research proposal on organometallic chemistry

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Organometallic chemistry articles from across Nature Portfolio

Organometallic chemistry is the study of the synthesis, structure and reactivity of chemical compounds that contain metal-carbon bonds. These compounds are often used as homogeneous catalysts.

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Photochemical conversion of CO to C1 and C2 products mediated by porphyrin rhodium(II) metallo-radical complexes

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• Jiajing Zhang

Structural and spectroscopic characterization of N 1 , N 2 -diphenylacenapthylene-1,2-diimines and the influence of substituents on the viscosity of alkyl magnesium solutions

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Unlocking multi-photon excited luminescence in pyrazolate trinuclear gold clusters for dynamic cell imaging

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• Yu-Xin Chen
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N, N’-bidentate ligand anchored palladium catalysts on MOFs for efficient Heck reaction

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Understanding covalency in molecular f -block compounds from the synergy of spectroscopy and quantum chemistry

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News and Comment

A molecular sandwich with a lithium–aluminium filling

Compounds containing metal–metal bonds can provide fresh insights into electronic structure and bonding, and their synthesis can open up new chemical space. A sandwich complex containing a lithium–aluminium bond has now delivered some food for thought in this arena.

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Polarizing the Be–Be bond

The Be–Be bond has long represented a ‘missing link’ between the H–H bond of dihydrogen and the B–B bond of diborane(4) species. Now, a complex with a polarized Be–Be bond that acts as a source of the beryllyl anion is reported. This work also reveals similarities between the homo-elemental linkages of boron and beryllium.

The synthesis behind the 2023 Nobel Prize

In 1993, a new route for the synthesis of semiconductor nanocrystals was reported that exploited organometallic chemistry to afford nearly monodisperse particles. 30 years later the award of the 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry can be directly traced to this single publication.

Catalytic reactions with low-valency ambiphilic gallium complexes

A one-pot method is introduced for synthesizing highly reactive and potentially chiral low-valency Ga( i ) complexes, facilitating their application as a versatile catalyst.

• Djamila Azrou
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Borates expand their reduction power

The chemical reduction of group 1 metal cations to their zero-valent species is challenging. Now, a bipyridine-stabilized borate anion joins the ranks of suitable reducing agents and also proves active in the two-electron reduction of CO 2 .

• Johannes Kreutzer

Lifting iron higher and higher

Biological and synthetic catalysts often utilize iron in high oxidation states (+IV and greater) to perform challenging molecular transformations. A coordination complex featuring an Fe(VII) ion has now been synthesized through sequential oxidations of nonheme iron–nitrido precursors.

• Adam T. Fiedler
• Laxmi Devkota

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Cadierno, V. Recent Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis. Catalysts 2021 , 11 , 646. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11050646

Cadierno V. Recent Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis. Catalysts . 2021; 11(5):646. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11050646

Cadierno, Victorio. 2021. "Recent Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis" Catalysts 11, no. 5: 646. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11050646

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Organometallic catalysis in aqueous and biological environments: harnessing the power of metal carbenes

First published on 16th May 2022

Translating the power of transition metal catalysis to the native habitats of enzymes can significantly expand the possibilities of interrogating or manipulating natural biological systems, including living cells and organisms. This is especially relevant for organometallic reactions that have shown great potential in the field of organic synthesis, like the metal-catalyzed transfer of carbenes. While, at first sight, performing metal carbene chemistry in aqueous solvents, and especially in biologically relevant mixtures, does not seem obvious, in recent years there has been a growing number of reports demonstrating the feasibility of the task. Either using small molecule metal catalysts or artificial metalloenzymes, a number of carbene transfer reactions that tolerate aqueous and biorelevant media are being developed. This review intends to summarize the most relevant contributions, and establish the state of the art in this emerging research field.

