an art. To craft great survey research, you need technical skills, consider the psychological elements, and have a broad understanding of marketing.

The ultimate goal of the survey is to ask the right questions in the right manner to acquire the right results.

Bringing a new product to the market is a long process and requires a lot of research and analysis. In your journey to gather information or ideas for your business, Starlight Analytics can be an excellent guide. Starlight Analytics' product concept testing helps you measure your product's market demand and refine product features and benefits so you can launch with confidence. The process starts with custom research to design the survey according to your needs, execute the survey, and deliver the key insights on time.

Survey research in the United States: roots and emergence, 1890-1960 https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/10733873
How to create a survey questionnaire that gets great responses https://luc.id/knowledgehub/how-to-create-a-survey-questionnaire-that-gets-great-responses/
Internet/broadband fact sheet https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/internet-broadband/

Concept testing: real-time customer feedback to power your products + marketing.

Need real-time feedback on your product or marketing idea? Concept testing helps you gauge customer acceptance + willingness to purchase your product before you go-to-market.

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A quick guide to survey research

1 University of Cambridge,, UK

2 Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust,, UK

Questionnaires are a very useful survey tool that allow large populations to be assessed with relative ease. Despite a widespread perception that surveys are easy to conduct, in order to yield meaningful results, a survey needs extensive planning, time and effort. In this article, we aim to cover the main aspects of designing, implementing and analysing a survey as well as focusing on techniques that would improve response rates.

Medical research questionnaires or surveys are vital tools used to gather information on individual perspectives in a large cohort. Within the medical realm, there are three main types of survey: epidemiological surveys, surveys on attitudes to a health service or intervention and questionnaires assessing knowledge on a particular issue or topic. 1

Despite a widespread perception that surveys are easy to conduct, in order to yield meaningful results, a survey needs extensive planning, time and effort. In this article, we aim to cover the main aspects of designing, implementing and analysing a survey as well as focusing on techniques that would improve response rates.

Clear research goal

The first and most important step in designing a survey is to have a clear idea of what you are looking for. It will always be tempting to take a blanket approach and ask as many questions as possible in the hope of getting as much information as possible. This type of approach does not work as asking too many irrelevant or incoherent questions reduces the response rate 2 and therefore reduces the power of the study. This is especially important when surveying physicians as they often have a lower response rate than the rest of the population. 3 Instead, you must carefully consider the important data you will be using and work on a ‘need to know’ rather than a ‘would be nice to know’ model. 4

After considering the question you are trying to answer, deciding whom you are going to ask is the next step. With small populations, attempting to survey them all is manageable but as your population gets bigger, a sample must be taken. The size of this sample is more important than you might expect. After lost questionnaires, non-responders and improper answers are taken into account, this sample must still be big enough to be representative of the entire population. If it is not big enough, the power of your statistics will drop and you may not get any meaningful answers at all. It is for this reason that getting a statistician involved in your study early on is absolutely crucial. Data should not be collected until you know what you are going to do with them.

Directed questions

After settling on your research goal and beginning to design a questionnaire, the main considerations are the method of data collection, the survey instrument and the type of question you are going to ask. Methods of data collection include personal interviews, telephone, postal or electronic ( Table 1 ).

Advantages and disadvantages of survey methods

Method of data collection	Advantages	Disadvantages
Personal	• Complex questions	• Expensive
	• Visual aids can be used	• Time inefficient
	• Higher response rates	• Training to avoid bias
Telephone	• Allows clarification	• No visual aids
	• Larger radius than personal	• Difficult to develop rapport
	• Less expensive or time consuming
	• Higher response rates
Postal	• Larger target	• Non-response
	• Visual aids (although limited)	• Time for data compilation
	• Lower response rates
Electronic	• Larger target	• Non-response
	• Visual aids	• Not all subjects accessible
	• Quick response
	• Quick data compilation
	• Lower response rates

Collected data are only useful if they convey information accurately and consistently about the topic in which you are interested. This is where a validated survey instrument comes in to the questionnaire design. Validated instruments are those that have been extensively tested and are correctly calibrated to their target. They can therefore be assumed to be accurate. 1 It may be possible to modify a previously validated instrument but you should seek specialist advice as this is likely to reduce its power. Examples of validated models are the Beck Hopelessness Scale 5 or the Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination. 6

The next step is choosing the type of question you are going to ask. The questionnaire should be designed to answer the question you want answered. Each question should be clear, concise and without bias. Normalising statements should be included and the language level targeted towards those at the lowest educational level in your cohort. 1 You should avoid open, double barrelled questions and those questions that include negative items and assign causality. 1 The questions you use may elicit either an open (free text answer) or closed response. Open responses are more flexible but require more time and effort to analyse, whereas closed responses require more initial input in order to exhaust all possible options but are easier to analyse and present.

Questionnaire

Two more aspects come into questionnaire design: aesthetics and question order. While this is not relevant to telephone or personal questionnaires, in self-administered surveys the aesthetics of the questionnaire are crucial. Having spent a large amount of time fine-tuning your questions, presenting them in such a way as to maximise response rates is pivotal to obtaining good results. Visual elements to think of include smooth, simple and symmetrical shapes, soft colours and repetition of visual elements. 7

Once you have attracted your subject’s attention and willingness with a well designed and attractive survey, the order in which you put your questions is critical. To do this you should focus on what you need to know; start by placing easier, important questions at the beginning, group common themes in the middle and keep questions on demographics to near the end. The questions should be arrayed in a logical order, questions on the same topic close together and with sensible sections if long enough to warrant them. Introductory and summary questions to mark the start and end of the survey are also helpful.

Pilot study

Once a completed survey has been compiled, it needs to be tested. The ideal next step should highlight spelling errors, ambiguous questions and anything else that impairs completion of the questionnaire. 8 A pilot study, in which you apply your work to a small sample of your target population in a controlled setting, may highlight areas in which work still needs to be done. Where possible, being present while the pilot is going on will allow a focus group-type atmosphere in which you can discuss aspects of the survey with those who are going to be filling it in. This step may seem non-essential but detecting previously unconsidered difficulties needs to happen as early as possible and it is important to use your participants’ time wisely as they are unlikely to give it again.

Distribution and collection

While it should be considered quite early on, we will now discuss routes of survey administration and ways to maximise results. Questionnaires can be self-administered electronically or by post, or administered by a researcher by telephone or in person. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are summarised in Table 1 . Telephone and personal surveys are very time and resource consuming whereas postal and electronic surveys suffer from low response rates and response bias. Your route should be chosen with care.

Methods for maximising response rates for self-administered surveys are listed in Table 2 , taken from a Cochrane review.2 The differences between methods of maximising responses to postal or e-surveys are considerable but common elements include keeping the questionnaire short and logical as well as including incentives.

Methods for improving response rates in postal and electronic questionnaires 2

Postal	Electronic
Monetary or non-monetary incentives	Non-monetary incentives
Teaser on the envelope	Personalised questionnaires
Pre-notification	Include pictures
Follow-up with another copy included	Not including ‘survey’ in subject line
Handwritten addresses	Male signature
University sponsorship	White background
Use recorded delivery	Short questionnaire
Include return envelope	Offer of results
Avoid sensitive questions	Statement that others have responded

– Involve a statistician early on.
– Run a pilot study to uncover problems.
– Consider using a validated instrument.
– Only ask what you ‘need to know’.
– Consider guidelines on improving response rates.

The collected data will come in a number of forms depending on the method of collection. Data from telephone or personal interviews can be directly entered into a computer database whereas postal data can be entered at a later stage. Electronic questionnaires can allow responses to go directly into a computer database. Problems arise from errors in data entry and when questionnaires are returned with missing data fields. As mentioned earlier, it is essential to have a statistician involved from the beginning for help with data analysis. He or she will have helped to determine the sample size required to ensure your study has enough power. The statistician can also suggest tests of significance appropriate to your survey, such as Student’s t-test or the chi-square test.

Conclusions

Survey research is a unique way of gathering information from a large cohort. Advantages of surveys include having a large population and therefore a greater statistical power, the ability to gather large amounts of information and having the availability of validated models. However, surveys are costly, there is sometimes discrepancy in recall accuracy and the validity of a survey depends on the response rate. Proper design is vital to enable analysis of results and pilot studies are critical to this process.

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Understanding the 3 Main Types of Survey Research & Putting Them to Use

Understanding the 3 Main Types of Survey Research & Putting Them to Use

Surveys establish a powerful primary source of market research. There are three main types of survey research; understanding these will not merely organize your survey studies, but help you form them from the onset of your research campaign.

It is crucial to be proficient in these types of survey research, as surveys should never be used as lone tools. A survey is a vehicle for granting insights, as part of a larger market research or other research campaigns.

Understanding the three types of survey research will help you learn aspects within these forms that you were either not aware of or were not well-versed in.

This article explores the three main types of survey research and teaches you when to best implement each form of research.

Putting the Types of Survey Research into Perspective

With the presence of online surveys and other market research methods such as focus groups , there are ever-growing survey research methods . Before you choose a method, it is critical to decide on the type of survey research you need to conduct.

The type of survey research points to the kind of study you are going to apply in your campaign and all of its implications . The survey research type essentially hosts the research methods, which house the actual surveys . As such, the research type is one of the highest levels of the process, so consider it as a starting point in your research campaign.

Remember, that while there are various research types, the three presented in this article delineate the main types used in survey research. Researchers can apply these types to other research techniques (such as focus groups, interviews, etc.), but they are best suited for surveys.

Descriptive Research

The first main type of survey research is descriptive research. This type is centered on describing, as its name suggests, a topic of study. This can be a population, an occurrence or a phenomenon.

Descriptive research is often the first type of research applied around a research issue, because it paints a picture of a topic, rather than investigating why it exists to begin with.

The Key Aspects of Descriptive Research

The following provides the key attributes of descriptive research, so as to provide a full understanding of it.

Makes up the majority of online survey methods.
Concentrates on the what, when, where and how questions, rather than the why.
Lays out the particulars surrounding a research topic, but not its origin.
Handles quantitative studies.
Deemed conclusive due to its quantitative data.
Provides data that provides statistical inferences on a target population.
Preplanned and highly structured.
Aims to define an occurrence, attitude or opinions of the studied population.
Measures the significance of the results and formulates trends.
Can be used in cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys.

Survey Examples of Descriptive Research

There are various types of surveys to use for descriptive research. In fact, you can apply virtually all of them if they meet the above requirements. Here are the major ones:

Descriptive surveys: These gather data about different subjects. They are set to find how different conditions can be gained by the subjects and the extent thereof. Ex: determining how qualified applicants are to a job are via a survey checking for this.
Descriptive-normative surveys: Much like descriptive surveys, but the results of the survey are compared with a norm.
Descriptive analysis surveys: This survey describes a phenomenon via an analysis that divides the subject into 2 parts. Ex: analyzing employees with the same job role across geolocations.
Correlative Survey: This determines whether the relationship between 2 variables is either positive or negative; sometimes it can be used to find neutrality. For example, if A and B have negative, positive or no correlation.

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is predicated on unearthing ideas and insights rather than amassing statistics. Also unlike descriptive research, exploratory research is not conclusive. This is because this research is conducted to obtain a better understanding of an existing phenomenon, one that has either not been studied thoroughly or is lacking some information.

Exploratory research is most apt to use at the beginning of a research campaign. In business, this kind of research is necessary for identifying issues within a company, opportunities for growth, adopting new procedures and deciding on which issues require statistical research, i.e., descriptive research.

The Key Aspects of Exploratory Research

Also called interpretative research or grounded theory approach, the following provides the key attributes of exploratory research, including how it differs from descriptive research.

Uses exploratory questions, which are intended to probe subjects in a qualitative manner.
Provides quality information that can uncover other unknown issues or solutions.
Is not meant to provide data that is statistically measurable.
Used to get a familiarity with an existing problem by understanding its specifics.
Starts with a general idea with the outcomes of the research being used to find related issues with the research subject.
Typically exists within open-ended questions.
Its process varies based on the new insights researchers gain and how they choose to go about them.
Usually asks for the what, how and most distinctively, the why.
Due to the absence of past research on the subject, exploratory research is time-consuming,
Not structured and flexible.

Examples of Exploratory Research

Since exploratory research is not structured and often scattered, it can exist within a multitude of survey types. For example, it can be used in an employee feedback survey, a cross-sectional survey and virtually any other that allows you to ask questions on the why and employs open-ended questions.

Here are a few other ways to conduct exploratory research:

Case studies: They help researchers analyze existing cases that deal with a similar phenomenon. This method often involves secondary research , unless your business or organization has case studies on a similar topic. Perhaps one of your competitors offers one as well. With case studies, the researcher needs to study all the variables in the case study in relation to their own.
Field Observations: This method is best suited for researchers who deal with their subjects in physical environments, for example, those studying customers in a store or patients in a clinic. It can also be applied by studying digital behaviors using a session replay tool.
Focus Groups: This involves a group of people, typically 6-10 coming together and speaking with the researcher, as opposed to having a one on one conversation with the researcher. Participants are chosen to provide insights on the topic of study and express it with other members of the focus group, while the researcher observes and acts as a moderator.
Interviews : Interviews can be conducted in person or over the phone. Researchers have the option of interviewing their target market, their overall target population, or subject matter experts. The latter will provide significant and professional-grade insights, the kind that non-experts typically can’t offer.

Causal Research

The final type of survey research is causal research, which, much like descriptive research is structured, preplanned and draws quantitative insights. Also called explanatory research, causal research aims to discover whether there is any causality between the relationships of variables.

As such, focuses primarily on cause-and-effect relationships. In this regard, it stands in opposition with descriptive research, which is far broader. Causal research has only two objects:

Understand which variable are the cause and which are the effect
Decipher the workings of the relationship between the causal variables, including how they will hammer out the effect.

The Key Aspects of Causal Research

The following provides the key traits of causal research, including how it differs from descriptive and exploratory research.

Considered conclusive research due to its structured design, preplanning and quantitative nature.
Its two objectives make this research type more scientific than exploratory and descriptive research.
Focuses on observing the variations in variables suspected as causing the changes in other variables.
Measure changes in both the suspected causal variables and the ones they affect.
Variables suspected of being causal are isolated and tested to meet the aforesaid two objectives.
For example, an advertisement or a sales promotion
Requires setting objectives, preplanning parameters, and identifying potential causal variables and affected variables to reduce researcher bias.
Requires accounting for all the possible causal factors that may be affecting the supposed affected variable, i.e., there can’t be any outside (non-accounted) variables.
All confounding variables that can affect the results have to be kept consistent and controlled to make sure no hidden variable is in any way influencing the relationship between two variables.
To deem a cause and effect relationship, the cause would have needed to precede the effect.

Examples of Causal Research

Causal research depends on the most scientific method out of the three types of survey research. Given that it requires experimentation, a vast amount of surveys can be conducted on the variables to determine if they are causal, non-causal or the ones being affected.

Here are a few examples of use causal research

Product testing: Particularly useful if it’s a new product to test market demand and sales capacity.
Advertising Improvements: Researchers can study buying behaviors to see if there is any causality between ads and how much people buy or if the advertised products reach higher sales. The outcomes of this research can help marketers tweak their ad campaigns, discard them altogether or even consider product updates.
Increase customer retention : This can be conducted in different manners, such as via in-store experimentations, via digital shopping or through different surveys. These experiments will help you understand what current customers prefer and what repels them.
Community Needs : Local governments can conduct the community survey to discover opinions surrounding community issues. For example, researchers can test whether certain local laws, transportation availability and authorizations are well or poorly received and if they correlate with certain happenings.

Deciding on Which of the Types of Research to Conduct

Market researchers and marketers often have several aspects of their discipline that would benefit off of conducting these three types of survey research. What’s most empowering about these types of survey research is that they are not limited to surveys alone.

Instead, they bolster the idea that surveys should not be used as lone tools. Rather, survey research powers an abundance of other market research methods and campaigns. As such, researchers should set aside surveys after they’ve decided on high-level campaigns and their needs.

As such, consider the core of what you need to study. Can your survey be applied to a macro-application? For example, in the business sector, this can be marketing, branding, advertising, etc.

Next, does your study require a methodical approach? For example, does it need to focus on one period of time among one population? If so, you will need to conduct a cross-sectional survey.

Or does it require to be conducted over some period of time? This will require implementing a longitudinal study. Once you figure out these components, you should move on to choosing the type of survey research you’re going to conduct. However, you can also decide on this before you choose one of the methodical methods.

Whichever route you decide to take, you’ll need a strong online survey provider, as this does, after all, involve surveys. The correct online survey platform will set your research up for success.

Frequently asked questions

Why is it important to understand the types of survey research.

The type of survey research informs the kind of study you’ll be conducting. It becomes the backbone of your campaign and all its implications. Basically, the types of survey research host their designated research methods, which house the surveys. Therefore, the types of survey research you decide on are at the highest level of the research process and act as your starting point.

What is exploratory research?

Exploratory research is the most preliminary form of research, establishing the foundation of a research process. focuses on unearthing ideas and insights rather than gathering statistics. It’s not a conclusive form of research-- rather, it is conducted to bolster understanding of a specific phenomenon. It is typically the first form of research, setting the foundation for a research campaign.

What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research focuses on describing a topic of study like a population, an occurrence or a phenomenon. It is performed early on in the overall research process, as it paints an overall picture of a topic, while extracting the key details that you wouldn’t find with exploratory research alone.

What is a cross-sectional survey?

A cross-sectional survey is a survey used to gather research about a particular population at a specific point in time. It is considered to be the snapshot of a studied population.

What is causal research?

Causal research is typically performed in the latter stages of the entire research process, following correlational or descriptive research. It is conducted to find the causality between variables. It involves more than merely observing, as it relies on experiments and the manipulation of variables

How can you decide which types of survey research to conduct?

Take a look at the core of what you need to study. Are you trying to focus on one period of time among a population? Does your survey research need to be conducted over a period of time? Questions like these will lead you to the right research type.

Do you want to distribute your survey? Pollfish offers you access to millions of targeted consumers to get survey responses from $0.95 per complete. Launch your survey today.

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7 Types of Survey Research Methods & When to Use Them

You rely on data in business for a simple reason; it helps you make informed decisions. The more information you have, up to a point, the higher the chance you’ll make the right decision. You can apply that simple insight of more information equals smarter decision-making to marketing, customer service, product development, or any other sector of your business.

There are many ways to gather data for your business. Too many to cover comprehensively in a single article, that’s for sure!

This guide will focus on several survey research methods. You’ll discover the pros and cons of each approach and learn the best time to use them in your outreach strategy.

In this article

1. Online surveys

2. in-person surveys, 3. focus groups, 4. panel sampling, 5. telephone surveys, 6. mail-in survey, 7. kiosk surveys, it’s time to get some feedback.

Online surveys are probably the most popular and widely used research method, certainly by small and medium-sized businesses. The main benefits of online surveys are threefold:

Easy to run: there are lots of online survey platforms available. That gives you plenty of freedom to design an interesting survey and embed it however and to an extent, wherever you want.
Easy to Analyze: the same software platforms will present the data nicely. That’s great for presenting your findings and analyzing the results.
Cheap or almost free: you can run an online survey on a tiny budget. Assuming you have an email list or a site with lots of visitors, you should get respondents.

Lowering the cost and barrier to entry means many businesses manage online surveys independently. That’s a good thing. Below is an example of what an online survey may look like:

Customer Feedback Template Example – Woorise

If you decide to run an online survey independently, take the time to research proper data collection methods. That’s a general thing to keep in mind for any survey research method on this list.

While online surveys are great, they do have their limitations. One of the biggest issues you’ll have is getting people to fill out your survey. Adding a survey to your site without context will result in a low number of respondents.

Ideally, you need to funnel people to your survey.

When asking people to fill in an online survey, you should always:

Explain the benefits for the respondent
Share how long it will take to complete
Share a link to your survey

If you find it difficult to run your online survey independently, you can always turn to a consulting company to run it for you. Alternatively, there are sites where you can list your survey for free or pay the business for a certain number of respondents.

Overall, online interviews are a great way to get a sense of market or customer sentiment.

It’s important to note that acting and making changes in your processes and products based on data you collect from surveys is one of the things most companies running surveys forget to do. According to a recent study only 17% of companies act on customer insights they collect.

Don’t forget to actually make changes or draw conclusions based on the data you work so hard to collect.

If you want a more personal approach, try the face-to-face survey. Face-to-face interviews are a great survey research method. They are a good way to gain deep insights from the respondent rather than general insights into market trends.

With a face-to-face survey, it’s easier to gain an overall impression of the respondent.

You can pick up things from the tone of voice and facial expressions. You’re also more likely to get longer answers, plus you get to ask follow-up questions. Finally, with each survey you conduct, you’ll gain insights into how to improve your approach for the next time.

As with each of the survey research methods on this list, there are limitations to face-to-face surveys. The most obvious problem is the sample size. The more face-to-face surveys you do, the more time it will take you and the more expensive the research will become.

Another issue you’ll run into is keeping track of responses and analyzing data. Whereas online surveys track everything for you automatically, you’ll need to do this manually with in-person surveys. If you bring a tablet with you to your interviews, you can use Google Sheets as a database for tracking qualitative and quantitative responses and then visualize that data using Sheets’ charts and graphs features.

If your sample is highly targeted, consider using face-to-face surveys. For instance, such surveys might be the better option if you want to determine your staff’s perception of your brand. But if you want to know your customers’ perception of your brand, online surveys may be your best bet since that’s a larger sample.

A focus group is a small group of people you get together to discuss a particular topic or a product. One group typically has five to ten people. The discussion is often facilitated by a moderator who gauges the group’s reaction and collects responses.

If you want to run a focus group, you should make sure your moderator will remain neutral throughout the discussions. They shouldn’t ask leading questions that may influence the answers of members of the group.

But how can you ensure the neutrality of your moderator if humans are inherently biased? You can’t. But you can at least make them act like they are during focus group discussions for the sake of the study. Brief them and make them understand your research goal. The person you assign to be a moderator should also have the following traits and characteristics:

They can listen attentively with sensitivity.
They are someone members of the group can relate to but at the same time, someone who exudes authority. For example, a male moderator is more appropriate if members of the group are males discussing sexual harassment in the workplace.
They have adequate knowledge of the topic being discussed.
They believe everyone has something to offer in the discussion.

Focus groups are one of the more expensive research methods. Companies typically pay $400 to $600 to each participant. Then there’s the amount you pay a trained moderator should you decide to hire one.

Focus groups can be hard to organize. You need to collect a group of people together and get them in one place. Though, video conferencing tools like Zoom or Whereby mean you can run a focus group remotely nowadays.

Focus groups are great for getting detailed impressions from a representative group. If you want to look at customer behavior, attitudes, and even at perceptions of processes, this is a great method for you.

You don’t need to be an offline company to use a focus group.