1. Introduction

However, there has been an increasing demonstration that many organometallic complexes and intermediates do tolerate the presence of water. Indeed, a huge number of water-compatible organometallic reactions have been recently developed. 2 Work in the field has been further impelled by the growing interest in developing sustainable synthetic technologies, and by the observation that the presence of water can even accelerate some reactions. 3

These advances have led scientists to wonder if organometallic reactions could be carried out in biological and even living settings, as this could open new opportunities in cell biology and biomedicine. However, the translation of organometallic chemistry to biological habitats is not straightforward, and presents important challenges. First, a cellular milieu cannot be equated to a typical aqueous solvent, owing to its gel-like nature and intrinsic crowded environment. Furthermore, the presence of numerous biological components can promote the deactivation of the metal reagents or inhibit the catalytic cycles. Moving to living environments is further hampered by potential toxicity and transport issues, and by the low concentration of reagents and reactants.

Nonetheless, with the advent of bioorthogonal chemistry, as coined by Bertozzi and coworkers, 4 an increasing number of organic reactions, including metal-catalyzed processes, have been demonstrated to work in biological and living environments. 5,6 A key discovery that sparked the field is the well-known copper-catalyzed azide alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC), paradigm of click chemistry, which is usually carried out with Cu( II ) reagents and external reducing agents like ascorbate. Despite the intrinsic toxicity of these reagents, an appropriate tuning of the reaction conditions has allowed its use in cellular settings. 7–11 Its impressive chemoselectivity has also led to many applications for bioconjugation and post-translational modification of proteins or nucleic acids. 12,13

The CuAAC entails a typical organometallic mechanism involving oxidative cyclometallation and reductive elimination steps, and it is a fundamental reference in the field of biological organometallic catalysis. Another early (2006) report that has gained increasing recognition by the chemical biology community is the discovery by Meggers et al. that Ru( II ) catalysts can promote the removal of alloc protecting groups in designed substrates, even in the presence of HeLa cells. 14

Although for several years there were not many new contributions in the area, in the last decade there has been an upsurge in reports dealing with transition metal-promoted reactions in biological media, and also in living organisms like bacteria. 15–20 Some of these discoveries have already found very relevant biological applications. 21–24 The reactions include uncaging processes, mainly those catalyzed by ruthenium or palladium complexes, such as the cleavage of N -allylcarbamates or O -allyl/propargyl ethers, 14,25–33 ruthenium catalyzed bond-forming reactions (annulations between thioalkynes and azides (RuAtAC), 34,35 (2 + 2 + 2) cycloadditions 36 ) or isomerization of allylic alcohols, 37 gold-catalyzed hydroarylations, 38 and even palladium promoted Sonogashira 39 or Suzuki–Miyaura 40–43 cross couplings.

Therefore, a wide range of organometallic transformations, from deprotection to cross-coupling, cyclization or cycloaddition reactions, have been demonstrated to be compatible with biological environments, provided appropriate metal complexes and probes are employed.

What about metal carbenes? Can their reactivity be exported to biological environments? Metal carbene transfer reactions are among the most powerful and versatile transformations in catalysis and organometallic chemistry, and have been used for many synthetic applications. 44,45 Translating the rich reactivity typically exhibited by metal carbenes in organic solvents to aqueous and biological media, could open important new avenues in research at the interface between chemistry and biology.

Indeed, in the last decade, there has been an increase in the number of reactions involving bioorthogonal metal-carbene transfer processes. In some cases, it has also been demonstrated that this chemistry can be performed in cells or in bacteria. In this review, we intend to cover the most significant contributions in this topic, from bioconjugations and chemoselective modifications of biopolymers to synthetic transformations of small molecules in biological settings, including bacteria or mammalian cells.

2. Catalysis involving metal carbene transfer reactions

A wide range of precursors have been employed for the generation of carbenes, such as tosylhydrazones, diaziridines, triazoles, cycloheptatrienes, alkynes or ynamides, among others. 47 However, the most widely used carbene precursors are diazo compounds, which are reasonably stable but can readily decompose to carbenes under mild reaction conditions. 44,48 The resulting free carbenes tend to be highly reactive, and therefore difficult to use in chemical transformations; however, upon appropriate coordination to transition metals they give metal carbenes, which present a more controllable and rich reactivity. The chemical properties of these metal complexes depend on the spin configurations of the carbene, and on the overlap with the metal orbitals.