Fact of the day for you: Twitter used focus groups to come up with their platform. From the focus group discussions, they found people didn’t like Facebook’s cluttered news feed. They used that insight to come up with a more streamlined news feed for Twitter.

Panel sampling involves randomly choosing a group of people to be part of a panel that takes part in a study over time. Panel samples allow researchers to study changes within the population, your customer base, or changes in individual people.

Companies, for instance, use them to generate qualitative data on customer experience as the product develops over time. If you want to track customer happiness over time, you can use panel sampling as well.

Panel sampling is a research method used more by sociologists than businesses. One of the major problems with panel sampling is attrition. It’s hard to keep the same people involved in your study over a period of months, or potentially longer.

Then there’s the fact that members of a panel tend to stick to the attitude or position they showed or expressed right from the start. So, they can end up misrepresenting the general population which they were supposed to represent in the first place. The general public’s attitudes and opinions, after all, are more likely to change over time because of external and internal factors.

Telephone interviews are a popular and widely used survey research method. Here are three good reasons why companies use telephone surveys:

Targeting: you can run surveys targeting a particular demographic of a population
Sample Size: it’s possible to gather a lot of data in a short time period
Cost: it’s affordable. Assuming you have access to relevant contact information

Telephone surveys are often used to gauge customer satisfaction or get a sense of trends. They’re effective because they combine some of the automated benefits of online surveys with some of the personal benefits of in-person surveys.

If you see a poll by Pew, Gallup, or any other big polling firms, there’s a good chance that the data was gathered from telephone surveys. Telephone polling is used a lot all over the world around elections.

If you have an idea for an interesting study, it could be worth contacting a polling company to conduct some research for you. A good study with some interesting insights could be the hook you need for a good PR story.

Thanks to Voice over IP (VoIP) technology, it’s a lot cheaper to run telephone surveys than it used to be. All you need is a VoIP phone service with features like call recording, call queues, and call routing. With that said, if you don’t have the in-house manpower to run a phone survey yourself, you’ll probably want to look at outsourcing this to an agency with a VoIP system and a proven track record.

Mail-in surveys are mailed to respondents by post. They’re relatively inexpensive, and you can target a large geographical area. According to the National Public Research , a medium-scale mail survey can cost at least $5,000. That’s far less than the $10,000 to $15,000 you’ll need at the very least for a telephone survey, for example.

Response rates for mail-in surveys are also surprisingly high compared to other survey research methods. According to the latest benchmark report on surveys, mail-in surveys have a response rate of 50%. It just goes to show that you shouldn’t overlook traditional marketing channels.

The high response rates may have to do with the fact that respondents can answer the survey at their own pace. Because respondents more or less have all the time in the world, they can give comprehensive answers to the questions. They can be honest with their opinions as well since people are typically more comfortable expressing what they think and feel in writing.

With mail-in surveys, however, follow-up questions are not possible. That’s why your questionnaire design should be good from the get-go. If your questions were vague from the start, and you didn’t get the answers you needed, you’ll have just wasted your time and effort in administering the survey. You’ll have wasted the respondent’s time, too.

The final and more niche option for gathering survey feedback is by using a kiosk survey. This is a survey on a computer screen located in physical locations such as offices, stores, lobbies, and hospitals. Kiosk survey research gathers instant feedback for a product or service.

Kiosk surveys are a good way to connect with local shoppers and residents. If you run a local business, it might be worth investing in this survey research method. It’s one way to get real-time feedback from your customers about their experience with your brand. You can then use the results of your survey to make the necessary adjustment to your strategies.

These types of surveys are becoming more and more popular at networking and business conferences. For example, a brand may set up a kiosk survey at their booth to gather reviews for their G2 or Capterra profiles.

This article reviewed the seven types of survey research methods. The survey research methods range from online surveys to face-to-face interviews and mail-in surveys. Each of these research methods has its advantages and disadvantages.

Ultimately, the method you choose depends on your desired outcome and budget constraints.

Consider using a combination of survey methods for more accurate data, too. For instance, if you want to determine qualitative and quantitative data on customer satisfaction, the telephone interview will work well with an online survey. Just determine your goals and the resources you have at your disposal.

Pick that perfect combination that will generate the data you need to inform your business decisions. Your company will then be well on its way to success.

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Christopher Vasiliou

Christopher is the founder of Woorise , a marketing platform to create landing pages, forms, surveys, social promotions and more. An Adobe certified expert with 20+ years experience in marketing, web design, development and photography. When he is not in front of a screen he enjoys traveling, running and cooking.

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18 Different Types of Survey Methods + Pros & Cons

There are many reasons why surveys are important. Surveys help researchers find solutions, create discussions, and make decisions. They can also get to the bottom of the really important stuff, like, coffee or tea? Dogs or cats? Elvis or The Beatles? When it comes to finding the answers to these questions, there are 18 different types of survey methods to use.

Create your first survey, form, or poll now!

18 Different Types of Survey Methods

Different surveys serve different purposes, which is why there are a number of them to choose from. “What are the types of surveys I should use,” you ask? Here’s a look at the 18 types of survey methods researchers use today.

1. Interviews

Also known as in-person surveys or household surveys, this used to be one of the most popular types of survey to conduct. Researchers like them because they involve getting face-to-face with individuals. Of course, this method of surveying may seem antiquated when today we have online surveying at our fingertips. However, interviews still serve a purpose.

Researchers conduct interviews when they want to discuss something personal with people. For example, they may have questions that may require extensive probing to uncover the truth. Sure, some interviewees may be more comfortable answering questions confidentially behind a keyboard. However, a skilled interviewer is able to put them at ease and get genuine responses. They can often go deeper than you may be able to using other surveying methods.

Often, in-person interviews are recorded on camera. This way, an expert can review them afterward. They do this to determine if the answers given may be false based on an interviewee’s change in tone. A change in facial expressions and body movements may also be a signal they pick up on.

2. Intercept Surveys

While interviews tend to choose respondents and have controls in place, intercept surveys (or “man on the spot”) surveys are conducted at certain locations or events. This involves having an interviewer, or multiple interviewers, scoping out an area and asking people, generally at random, for their thoughts or viewpoints on a particular topic.

3. Focus Groups

These types of surveys are conducted in person as well. However, focus groups involve a number of people rather than just one individual. The group is generally small but demographically diverse and led by a moderator. The focus group may be sampling new products, or to have a discussion around a particular topic, often a hot-button one.

The purpose of a focus group survey is often to gauge people’s reaction to a product in a group setting or to get people talking, interacting—and yes, arguing—with the moderator taking notes on the group’s behavior and attitudes. This is often the most expensive survey method as a trained moderator must be paid. In addition, locations must be secured, often in various cities, and participants must be heavily incentivized to show up. Gift cards in the $75-100 range for each survey participant are the norm.

4. Panel Sampling

Recruiting survey-takers from a panel maintained by a research company is a surefire way to get respondents. Why? Because people have specifically signed up to take them. The benefit of these types of surveys for research, of course, is there you can be assured responses. In addition, you can filter respondents by a variety of criteria to be sure you’re speaking with your target audience.

The downside is data quality. These individuals get survey offers frequently. So, they may rush through them to get their inventive and move on to the next one. In addition, if you’re constantly tapping into the same people from the same panel, are you truly getting a representative sample?

5. Telephone Surveys

Most telephone survey research types are conducted through random digit dialing (RDD). RDD can reach both listed and unlisted numbers, improving sampling accuracy. Surveys are conducted by interviewers through computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) software. CATI displays the questionnaire to the interviewer with a rotation of questions.

Telephone surveys started in the 1940s. In fact, in a recent blog , we recount how the predictions for the 1948 presidential election were completely wrong because of sampling bias in telephone surveys. Rising in popularity in the late 50s and early 60s when the telephone became common in most American households, telephone surveys are no longer a very popular method of conducting a survey. Why? Because many people refuse to take telephone surveys or simply are not answering calls from a number they don’t recognize.

6. Post-Call Surveys

If a telephone survey is going to be conducted, today it is usually a post-call survey. This is often accomplished through IVR, or interactive voice response. IVR means there is no interviewer involved. Instead, customers record answers to pre-recorded questions using numbers on their touch-tone keypads. If a question is open-ended, the interviewee can respond by speaking and the system records the answer. IVR surveys are often deployed to measure how a customer feels about a service they just received. For example, after calling your bank, you may be asked to stay on the line to answer a series of questions about your experience.

Most post-call surveys are either NPS surveys or customer satisfaction (CSAT) surveys. The former asks the customer “How likely are you to recommend our organization to a f riend or family based on your most recent interaction?” while the CSAT survey asks customers “How satisfied are you with the results of your most recent interaction?”. NPS survey results reflect how the customer feels about the brand, while CSAT surveys a re all about individual agent and contact center performance.

7. SMS Text Surveys

Many people rarely using their phone to talk anymore, and ignore calls from unknown numbers. This has given rise to the SMS (Short Messaging Service) text survey. SMS surveys are delivered via text to people who have opted in to receive notifications from the sender. This means that there is usually some level of engagement, improving response rates. The one downside is that questions typically need to be short, and answers are generally 1-2 words or simply numbers (this is why many NPS surveys, gauging customer satisfaction, are often conducted via SMS text). Be careful not to send too many text surveys, as a person can opt-out just as easily, usually by texting STOP.

8. Mail-in Surveys / Postal Surveys

These are delivered right to respondents’ doorsteps! Mail surveys were frequently used before the advent of the internet when respondents were spread out geographically and budgets were modest. After all, mail-in surveys didn’t require much cost other than the postage.

So are mail-in surveys going the way of the dinosaur? Not necessarily. They are still occasionally more valuable compared to different methods of surveying. Because they are going to a specific name and home address, they often feel more personalized. This personalization can prompt the recipient to complete the survey.

They’re also good for surveys of significant length. Most people have short attention spans, and won’t spend more than a few minutes on the phone or filling out an online survey. At least, not without an incentive! However, with a mail-in survey, the person can complete it at their leisure. They can fill out some of it, set it aside, and then come back to it later. This gives mail-in surveys a relatively high response rate.

9. Kiosk Surveys

These surveys happen on a computer screen at a physical location. You’ve probably seen them popping up in stores, hotel lobbies, hospitals, and office spaces. These days, they’re just about anywhere a researcher or marketer wants to collect data from customers or passers-by. Kiosk surveys provide immediate feedback following a purchase or an interaction. They collect responses while the experience is still fresh in the respondent’s mind. This makes their judgment more trustworthy. Below is an example of a SurveyLegend kiosk survey at McDonald’s. The kiosk survey collects information, thanks the respondent for their feedback, and then resets for the next customer. Read how to create your own kiosk survey here .

10. Email Surveys

Email surveys are one of the most effective surveying methods as they are delivered directly to your audience via their online account. They can be used by anyone for just about anything, and are easily customized for a particular audience. Another good thing about email surveys is you can easily see who did or did not open the survey and make improvements to it for a future send to increase response rates. You can also A/B test subject lines, imagery, and so on to see which is more effective. SurveyLegend offers dozens of different types of online survey questions, which we explore in our blog 12 Different Types of Survey Questions and When to Use Them (with Examples) .

11. Pop-up Surveys

A pop-up survey is a feedback form that pops up on a website or app. Although the main window a person is reading on their screen remains visible, it is temporarily disabled until a user interacts with the pop-up, either agreeing to leave feedback or closing out of it. The survey itself is typically about the company whose site or app the user is currently visiting (as opposed to an intercept survey, which is an invitation to take a survey hosted on a different site).

A pop-up survey attempts to grab website visitors’ attention in a variety of ways, popping up in the middle of the screen, moving in from the side, or covering the entire screen. While they can be intrusive, they also have many benefits. Read about the benefits of pop-up surveys here .

12. Embedded Surveys

The opposite of pop-up surveys, these surveys live directly on your website or another website of your choice. Because the survey cannot be X’ed out of like a pop-up, it takes up valuable real estate on your site, or could be expensive to implement on someone else’s site. In addition, although the embedded survey is there at all times, it may not get the amount of attention a pop-up does since it’s not “in the respondent’s face.”

13. Social Media Surveys

There are more than 3.5 billion people are using social media worldwide, a number projected to increase to almost 4.5 billion in 2025. This makes social media extremely important to marketers and researchers. Using platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and the new Threads, many companies and organizations send out social media surveys regularly. Because people check their social media accounts quite regularly, it’s a good way to collect responses and monitor changes in satisfaction levels or popular opinion. Check out our blog on social media surveys for more benefits and valuable tips.

14. Mobile Surveys

Mobile traffic has now overtaken desktop computers as the most used device for accessing the internet, with more than 54% of the share. But don’t fret – you don’t have to create an entirely new survey to reach people on their phones or tablets. Online poll makers like SurveyLegend are responsive, so when you create a desktop version of a survey, it automatically becomes mobile-friendly. The survey renders, or displays, on any device or screen regardless of size, with elements on the page automatically rearranging themselves, shrinking, or expanding as necessary. Learn more about our responsive surveys .

15. Mobile App Surveys

Today, most companies have a mobile app. These can be an ideal way to conduct surveys as people have to willingly download your app; this means, they already have a level of engagement with your company or brand making them more likely to respond to your surveys.

16. QR Code Surveys

QR Code or QRC is an abbreviation of “Quick Response Code.” These two-dimensional encoded images, when scanned, deliver hidden information that’s stored on it. They’re different from barcodes because they can house a lot more information, including website URLs, phone numbers, or up to 4,000 characters of text. The recent QR code comeback provides a good opportunity for researchers to collect data. Place the QR code anywhere – on flyers, posters, billboards, commercials – and all someone had to do is scan it with the mobile device to have immediate access to a survey. Read more about the benefits of QR code surveys .

17. Delphi Surveys

A Delphi survey is a structured research method used to gather the collective opinions and insights of a panel of experts on a particular topic. The process involves several rounds of questionnaires or surveys. Each round is designed to narrow things down until a consensus or hypothyses can be formed. One of the key features of the Delphi survey research is that participants are unknown to each other, thereby eliminating influence.

18. AI Surveys

Artificial intelligence is the latest types of survey method. Using AI, researchers allow the technology to ask survey questions. These “Chatbots” can even ask follow-up questions on the spot based on a respondent’s answer. There can be drawbacks, however. If a person suspects survey questions are coming from AI, they may be less likely to respond (or may respond incorrectly to mess with the AI). Additionally, AI is not good with emotions, so asking sensitive questions in an emotionless manner could be off putting to people. Read more about AI Surveys .

Online Surveys: Ideal for Collecting Data and Feedback

Statistic: Countries with the largest digital populations in the world as of January 2023 (in millions) | Statista

That’s not all. People can take online surveys just about anywhere thanks to mobile devices. The use of these devices across age groups is balancing out as well. Check out smartphone use by age group below.

Statistic: Share of adults in the United States who owned a smartphone from 2015 to 2021, by age group | Statista

With more and more people accessing the internet through their mobile devices, now you can reach teens while they’re between classes and adults during their subway commute to work. Can’t say that for those other types of surveys !

Online surveys are also extremely cost-efficient. You don’t have to spend money on paper, printing, postage, or an interviewer. This significantly reduces set-up and administration costs. This also allows researchers and companies to send out a survey very expeditiously. Additionally, many online survey tools provide in-depth analysis of survey data. This saves you from having to spend money on further research once the survey is complete.

Researchers have their pick of options when it’s time to survey people. Which method you choose may depend upon cost, reach, and the types of questions.

Now, you may be wondering, “ Where can I make free surveys ?” You can get started with free online surveys using SurveyLegend! He re are a few things that make SurveyLegend the ideal choice for different types of surveys for research ( or for fun) .

When it comes to surveys, brief is best to keep respondents attention. So, SurveyLegend automatically collects some data, such as the participant’s location, reducing the number of questions you have to ask.
People like eye candy and many surveys are just plain dull. SurveyLegend offers beautifully rendered pre-designed surveys that will get your participant’s attention – and keep it through to completion!
Today, most people take surveys on mobile devices. Often surveys desktop surveys don’t translate well, resulting in a high drop-off rate. SurveyLegend’s designs are responsive, automatically adjusting to any screen size.

What’s your favorite method of surveying people? (Hey… that’s a good topic for a survey!) Sound off in the comments!

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

The 10 most common survey methods are online surveys, in-person interviews, focus groups, panel sampling, telephone surveys, post-call surveys, mail-in surveys, pop-up surveys, mobile surveys, and kiosk surveys.

Benefits of online surveys include their ability to reach a broad audience and that they are relatively inexpensive.

Kiosk surveys are surveys on a computer screen at the point of sale.

A focus group is an in-person interview or survey involving a group of people rather than just one individual. The group is generally small but demographically diverse, and led by a moderator.

Jasko Mahmutovic

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The challenge–hindrance–threat appraisal framework and the differential effects on employees’ work well-being and behaviors.

1. Introduction

2. theories and literature review, 2.1. the challenge–threat appraisal framework, 2.2. the challenge–hindrance appraisal framework, 2.3. an integrative framework: the challenge–hindrance–threat appraisal framework, 2.4. preliminary evidence for differential effects of challenge, hindrance, and threat appraisals, 3. current research, 4. study 1: factor structure, 4.1. methods, 4.1.1. participants and procedures, 4.1.2. measures, 4.2. results, 4.3. study 1: brief discussion, 5. study 2: discriminant, convergent, and predictive validity, 5.1. methods, 5.1.1. participants and procedures, 5.1.2. measures, 5.2. results, 5.2.1. confirmative factor analysis, 5.2.2. convergent and discriminant validity, 5.2.3. predictive validity, 5.3. study 2 brief discussion, 6. study 3: differential effects of cognitive appraisals on work well-being and behaviors, 6.1. methods, 6.1.1. participants and procedures, 6.1.2. measures, 6.2. results, 6.2.1. descriptive statistics and confirmative factor analysis, 6.2.2. differential effects of challenge, hindrance, and threat appraisals, 6.2.3. supplement analysis, 6.3. study 3 brief discussion, 7. discussion, 7.1. implications for the challenge–hindrance–threat appraisal framework, 7.2. differential effects of three cognitive appraisals on work-related outcomes, 7.3. practical implications, 7.4. limitations and future directions, 8. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest, appendix a. measures for challenge, hindrance, and threat appraisals.

Appendix B. Measures for Key Variables in Studies 2 and 3

1 = very uncertain, 5 = very certain.

Appendix C. Results of Supplemental Analysis (Study 3)

Click here to enlarge figure

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Studies	Samples	Analytical Strategies
Study 1	Cross-sectional survey (N = 224)	Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
Study 2	Cross-sectional survey (N = 468)	Composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE), and hierarchical multiple regressions
Study 3	Three-wave survey (N = 311)	Structural equation modeling (SEM)

Model		df	RMSEA	CFI	SRMR
Three-factor model	208.51	74	0.97	0.96	0.03
Two-factor model (combining CA and HA)	639.39	76	0.86	0.83	0.08
Two-factor model (combining CA and TA)	687.82	76	0.85	0.82	0.09
Two-factor model (combining HA and TA)	643.72	76	0.86	0.83	0.07
One-factor model (combining CA, HA, and TA)	1084.60	77	0.75	0.70	0.10

	Mean	SD		CR	AVE	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
(1) Challenge appraisal	4.01	0.82	0.83	0.83	0.55	/	0.27	0.26	0.72	0.30	0.16	0.60	0.23
(2) Hindrance appraisal	2.86	1.06	0.87	0.87	0.63	−0.52 ***	/	0.49	0.18	0.30	0.00	0.10	0.28
(3) Threat appraisal	3.21	1.07	0.92	0.92	0.67	−0.51 ***	0.70 ***	/	0.18	0.40	0.00	0.10	0.38
(4) Trait challenge appraisal style	4.03	0.59	0.80	0.79	0.34	0.85 ***	−0.43 ***	−0.42 ***	/	0.33	0.31	0.79	0.24
(5) Trait threat appraisal style	2.71	1.00	0.94	0.94	0.63	−0.55 ***	0.55 ***	0.63 ***	0.58 ***	/	0.00	0.19	0.82
(6) Performance-approach orientation	3.97	0.80	0.90	0.80	0.59	0.40 ***	−0.06	−0.06	0.56 ***	−0.04	/	0.34	0.00
(7) Learning orientation	4.17	0.60	0.82	0.82	0.44	0.78 ***	−0.31 ***	−0.31 ***	0.89 ***	−0.44 ***	0.58 ***	/	0.14
(8) Performance-avoidance orientation	2.99	0.94	0.85	0.85	0.49	−0.48 ***	0.53 ***	0.62 ***	−0.49 ***	0.90 ***	0.05	−0.38 ***	/

	DV: Job-Related Affect												DV: Job Insecurity
	Anxiety			Enthusiasm			Depression			Comfort			Cognitive Job Insecurity			Affective Job Insecurity
	M1a	M1b	M1c	M2a	M2b	M2c	M3a	M3b	M3c	M4a	M4b	M4c	M5a	M5b	M5c	M6a	M6b	M6c
Gender	−0.08	−0.06	−0.05	0.11	0.07	0.06	−0.01	0.03	0.04	0.07	0.05	0.04	−0.17 *	−0.14	−0.13	−0.02	0.01	0.01
Age	−0.01	−0.01	−0.01	0.01	0.01	0.00	−0.01	−0.01	−0.01	0.01	0.01	0.01	−0.01	−0.00	−0.00	−0.01	−0.01	−0.01
Education	−0.09	−0.03	0.01	0.18 **	0.13 *	0.10	−0.16 **	−0.10	−0.08	0.05	0.01	−0.03	−0.08	−0.04	−0.02	−0.18 **	−0.13 *	−0.10
Tenure	0.00	0.00	0.00	−0.00	−0.01	−0.01	0.00	0.01	0.01	−0.00	−0.00	−0.01	−0.01	−0.00	−0.00	−0.00	0.00	0.00
Job sector	−0.04	0.00	0.06	−0.04	−0.06	−0.11	0.06	0.09	0.13	−0.02	−0.05	−0.10	0.05	0.06	0.09	−0.02	0.01	0.05
Industry prospects	−0.61 **	−0.38 **	−0.17 *	0.73 **	0.48 **	0.30 **	−0.64 **	−0.37 **	−0.18 *	0.62 **	0.45 **	0.26 **	−0.49 **	−0.29 **	−0.19 **	−0.31 **	−0.08	0.06
Industry impact	0.47 **	0.27 **	0.13 **	−0.38 **	−0.20 **	−0.08	0.48 **	0.24 **	0.15 **	−0.33 **	−0.18 **	−0.07	0.43 **	0.28 **	0.22 **	0.64 **	0.46 **	0.37 **
Challenge appraisal		−0.09	0.02		0.31 **	0.22 **		−0.31 **	−0.24 **		0.12 *	0.04		−0.25 **	−0.21 **		−0.18 **	−0.12 *
Hindrance appraisal		0.47 **	0.18 **		−0.29 **	−0.05		0.43 **	0.23 **		−0.30 **	−0.06		0.23 **	0.10*		0.36 **	0.17 **
Threat appraisal			0.63 **			−0.53 **			0.43 **			−0.54 **			0.28 **			0.43 **
R	0.278 **	0.450 **	0.630 **	0.272 **	0.407 **	0.538 **	0.314 **	0.539 **	0.628 **	0.229 **	0.331 **	0.490 **	0.307 **	0.428 **	0.481 **	0.312 **	0.434 **	0.513 **
R		0.171 **	0.181 **		0.135 **	0.131 **		0.226 **	0.089 **		0.102 **	0.159 **		0.121 **	0.053 **		0.122 **	0.078 **
F	25.349 ***	41.561 ***	77.950 ***	24.591 ***	34.931 ***	53.189 ***	30.012 ***	59.559 ***	77.147 ***	19.489 ***	25.185 ***	43.995 ***	29.100 ***	38.009 ***	42.275 ***	29.806 ***	39.082 ***	48.059 ***
		71.219 ***	223.625 ***		52.025 ***	129.389 ***		112.192 ***	109.018 ***		35.029 ***	143.007 ***		48.262 ***	46.610 ***		49.534 ***	73.317 ***