Different criteria have been used to classify metal carbenes. Historically, they have been categorized as Fischer and Schrock carbenes, depending on the metal complex and the type of substituents at the carbene; but in the context of this review, it is useful a classification based on the nature of the substituents adjacent to the reactive carbene centre. Acceptor/acceptor (A/A) and acceptor (A) carbenes are highly reactive due to the lack of stabilization of the electrophilic carbene centre. In contrast, the presence of donor groups stabilizes the metal carbene centre and attenuates the reactivity. This is the case of donor/acceptor (D/A) carbenes, which have been widely used due to their good balance between reactivity and stability ( Fig. 1b ). 49,50

The rich reactivity of metal carbenes is mostly related to the charge distribution along the metal–carbon bond and the electrophilicity of the carbene carbon, allowing its reaction with a variety of nucleophiles. Within the broad spectrum of reactions enabled by metal carbenes, most common transformations include cyclopropanations of alkenes, 51–53 C–H functionalizations, 49,54–56 insertions into X–H bonds (X = O, N, S, Si), 57,58 the formation of ylides 59–61 (and subsequent rearrangements) or cycloaddition processes 44,61 ( Fig. 1c ). This reactivity is different from that exhibited by carbene precursors, usually diazocarbonyl compounds, which tend to decompose and/or engage in rearrangement or dimerization reactions.

The reactions of metal carbenes with substrates exhibiting non-polar bonds ( i.e. cyclopropanation of alkenes or insertions into C–H or Si–H bonds), tend to proceed through a concerted mechanism, 62 while in the case of insertions into polar X–H bonds a stepwise ylide mechanism might be operative. Beyond these general features, the characteristics of the transition metal complex play a key role in the mechanistic pathway. 58

Transition metal-catalyzed carbene transformations have been well studied in organic solvents, with rhodium, copper and iron being the most explored metals. It is important to note that besides carbene transfer reactions from diazo or related precursors, metal carbenes can also be used as catalysts, e.g. in metathesis processes.

3. Metal-promoted carbene transfer reactions in aqueous media

3.1. transformations of small molecules.

In 2002 Charette and Wurz reported a different approach to perform similar cyclopropanations. They found that the combination of hydrophobic rhodium catalysts such as dirhodium( II ) octanoate (Rh 2 (Oct) 4 ) with hydrophobic alkenes allows the formation of “small alkene/catalyst beads or micelles” in water. Then, a slow diffusion of EDA through the surface of the beads enabled a controlled formation of the desired cyclopropanated products in high yields ( Fig. 2 ). Noticeably, water-soluble rhodium carboxylates (Rh 2 (OAc) 4 or Rh 2 (O 2 CCF 3 ) 4 ) were inefficient, leading to low yields. An asymmetric version of this reaction was also studied using ruthenium( II ) and cobalt( II ) chiral catalysts. 65

A family of catalysts that has been extensively employed for cyclopropanation reactions in organic solvents are metalloporphyrins, an interesting type of metal complexes that is also present in certain metalloenzymes with oxidative functions. In 2008, Simonneaux and coworkers prepared water-soluble ruthenium and iron porphyrins by the introduction of sulfonate groups, and used them as catalysts for the asymmetric cyclopropanation of styrene in water, with EDA as the carbene precursor ( Fig. 3a ). They obtained the desired products in yields up to 85%, with high diastereoselectivity ( trans / cis up to 96/4) and good enantioselectivity for the trans isomer (83%). 66

Another interesting approach based on the use of nanoreactors was reported in 2014 by van Hest et al. , who immobilized chiral bis(oxazoline)–copper catalysts inside a polymersome membrane to perform asymmetric cyclopropanations of alkenes in water. Interestingly, only hydrophobic alkenes underwent the cyclopropanation, likely because of their ability to localize into the active site of the polymer. 68

All these results confirm the compatibility of specific metal carbenes with water, which even plays an important role in the reactivity and selectivity of the processes by eliciting hydrophobic effects.