	Mean	SD		1	2	3	4	5	6	7
(1) Challenge appraisal (T1)	4.10	0.80	0.83	/
(2) Hindrance appraisal (T1)	2.82	1.16	0.90	−0.36 ***	/
(3) Threat appraisal (T1)	3.00	1.16	0.94	−0.40 ***	0.81 ***	/
(4) Work engagement (T2)	4.19	0.59	0.88	0.51 ***	−0.32 ***	−0.35 ***	/
(5) Emotion exhaustion (T2)	2.20	1.04	0.94	−0.39 ***	0.45 ***	0.52 ***	0.61 ***	/
(6) Learning behavior (T3)	4.31	0.48	0.81	0.45 ***	−0.14 *	−0.22 ***	0.58 ***	−0.36 ***	/
(7) Turnover intention (T3)	1.68	0.68	0.72	−0.34 ***	0.24 ***	0.29 ***	−0.43 ***	0.46 ***	−0.52 ***	/

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Share and Cite

Chen, Q.; Chen, M.; Lin, L.; Bai, X. The Challenge–Hindrance–Threat Appraisal Framework and the Differential Effects on Employees’ Work Well-Being and Behaviors. Behav. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 734. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14090734

Chen Q, Chen M, Lin L, Bai X. The Challenge–Hindrance–Threat Appraisal Framework and the Differential Effects on Employees’ Work Well-Being and Behaviors. Behavioral Sciences . 2024; 14(9):734. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14090734

Chen, Qin, Mengfan Chen, Lin Lin, and Xinwen Bai. 2024. "The Challenge–Hindrance–Threat Appraisal Framework and the Differential Effects on Employees’ Work Well-Being and Behaviors" Behavioral Sciences 14, no. 9: 734. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14090734

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What is a survey?
Survey Research

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What is survey research.

15 min read Find out everything you need to know about survey research, from what it is and how it works to the different methods and tools you can use to ensure you’re successful.

Survey research is the process of collecting data from a predefined group (e.g. customers or potential customers) with the ultimate goal of uncovering insights about your products, services, or brand overall .

As a quantitative data collection method, survey research can provide you with a goldmine of information that can inform crucial business and product decisions. But survey research needs careful planning and execution to get the results you want.

So if you’re thinking about using surveys to carry out research, read on.

Types of survey research

Calling these methods ‘survey research’ slightly underplays the complexity of this type of information gathering. From the expertise required to carry out each activity to the analysis of the data and its eventual application, a considerable amount of effort is required.

As for how you can carry out your research, there are several options to choose from — face-to-face interviews, telephone surveys, focus groups (though more interviews than surveys), online surveys , and panel surveys.

Typically, the survey method you choose will largely be guided by who you want to survey, the size of your sample , your budget, and the type of information you’re hoping to gather.

Here are a few of the most-used survey types:

Face-to-face interviews

Before technology made it possible to conduct research using online surveys, telephone, and mail were the most popular methods for survey research. However face-to-face interviews were considered the gold standard — the only reason they weren’t as popular was due to their highly prohibitive costs.

When it came to face-to-face interviews, organisations would use highly trained researchers who knew when to probe or follow up on vague or problematic answers. They also knew when to offer assistance to respondents when they seemed to be struggling. The result was that these interviewers could get sample members to participate and engage in surveys in the most effective way possible, leading to higher response rates and better quality data.

Free eBook: Learn how to increase response rates to your survey

Telephone surveys

While phone surveys have been popular in the past, particularly for measuring general consumer behaviour or beliefs, response rates have been declining since the 1990s.

Phone surveys are usually conducted using a random dialling system and software that a researcher can use to record responses.

This method is beneficial when you want to survey a large population but don’t have the resources to conduct face-to-face research surveys or run focus groups, or want to ask multiple-choice and open-ended questions .

The downsides are they can: take a long time to complete depending on the response rate, and you may have to do a lot of cold-calling to get the information you need.

You also run the risk of respondents not being completely honest . Instead, they’ll answer your survey questions quickly just to get off the phone.

Focus groups (interviews — not surveys)

Focus groups are a separate qualitative methodology rather than surveys — even though they’re often bunched together. They’re normally used for survey pretesting and designing , but they’re also a great way to generate opinions and data from a diverse range of people.

Focus groups involve putting a cohort of demographically or socially diverse people in a room with a moderator and engaging them in a discussion on a particular topic, such as your product, brand, or service.

They remain a highly popular method for market research , but they’re expensive and require a lot of administration to conduct and analyse the data properly.

You also run the risk of more dominant members of the group taking over the discussion and swaying the opinions of other people — potentially providing you with unreliable data.

Online surveys

Online surveys have become one of the most popular survey methods due to being cost-effective, enabling researchers to accurately survey a large population quickly.

Online surveys can essentially be used by anyone for any research purpose – we’ve all seen the increasing popularity of polls on social media (although these are not scientific).

Using an online survey allows you to ask a series of different question types and collect data instantly that’s easy to analyse with the right software.

There are also several methods for running and distributing online surveys that allow you to get your questionnaire in front of a large population at a fraction of the cost of face-to-face interviews or focus groups.

This is particularly true when it comes to mobile surveys as most people with a smartphone can access them online.

However, you have to be aware of the potential dangers of using online surveys, particularly when it comes to the survey respondents. The biggest risk is because online surveys require access to a computer or mobile device to complete, they could exclude elderly members of the population who don’t have access to the technology — or don’t know how to use it.

It could also exclude those from poorer socio-economic backgrounds who can’t afford a computer or consistent internet access. This could mean the data collected is more biased towards a certain group and can lead to less accurate data when you’re looking for a representative population sample.

When it comes to surveys, every voice matters.

Find out how to create more inclusive and representative surveys for your research.

Panel surveys

A panel survey involves recruiting respondents who have specifically signed up to answer questionnaires and who are put on a list by a research company. This could be a workforce of a small company or a major subset of a national population. Usually, these groups are carefully selected so that they represent a sample of your target population — giving you balance across criteria such as age, gender, background, and so on.

Panel surveys give you access to the respondents you need and are usually provided by the research company in question. As a result, it’s much easier to get access to the right audiences as you just need to tell the research company your criteria. They’ll then determine the right panels to use to answer your questionnaire.

However, there are downsides. The main one being that if the research company offers its panels incentives, e.g. discounts, coupons, money — respondents may answer a lot of questionnaires just for the benefits.

This might mean they rush through your survey without providing considered and truthful answers. As a consequence, this can damage the credibility of your data and potentially ruin your analyses.

What are the benefits of using survey research?

Depending on the research method you use, there are lots of benefits to conducting survey research for data collection. Here, we cover a few:

1. They’re relatively easy to do

Most research surveys are easy to set up, administer and analyse. As long as the planning and survey design is thorough and you target the right audience , the data collection is usually straightforward regardless of which survey type you use.

2. They can be cost effective

Survey research can be relatively cheap depending on the type of survey you use.

Generally, qualitative research methods that require access to people in person or over the phone are more expensive and require more administration.

Online surveys or mobile surveys are often more cost-effective for market research and can give you access to the global population for a fraction of the cost.

3. You can collect data from a large sample

Again, depending on the type of survey, you can obtain survey results from an entire population at a relatively low price. You can also administer a large variety of survey types to fit the project you’re running.

4. You can use survey software to analyse results immediately

Using survey software, you can use advanced statistical analysis techniques to gain insights into your responses immediately.

Analysis can be conducted using a variety of parameters to determine the validity and reliability of your survey data at scale.

5. Surveys can collect any type of data

While most people view surveys as a quantitative research method, they can just as easily be adapted to gain qualitative information by simply including open-ended questions or conducting interviews face to face.

How to measure concepts with survey questions

While surveys are a great way to obtain data, that data on its own is useless unless it can be analysed and developed into actionable insights.

The easiest, and most effective way to measure survey results, is to use a dedicated research tool that puts all of your survey results into one place.

When it comes to survey measurement, there are four measurement types to be aware of that will determine how you treat your different survey results:

Nominal scale

With a nominal scale , you can only keep track of how many respondents chose each option from a question, and which response generated the most selections.

An example of this would be simply asking a responder to choose a product or brand from a list.

You could find out which brand was chosen the most but have no insight as to why.

Ordinal scale

Ordinal scales are used to judge an order of preference. They do provide some level of quantitative value because you’re asking responders to choose a preference of one option over another.

Ratio scale

Ratio scales can be used to judge the order and difference between responses. For example, asking respondents how much they spend on their weekly shopping on average.

Interval scale

In an interval scale, values are lined up in order with a meaningful difference between the two values — for example, measuring temperature or measuring a credit score between one value and another.

Step by step: How to conduct surveys and collect data

Conducting a survey and collecting data is relatively straightforward, but it does require some careful planning and design to ensure it results in reliable data.

Step 1 – Define your objectives

What do you want to learn from the survey? How is the data going to help you? Having a hypothesis or series of assumptions about survey responses will allow you to create the right questions to test them.

Step 2 – Create your survey questions

Once you’ve got your hypotheses or assumptions, write out the questions you need answering to test your theories or beliefs. Be wary about framing questions that could lead respondents or inadvertently create biased responses .

Step 3 – Choose your question types

Your survey should include a variety of question types and should aim to obtain quantitative data with some qualitative responses from open-ended questions. Using a mix of questions (simple Yes/ No, multiple-choice, rank in order, etc) not only increases the reliability of your data but also reduces survey fatigue and respondents simply answering questions quickly without thinking.

Find out how to create a survey that’s easy to engage with

Step 4 – Test your questions

Before sending your questionnaire out, you should test it (e.g. have a random internal group do the survey) and carry out A/B tests to ensure you’ll gain accurate responses.

Step 5 – Choose your target and send out the survey

Depending on your objectives, you might want to target the general population with your survey or a specific segment of the population. Once you’ve narrowed down who you want to target, it’s time to send out the survey.

After you’ve deployed the survey, keep an eye on the response rate to ensure you’re getting the number you expected. If your response rate is low, you might need to send the survey out to a second group to obtain a large enough sample — or do some troubleshooting to work out why your response rates are so low. This could be down to your questions, delivery method, selected sample, or otherwise.

Step 6 – Analyse results and draw conclusions

Once you’ve got your results back, it’s time for the fun part.

Break down your survey responses using the parameters you’ve set in your objectives and analyse the data to compare to your original assumptions. At this stage, a research tool or software can make the analysis a lot easier — and that’s somewhere Qualtrics can help.

Get reliable insights with survey software from Qualtrics

Gaining feedback from leads is critical for any business, data gathered from surveys can prove invaluable for understanding your products and your market position, and with survey software from Qualtrics, it couldn’t be easier.

Used by more than 13,000 brands and supporting more than 1 billion surveys a year, Qualtrics empowers everyone in your organisation to gather insights and take action. No coding required — and your data is housed in one system.

Get feedback from more than 125 sources on a single platform and view and measure your data in one place to create actionable insights and gain a deeper understanding of your target customers .

Automatically run complex text and statistical analysis to uncover exactly what your survey data is telling you, so you can react in real-time and make smarter decisions.

We can help you with survey management, too. From designing your survey and finding your target respondents to getting your survey in the field and reporting back on the results, we can help you every step of the way.

And for expert market researchers and survey designers, Qualtrics features custom programming to give you total flexibility over question types, survey design, embedded data, and other variables.

No matter what type of survey you want to run, what target audience you want to reach, or what assumptions you want to test or answers you want to uncover, we’ll help you design, deploy and analyse your survey with our team of experts.

Ready to find out more about Qualtrics CoreXM?

Start your survey research today with Qualtrics

Related resources

Survey bias types 24 min read, post event survey questions 10 min read, questionnaires design 15 min read, best survey software 16 min read, survey vs questionnaire 12 min read, close-ended questions 7 min read, likert scales 14 min read, request demo.

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University of wisconsin–madison, survey research interviewer.

Apply now (opens in a new window) Job No: 507751 Division/Organization: College of Letters & Science Job Type: UW Student Jobs Remote Eligbility: Not Remote Location: STERLING HALL Salary/Wage Range or Lump Sum: $15.00 Job Categories: Interpersonal Communication, Digital Technology, Teamwork/Collaboration, Professionalism/Work Ethic, Healthcare and Health Sciences, Customer Service

Department Overview:	The University of Wisconsin Survey Center (UWSC) conducts high quality research for university professors, federal and state government agencies, and non profit organizations. We do NOT do telemarketing or fund raising. We gather state-of-the-art social science data to help researchers and policy makers study and improve programs and policies in Wisconsin and throughout the United States. Current studies include the Family Health Study, the Wisconsin Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, and many more.
Anticipated Start Date:	9/9/2024
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Salary/Wage Range/Lump Sum:	$15.00
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Qualifications:	Applicants must be detail oriented, able to follow interview protocol, have a clear speaking voice and strong typing skills. Ability to speak Spanish is a plus but not required.
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Open access
Published: 21 August 2024

Pediatric head injury guideline use in Sweden: a cross-sectional survey on determinants for successful implementation of a clinical practice guideline

Fredrik Wickbom 1 , 2 ,
William Berghog 1 ,
Susanne Bernhardsson 3 , 4 , 5 ,
Linda Persson 6 ,
Stefan Kunkel 7 &
Johan Undén 1 , 2

BMC Health Services Research volume 24 , Article number: 965 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

55 Accesses

Metrics details

The Scandinavian Neurotrauma Committee guideline (SNC-16) was developed and published in 2016, to aid clinicians in management of pediatric head injuries in Scandinavian emergency departments (ED). The objective of this study was to explore determinants for use of the SNC-16 guideline by Swedish ED physicians.

This is a nationwide, cross-sectional, web-based survey in Sweden. Using modified snowball sampling, physicians managing children in the ED were invited via e-mail to complete the validated Clinician Guideline Determinants Questionnaire between February and May, 2023. Baseline data, data on enablers and barriers for use of the SNC-16 guideline, and preferred routes for implementation and access of guidelines in general were collected and analyzed descriptively and exploratory with Chi-square and Fisher's tests.

Of 595 invitations, 198 emergency physicians completed the survey (effective response rate 33.3%). There was a high reported use of the SNC-16 guideline (149/195; 76.4%) and a strong belief in its benefits for the patients (188/197; 95.4% agreement). Respondents generally agreed with the guideline's content (187/197; 94.9%) and found it easy to use and navigate (188/197; 95.4%). Some respondents (53/197; 26.9%) perceived a lack of organizational support needed to use the guideline. Implementation tools may be improved as only 58.9% (116/197) agreed that the guideline includes such. Only 37.6% (74/197) of the respondents agreed that the guideline clearly describes the underlying evidence supporting the recommendation. Most respondents prefer to consult colleagues (178/198; 89.9%) and guidelines (149/198; 75.3%) to gain knowledge to guide clinical decision making. Four types of enablers for guideline use emerged from free-text answers: ease of use and implementation, alignment with local guidelines and practice, advantages for stakeholders, and practicality and accessibility. Barriers for guideline use were manifested as: organizational challenges, medical concerns , and practical concerns.

Conclusions

The findings suggest high self-reported use of the SNC-16 guideline among Swedish ED physicians. In updated versions of the guideline, focus on improving implementation tools and descriptions of the underlying evidence may further facilitate adoption and adherence. Measures to improve organizational support for guideline use and involvement of patient representatives should also be considered.

Peer Review reports

Contributions to the literature

The pediatric Scandinavian Neurotrauma Committee head injury guideline from 2016 seems well known and well used by Swedish emergency department physicians, despite lack of formal implementation.

The study identified guideline implementation determinants that need to be addressed in both future guideline versions and in implementation strategies.

This study contributes reference data for the Clinician Guideline Determinants Questionnaire; a novel, validated tool for assessment of determinants for guideline use, with different results compared to previous reports utilizing the questionnaire.

Head trauma is a common cause to seek emergency department (ED) care among children in Sweden. In 2022, over 33,000 cases of head injury were registered in Sweden in children 0–17 years of age, according to the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare [ 1 ]. Of these, 22.3% were diagnosed with an intracranial injury of varying severity (including concussion), yielding an overall incidence of 1521/100 000 patients with head injuries and an incidence of 340/100 000 patients with intracranial injury. Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) constitutes more than 80% of pediatric TBI cases globally [ 2 ]. Most of these injured children will recover without the need for acute intervention, e.g., neurosurgery or intensive care admission [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ].

Cranial computed tomography (CT) utilizes ionizing radiation for imaging of the brain and is a valuable tool for excluding significant intracranial injuries, ordered in 4% of children with isolated head trauma in southern Sweden [ 6 ]. Radiation exposure in early life entails a risk of malignancy development later in life, and the selection of patients with mTBI for neuroimaging poses a clinical challenge [ 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Structured in-hospital observation is considered equally effective, although this is associated with higher resource use [ 10 , 11 ]. In Sweden (and similar to other countries), it is often junior physicians who initially manage these children, following a diverse range of local guidelines (or no guideline), resulting in an unstandardized approach to pediatric TBI on a national level [ 12 , 13 ].

The Scandinavian Neurotrauma Committee has recently developed a clinical practice guideline addressing the initial management of mTBI in children (SNC-16 guideline) in Scandinavia [ 14 ]. It was published in 2016 and has since then been passively disseminated into more than 50% of the Swedish emergency hospitals’ management routines [ 13 ]. Although validated in other settings, the SNC-16 guideline has not been validated in the Scandinavian population [ 15 , 16 ]. The SNC-16 guideline for managing patients with mTBI has been developed to help healthcare providers make informed management decisions. To assess the risk of intracranial injury, various factors such as clinical signs and symptoms (e.g., loss of consciousness, amnesia, neurological deficits) and current state of consciousness are considered in the guideline. If a patient's clinical status falls within the low-risk criteria, a CT scan or prolonged structured observation may be deemed unnecessary [ 14 ].

The process of clinically adapting research-based knowledge is widely acknowledged as intricate and non-self-regulating [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Clinical practice guidelines are considered valuable tools for integrating the latest medical evidence into clinical practice [ 20 , 21 ]. By identifying existing barriers and facilitators that influence the use of specific guidelines, it may be possible to tailor an implementation process and facilitate the uptake of a guideline into clinical settings and ensure adequate compliance [ 19 , 22 , 23 ].

In 2019, the Clinician Guideline Determinants Questionnaire (CGDQ) was developed and published by Gagliardi et al. [ 24 ]. This tool serves the purpose of providing a comprehensive and validated instrument for addressing factors relevant for the use or non-use of a specific guideline from a clinician's perspective. Knowledge about determinants for use and non-use specific for the SNC-16 guideline may support an implementation process and increase adherence to evidence-based practices in managing pediatric head trauma in Sweden. It may also give important information in future updates of the guideline.

The primary objective of this study was to identify barriers and enablers affecting use of the SNC-16 guideline by physicians in Sweden. Knowledge about these determinants is important as it allows development of tailored interventions in forthcoming implementation processes with the intention to promote uptake of research findings in routine care [ 24 ]. This study is part of a series of studies which embraces validation, development, and implementation of the SNC-16 guideline in Scandinavia.

Study design

This is a cross-sectional observational study in Sweden. Collection of data was performed using a validated questionnaire for implementation research [ 24 ]. Respondents were asked to assess the SNC-16 guideline based on the structured questions in the questionnaire. Reporting follows STROBE guidelines for cross-sectional studies (Additional file 1) [ 25 ]. An ethical advisory opinion was granted by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority (Dnr 2020 – 02 693).

The survey was sent to physicians in Swedish EDs of varying sizes nationwide, in which head trauma in pediatric patients is managed. Data were collected during February 23 to May 8, 2023.

Participants

Physicians from various medical specialties who regularly, at their own discretion, work in the ED of a Swedish hospital and assess pediatric acute head trauma, were included. Respondents not fulfilling the above criteria were excluded.

Potential participants were invited by an e-mail containing an information text and a link to the questionnaire. The initial e-mail recipient list of potential respondents was based on three different e-mail collection strategies: 1) a list of suggested respondents from a previous study, investigating management of pediatric TBI in Sweden at an organizational level [ 13 ]; 2) new e-mails to ED managers with a request to send us e-mail addresses to ED physicians working with pediatric mTBI in their ED (as the list from 2022 may contain irrelevant recipients or old e-mail addresses); and 3) screening of e-mail recipient lists accessible for our research team (identifying physicians in the department of general surgery in the Region of Halland, physicians in the department of emergency medicine in the Region of Halland and interns employed in the Region of Halland, Sweden). Only potential e-mail recipients suggested from a hospital that managed children with pediatric head trauma were included when extracting the e-mail list, drawn from the 66 hospitals included in the 2022 paper (370 e-mail addresses).

In summary, the final e-mail recipient list in the first block contained 502 unique e-mail addresses to potential respondents (Fig. 1 ). Non-responders were sent a total of five reminders during the time for data collection.

Flowchart describing structure for collection of the final data set

Before completing the survey, participants were asked to contribute with e-mail addresses to additional colleagues in their hospital or neighboring hospitals who they believed fulfilled the above inclusion criteria. Respondents not fulfilling the inclusion criteria were given the option to decline participation but still contribute with e-mail addresses to suitable colleagues. New e-mail addresses were added in blocks and generated in total five consecutive groups with new e-mail addresses to whom the survey was distributed. With this modified snowball sampling method, it was possible to control response rates. The study size was reached when no more new e-mail addresses were added by respondents with the snowball method, and no more non-respondents answered the survey despite multiple reminders. Respondents were pseudonymized at analysis and no patient data was recorded.

Respondents are by definition fluent in both Swedish and English as this is a criterion for admission to medical training in Swedish universities and hospitals. The medical literature in Sweden is also predominately in English.

The Clinician Guideline Determinants Questionnaire (CGDQ) was used for data collection [ 24 ]. It is a validated instrument for preparing and evaluating implementation of clinical practice guidelines. The CGDQ includes four sections exploring: 1) clinician demographic and background information; 2) attitudes to known determinants of guideline use; 3) open-ended items on additional determinants; and 4) a section examining preferred ways of distribution, access, and character of a guideline. The CGDQ was transcripted unchanged from the original version and presented in English in a digital questionnaire in the web-based survey system EsMaker (Entergate AB). As respondents have a high knowledge of the English language, we judged the risks associated with a translation of the questionnaire to Swedish greater than the risk that respondents would not understand the questions. Three questions exploring what size and type of hospital the respondent worked in, type of patients (children/adults/both) they managed, and their familiarity with assessing children with head injury were added to the background information section by the authors. The SNC-16 flow chart, a link to the original publication, and a link to an article in the Swedish medical journal Läkartidningen were presented at the beginning of the questionnaire [ 14 , 26 ]. The text “SNC-16 guideline” was inserted in the questionnaire where stated, “name guideline”. Some items have been truncated to improve readability in the results section of this paper, with a reference to the full questionnaire and complete items in Additional file 2.

To minimize the risk for introducing selection bias, purposive sampling was used to include respondents from varying parts of Sweden and from varying hospital sizes, and including both junior and senior physicians, when compiling the initial respondent mailing list.

Data analysis

Reported data are categorical nominal/dichotomous or categorical ordinal (on a 7-step Likert scale, including response option “not sure”), or in free text. Responses to categorical nominal items are summarized and presented as frequencies and percentages. Variables that are reported on an ordinal 7-step Likert scale were dichotomized into “disagree” if Likert response 1–4 or unsure, and into “agree” if Likert response 5–7. The unmerged response distribution is shown in Additional file 3. Results are presented for the four sections in the applied implementation tool (CGDQ). Merging of categories was performed if there were few responses in a response category.

Background data on respondents are presented descriptively for a) gender, b) career stage (as found most appropriate by the respondent), c) medical specialty, d) hospital category (local hospital, regional hospital, university hospital or children’s hospital – with local and regional merged as small hospitals and university and children’s as large), e) region in Sweden, f) managing only children or both children and adults, g) familiarity with assessing children with head injury (categorized as “daily” + “several times a week” = regularly; “1–3 times/month” = seldom; “5–10 times/year” + “1–4 times/year” + “less than once a year” = rarely), h) have participated in the development of one or more guidelines, i) belief in clinical benefit of guidelines, and j) actual use of SNC-16 guideline.

Frequencies and percentages for "agree” and “disagree” for determinants in Sect. 2 of the survey were calculated. The authors decided to perform further analysis on a subset of factors from the clinician and guideline specific determinants in Sect. 2, aiming to explore possible associations between determinants and background factors. The subset comprised six variables selected by the authors after reviewing initial results and considered most salient to grasp the respondent’s thoughts on the guideline and their knowledge about the relevant clinical condition, with the most clinically relevant imprint. Authors decided to not test all items as it would entail an unjustified risk for significant results by chance. Chi-square test, or Fisher’s exact test when appropriate, was used to assess associations.

The free-text responses obtained from questions 3.1 to 3.4 (additional file 2) were independently categorized into types of barriers and enablers by two of the authors (FW, WB) and then compiled in consensus.

The first invitation e-mail was sent on February 23, 2023. The final reminder was sent on April 20, 2023. Respondents suggested 93 additional unique potential respondents, resulting in invitations also sent to these individuals. In this group, 43 participants opened the e-mail and participated in the survey, yielding a response rate in the snowball sample group of 46.2%. The total response rate was 43.4% (258/595; opens and responds to request) with an effective response rate for analysable respondents of 33.3% (198/595) (Fig. 1 ).

Background information

The 198 responding physicians from 42 unique EDs had varying clinical experience, in a span from early career interns (14.1%; 28/198), mid-career residents (48.5%; 96/198), to late career consultants (37.4%; 74/198). The most common specialties represented were general surgery (52.0%; 103/198) and emergency medicine (31.8%; 63/198). A majority (82.3%; 163/198) of the respondents worked in small (local or regional hospitals) compared to 17.7% ( n = 35) in large (university or children’s) hospitals. There was a high degree of familiarity with the SNC-16 guideline, as 84.3% (166/197) had “read all or some of the guideline on multiple occasions” and only 8.1% (16/197) were unaware of the guideline or “aware of the guideline but have not read it”. A high proportion (76.4%; 149/195) of respondents reported regular use of the SNC-16 guideline in their respective clinical settings, and almost all (95.4%; 188/197) believed that guideline use in general optimized healthcare delivery and outcomes (Table 1 ).

Determinants of guideline use

It was common among respondents to think that colleagues (77.8%; 154/198) expected them to use the SNC-16 guideline. Fewer believed that patients (12.1%; 24/198), managers/executives in their own organization (37.9%; 75/198), a monitoring agency (Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare: 15.7%; 31/198), the government (4.0%; 8/198), and/or the professional society (23.7%; 47/198) expected them to use the guideline.

The attitude towards use of the SNC-16 guideline was generally positive as 94.9% (187/197) agreed with the content of the guideline. Approximately one of four (26.9%; 53/197) disagreed to the statement “My organization provides support (leadership, resources, assistance, etc.) needed to use this guideline”. In statement Q2.25 and Q2.27, the respondents’ perceptions of the guideline’s consistency with available evidence and how clearly the guideline describes this underlying evidence as foundation for the recommendations was explored, and the uncertainty was relatively high for both statements (“Not sure”: 37.2%; 73/196, and 47.2%; 93/197 respectively) (Table 2 ).

Enablers and barriers

Four types of enablers for guideline use emerged from the compilation of the free-text responses: ease of use and implementation, alignment with local guidelines and practice, advantages for stakeholders, and practicality and accessibility. Barriers for guideline use were manifested as: organizational challenges, medical concerns , and practical concerns (Table 3 ).

This section provided participants an opportunity to share thoughts on other determinants that could enable or challenge their use of the guideline. Noteworthy examples of "Enablers" were suggestions to extend the formal implementation among nurses, aiming to achieve a widespread adherence and acceptance of the SNC-16 guideline within all categories of healthcare professionals managing these conditions. Regarding practical concerns, ease of accessibility, e.g. laminated plastic cards in the ED, online versions, simple and unambiguous instructions, were described as enabling use of the guideline. Additionally, the importance of including disseminated guidelines, such as the SNC-16 guideline, into official local guidelines and practices was highlighted. In a broader perspective, a suggestion to gather all relevant guidelines in a bundle of nationally endorsed clinical decision-making tools was also noted.

In contrast, the absence of official organizational endorsement, both on a local and national level, emerged as a potential barrier. A specific concern raised was the fact that many Swedish physicians use the Reaction Level Scale-85 (RLS-85) [ 27 ], as opposed to the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) [ 28 ] recommended in the SNC-16 guideline, for assessment of level of consciousness. This discord was suggested as a barrier to adopting the SNC-16 guideline rising from inexperience in using the GCS. Challenges related to organizational practices, such as the absence of observational units and ED overcrowding, were identified as barriers affecting guideline adherence, possibly instead increasing the use of CT scanning. Within the category of medical concerns , participants expressed concern about the risk of over-investigation, encompassing both excessive observation and CT scans, and that the guideline might result in decisions that contradict the clinical judgement of experienced physicians. Concerns about the lack of clinical validation and available evidence were also raised by the respondents. The "practical concerns" category was composed around issues of complexity of guideline, time constraints, and limited availability.

In summary, the free-text responses confirmed already reported key enablers and barriers. They also provided new suggestions regarding the value of interdisciplinary collaboration among healthcare professionals and the importance of organizational structures for guideline adherence.

Learning style

Most of the respondents reported a preference for consulting colleagues (89.9%; 178/198), guidelines (75.3%; 149/198), and the internet (65.2%; 129/198) to gain knowledge to guide their clinical decisions (Fig. 2 ). Educational meetings/conferences were the most popular way to learn about guidelines (78.3%; 155/198) (Fig. 3 ). No clear preference was apparent regarding the optimal format for distribution of guideline material (Fig. 4 ).

Key sources to guide clinical decision making. 198 respondents provided answers to the multiple-choice question (4.1 in additional file 2) about the usefulness of different sources when seeking support to guide clinical decision-making. *Other = Foamed (free open access medical education) and local guidelines ( n = 2)

Preferred ways to learn about guidelines. A total of 198 respondents provided answers to this multiple-choice question (4.2 in additional file 2). *Other = Suggested national Swedish collection of guidelines, podcasts, official medical guideline database (“Internetmedicin”), educational lunch sessions, colleagues ( n = 6)

Preferred formats for guidelines, guideline summaries, or guideline tools ( n = 198, multiple choice)

Associations to demographic variables

Associations between background variables and a subset of determinants were explored in Table 4 . There were significant differences between respondents that managed pediatric head injuries regularly, seldom, or rarely in their view of whether following the SNC-16 guideline would improve care delivery (91%; 79/87 versus 94%; 90/96 versus 73%; 11/15) and their view on the support provided from their organization to enable them to use the guideline (73%; 63/86 versus 52%; 50/96 versus 47%; 7/15). Those respondents that believed that guidelines (in general) optimize healthcare delivery and outcomes also had a significantly higher belief in that following the SNC-16 guideline would improve delivered care. There were no significant differences regarding gender, career stage, specialty, size of hospital, location of the respondent’s hospital in Sweden, types of patients managed, or whether the respondent had experience in guideline development for the selected determinants.

This cross-sectional survey showed that reported regular use of the passively disseminated SNC-16 guideline for pediatric mTBI was high. The respondents also held a high belief in patient benefit if applying the guideline. Improvements in the reporting of the underlying evidence and appurtenant implementation tools were requested. Barriers, such as lack of organizational support and resources, emerged both in the qualitative and quantitative data. The conveyed perception of determinants for use of the SNC-16 guideline was generally homogenous among the respondents, and independent of varying grouping variables.

The high proportion of regular guideline use (76%) reported in this study is in contrast to other reports, with only 35% adhering to guidelines in a systematic review by Mickan et al. [ 29 ] and 43% of prenatal care physicians regularly using a hepatitis C virus screening guideline in a survey by Moore et al. [ 30 ]. In a recent report on management routines at an organizational level, 55% of Swedish hospitals based their local recommendation in part or fully on the SNC-16 guideline [ 13 ]. The reason for this seemingly successful non-facilitated dissemination of the SNC-16 guideline in Sweden is unclear, although some plausible causes can be hypothesized. There is a lack of alternative, validated guidelines in Scandinavia. Also, the guidelines were published in the most common national journal and on the most commonly used web tool for doctors [ 26 , 31 ]. Additionally, a recent, non-intervention multi-center study, validated a set of pediatric mTBI guidelines in the Scandinavian healthcare system [ 32 ].

Pathman et al. [ 33 ] developed a four-step model for “leakage” of guideline evidence, from awareness to final adherence, outlining the concept of progressive loss of research evidence from guideline publication to clinical practice. The drop-off, or “leakage”, in each step of the Pathman model was estimated to be 15% in the systematic review by Mickan et al. [ 29 ]. The first step, awareness of the SNC-16 guideline, is not explicitly measured in the CGDQ. The second step is agreement with the content. If assuming that “regular use” corresponds to adoption or adherence in the Pathman framework, the leakage in this study would be between 9.25% ( agreement to adoption to adherence ) and 18.5% ( agreement to adoption ). This may raise attention to a possible, although not ascertained, discrepancy worth some effort to address in future updates of the guideline, also when considering the design of an implementation strategy. There was, for example, an uncertainty among our respondents concerning the guideline’s consistency with available evidence, which may act as a barrier for adoption and adherence. The guideline format and layout were acknowledged as easy to navigate, with clear and unambiguous wording, which may on the other hand facilitate adoption and adherence and efforts to preserve it may be beneficial [ 17 ].

In pediatric guidelines for mTBI, there has been a successive development from dichotomous prediction models based on single assessments [ 34 , 35 ], to risk group stratification at several levels (three to five) at one single time-point [ 5 , 14 ], and more recently to multiple risk groups and assessments at several time-points under observation in ED [ 36 ]. Whether the ambition to increase diagnostic accuracy via increasingly complicated flow chart structures will, at some point, limit the accessibility, final adoption and adherence to a guideline remains to be investigated, even though there have been dedicated efforts to investigate optimal implementation pathways and implementation outcome for newer mTBI guidelines both in Australia/New Zealand [ 36 , 37 ] and the US [ 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]. Among the Swedish respondents, a high belief in the benefit for the patients of using the SNC-16 guideline was reported in this study, which may imply that the basic flowchart structure of the clinical decision rule that is central to the guideline is feasible for the Scandinavian setting. A recent systematic review of trends in guideline implementation showed that even if more studies investigate and tailor interventions to facilitate implementation of a guideline, with most studies reporting effect, studies that did not plan specific implementation measures also achieved impact [ 20 ]. Causes for a seemingly successful dissemination of the SNC-16 guideline could therefore be numerous.

Potential barriers for implementation of the SNC-16 guideline could be identified within different types of determinants. Over one quarter of our respondents stated a lack of organizational support needed to use the guideline. Organizational barriers affect uptake of recommendations and a top-down drive of change from medical managers is likely important for adoption of a guideline, identifying team and organization leaders as a target for interventions in future implementation planning [ 39 , 43 ]. Lack of resources (e.g., observational units, CT accessibility) also seems to pose an organizational challenge in Swedish health care.

Another relevant issue are the implementation tools accompanying the SNC-16 guideline. Respondents were unsure about which tools are included in the guideline and the helpfulness of these tools. This uncertainty was also expressed as a barrier in the free-text answers. Many respondents seem to prefer electronic tools and further improvements may include development of electronic educational tools/websites and integration with electronic health record-based systems, an aspect that has been identified in other populations [ 37 , 38 , 39 , 41 ]. The need for developing more concise implementation tools, both digital and in print, was identified in an interview study investigating experience and use of the CDC pediatric mTBI guidelines in rural areas in US [ 38 ]. Recently, an evaluation of a generic model to integrate decision aids for shared decision making into electronic evidence summaries with adjacent guidelines showed promising results and may be applicable also for pediatric TBI in the future [ 44 ]. Another area amenable to improvements is the description of the underlying evidence supporting the recommendations, where only 37.6% agreed that the description was clear. This finding is in contrast to a survey by Sawka et al. [ 45 ], also using the CGDQ, which showed that 92.3% agreed that the evidence underlying the evaluated US thyroid guideline was clearly described.

More than half of the respondents sought guidance for their clinical decision-making from colleagues (90%), guidelines (75%), or the internet (65%) and preferred to learn about guidelines via educational meetings and conferences (78%). Sawka et al. [ 45 ], reported somewhat different results regarding the thyroid guideline, where the most common sources for knowledge were medical literature (88.1%), guidelines (87.2%), and colleagues (65.6%). The reported need for discussion with colleagues and learning via meetings/conferences may underscore the need for understanding stakeholders’ views of how to manage mTBI in children. Many respondents were unsure about practice in other settings, and educational meetings may fill an important knowledge gap in this respect. Daugherty et al. [ 38 ], who evaluated the implementation of the CDC pediatric mTBI guideline in a rural area in the US, identified a perceived lack of access to mTBI specialists and discussed the telemonitoring ECHO model as an example where health care providers could meet in a virtual community and discuss cases. There are reports on the application of this model in pediatric emergency care and pediatric mTBI [ 46 , 47 ]. In a recent systematic review, education of professionals was a commonly utilized intervention in guideline implementation planning [ 20 ]. Another review by Chan et al. [ 48 ] reported a positive impact through specific interventions, namely educational outreach, audit, and feedback. There was a significant association between familiarity with assessing pediatric mTBI and the perceived benefit of adherence to the recommendations. This association might be explained by senior physicians managing this condition more seldom, and when doing so relying on their clinical judgement and solid experience rather than a clinical practice guideline [ 37 ].

There are several limitations to consider when interpreting the results from this survey. The low total response rate of 43.4% (analyzable response rate 33.3%) implies a potential responder bias. The high reported use of the guideline could be an effect of sampling bias due to the modified snowball sampling method, for example if the respondents more commonly recommended colleagues with similar education, value base, or within the same organization. Nevertheless, our sampling strategy and different e-mail address collection strategies offered a good opportunity to maximize and optimize respondent relevance by drawing on snowball sampling, the ED physician community, and the ongoing guideline implementation. The background information does not, however, indicate a widespread bias among respondents as the distribution of gender, career stage, category of hospital, part of Sweden, and types of patients managed is reasonable from a Swedish healthcare perspective. Another risk worth mentioning is that of contamination, in the form of an observer effect. There has been an intense focus in Sweden on pediatric mTBI management as an effect of the ongoing guideline validation efforts. The validation study [ 32 ] is strictly observational but has inevitably set focus on the SNC-16 guidelines and the investigators behind these. However, the use of an e-mail recipient list from the 2022 study [ 13 ] is unlikely to have contaminated the responses as there was only one respondent from each of the 66 hospitals in that study. Another limitation is the cross-sectional design, addressing the physicians’ perceptions of their own actions, leaving room for deviation from the reported views in actual patient management decisions.

This cross-sectional survey on determinants for use of the Scandinavian guideline for management of mild and moderate head injury in children suggests that use of the guideline is high in our sample of ED providers in Sweden. In updated versions of the guideline, focus on improving implementation tools and descriptions of the underlying evidence may further facilitate adoption and adherence. Measures to improve organizational support for guideline use and involvement of patient representatives should also be considered.

Availability of data and materials

Pseudonymized datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Scandinavian Neurotrauma Committee

Computed tomography

Emergency department

Clinical Guideline Determinants Questionnaire

Mild traumatic brain injury

Glasgow Coma Scale

Reaction Level Scale -85

Centers for Disease Control

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the respondents in this survey for their valuable contribution and Region Halland for ongoing support with research efforts, especially the FoUU department.

Open access funding provided by Lund University. This study was non-commercially funded by the research and development department at Halland Hospital (FoUU Halland), Sweden.

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Contributions

FW, LP, SB and JU conceived and planned the study. FW, LP and WB developed the electronic questionnaire. FW and WB compiled the respondent list. WB collected the data, with supervision by FW. FW and WB analyzed the data, summarized the results, and wrote the first draft. SK contributed with statistical supervision throughout the process. SB and JU contributed with critical review of the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Fredrik Wickbom .

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The study does not include individual patient or respondent data. Ethical advisory opinion/permission was granted by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority (Dnr 2020 – 02 693) and informed consent was given by each respondent as they fulfilled the electronic questionnaire.

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Competing interests

None of the authors have any financial competing interests. SB participated in the development of the Clinician Guideline Determinants Questionnaire. JU is a member of the SNC committee, a non-profit organization independent from financial company support, who are responsible for the SNC-16 guidelines.

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Wickbom, F., Berghog, W., Bernhardsson, S. et al. Pediatric head injury guideline use in Sweden: a cross-sectional survey on determinants for successful implementation of a clinical practice guideline. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 965 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11423-z

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A Comprehensive Guide to Survey Research Methodologies
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Survey Research: Definition, Types & Methods
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Survey Research
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Understanding and Evaluating Survey Research. A variety of methodologic approaches exist for individuals interested in conducting research. Selection of a research approach depends on a number of factors, including the purpose of the research, the type of research questions to be answered, and the availability of resources.
Survey Research: Definition, Examples and Methods
Survey Research is a quantitative research method used for collecting data from a set of respondents. It has been perhaps one of the most used methodologies in the industry for several years due to the multiple benefits and advantages that it has when collecting and analyzing data.
Survey Research: Definition, Examples & Methods
Types of survey research Calling these methods 'survey research' slightly underplays the complexity of this type of information gathering. From the expertise required to carry out each activity to the analysis of the data and its eventual application, a considerable amount of effort is required.
Doing Survey Research
Survey research means collecting information about a group of people by asking them questions and analysing the results. To conduct an effective survey, follow these six steps: Determine who will participate in the survey. Decide the type of survey (mail, online, or in-person) Design the survey questions and layout. Distribute the survey.
Types of survey research methods
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Types of Surveys: All You Need to Know About Survey Research Methods
Explore types of surveys to match your goals and gain actionable insights. Elevate your research with the right strategy. Dive in now!
Survey Research: Types, Examples & Methods
What is Survey Research? Survey research is simply a systematic investigation conducted via a survey. In other words, it is a type of research carried out by administering surveys to respondents. Surveys already serve as a great method of opinion sampling and finding out what people think about different contexts and situations.
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A Comprehensive Guide to Survey Research Methodologies
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Within the medical realm, there are three main types of survey: epidemiological surveys, surveys on attitudes to a health service or intervention and questionnaires assessing knowledge on a particular issue or topic. 1. Despite a widespread perception that surveys are easy to conduct, in order to yield meaningful results, a survey needs ...
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Considering the current economic and employment landscape, marked by high levels of uncertainty and challenges, this study introduces the challenge-hindrance-threat appraisal (CHTA) framework to examine workplace stress, with a particular focus on the often-overlooked role of threat appraisal. Across three studies using independent samples and multi-wave survey data, our research provides ...
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Research Scientist - Survey Methods, People eXperience Technology Central Science (PXTCS) Amazon.com Services LLC. Seattle, WA. Typically responds within 1 day. ... Job Type: Full-time. Pay: $75,000.00 - $80,000.00 per year. Benefits: 401(k) 401(k) matching; Dental insurance; Employee assistance program;
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Survey Research – Types, Methods, Examples

Survey Research

Survey Research Methods

Types of Survey Research

Types Based on Methodology

Quantitative Survey Research

Data Analysis Methods

Applications of Survey Research

Examples of Survey Research

Survey Sample

When to use Survey Research

How to Conduct Survey Research

Advantages of Survey Research

Limitations of Survey Research

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

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Survey Research | Definition, Examples & Methods

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Populations

Questionnaires

Open-ended vs closed-ended questions

The content of the survey questions

Phrasing the survey questions

Ordering the survey questions

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Doing Survey Research | A Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Table of contents

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Populations

Questionnaires

Open-ended vs closed-ended questions

The content of the survey questions

Phrasing the survey questions

Ordering the survey questions

Cite this Scribbr article

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Types of Surveys: All You Need to Know About Survey Research Methods

What is survey research?

How to choose the right survey method

What formats can research surveys take?

Email surveys

In-product surveys

Website surveys

Link surveys

Mobile surveys

Phone surveys

In-person interviews

Paper surveys

Kiosk surveys

Focus groups

Panel surveys

Types of survey questions

Closed-ended questions

Open-ended questions

Mixed-format questions

Types of surveys based on frequency

What can businesses do with these types of surveys?

Customer experience

Product surveys

Market research survey

Exit intent surveys

Brand surveys

Lead generation survey

Content evaluation survey

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