Further studies revealed that the use of more hydrophobic catalysts such as Rh 2 (Oct) 4 partially avoided or completely suppressed the hydroxylation reaction, even when less hydrophobic substrates were employed. 70

Another interesting metal-carbene mediated C–H insertion was proposed by the group of Ye, using ynamides as carbene precursors and gold catalysts. In the presence of an oxidant, the reaction generates α-oxo gold carbenes that can be trapped by indoles or anilines ( Fig. 4b ). The intermolecular reactions were carried out at 80 °C using water as reaction media, providing the C-alkylation products in excellent yields, after 1–2 hours. 71 Remarkably, the presence of water suppressed undesired over-oxidations of the gold carbene.

In 2016, Sivasankar and coworkers reported an efficient synthesis of α-amino phosphonates in water via insertion of copper( I ) carbenoids into the N–H bond of anilines under mild reaction conditions ( Fig. 5b ). The best results were obtained with (CH 3 CN) 4 CuClO 4 as catalyst, yielding the desired N–H insertion products in short reaction times (from 15 min to 2 h in most cases). 73 Later on, in 2017, they found conditions for the N–H insertion of carbenes exhibiting different electronic properties. AgOTf was the best choice for donor/donor carbene precursors, providing moderate yields after 5 minutes of reaction, while for donor/acceptor carbenes containing aryl and ester groups, Pd 2 (dba) 3 led to the product in 90% yield after 30 minutes. In the case of acceptor/acceptor carbenes, the most efficient catalyst was found to be [Ir(COD)Cl] 2 , affording the N–H insertion product in 81% yield after 12 h. The authors studied in more detail the reaction for acceptor/acceptor carbenes, and used their method to synthesize a series of aniline-derivatives in good yields. However, in the case of aliphatic amines, such as benzylamine, and heteroaromatic amines like 2-aminopyridine, only traces amounts of the N–H insertion products were detected. 74

In 2016, Lee and coworkers reported an elegant strategy for the synthesis of quinoxalines, pyrazines and benzoquinoxalines through the annulation of 1,2-diamines and diazodicarbonyls in water at 70 °C, using Fe(OTf) 3 as catalyst ( Fig. 5c ). The process is initiated by the insertion of an iron carbenoid into the N–H bond of the diamine, followed by cyclization and oxidative aromatization, to afford the desired heterocycles in excellent yields. 75

Gross and coworkers reported N–H insertion reactions of EDA and ethyl diazopropionate (EDP) on anilines in aqueous solutions, catalyzed by iron corrole conjugated albumins. The authors did not observe enantiomerically enriched products in any of the cases, and did not comment on the potential accelerating effect of the protein. 77

3.2. Chemoselective reactions of peptides and proteins

In 2013 Ball demonstrated the feasibility of performing selective cysteine modification under mild reaction conditions, using a N -( tert -butyl)hydroxylamine-containing buffer employed by Antos and Francis, Rh 2 (OAc) 4 and a biotin-tethered diazo substrate. The authors applied these reaction conditions to a mixture of proteins, and observed the modification of proteins with accessible cysteine thiols, while those with buried or oxidized cysteine residues remained unmodified. 84

Che et al. reported the first example of a metalloporphyrin-catalyzed carbene transfer for the selective modification of proteins. A designed water-soluble ruthenium glycosylated porphyrin catalyst [Ru II (4-Glc-TPP)(CO)] (1,4-Glc-TPP = meso-tetrakis(4-(β- D -glucosyl)phenyl)porphyrinato dianion) was employed for different carbene transfer reactions in aqueous media (inter- and intramolecular cyclopropanation, Doyle–Kirmse reaction, N–H insertion). Interestingly, the catalyst proved to be effective for the selective alkylation of the N-terminus of peptides and proteins using a fluorescent-tethered diazo compound ( Fig. 7b ). However, when the protein presented free thiols (cysteines) in its structure, the insertion of the metal carbene took place into the S–H bond rather than in the terminal N–H bond. 85

Despite these successes, the reactions tend to be low yielding, and chemoselectivities are, in many cases, modest. As an alternative to these methods, Ball and coworkers developed an elegant strategy based on proximity-driven bioconjugations that combines molecular recognition with metallocarbene reactivity. This approach is based on the use of a dirhodium metallopeptide made of a rhodium( II ) catalyst conjugated to a peptide that is able to recognize another specific protein ( via a coiled-coil assembly, Fig. 7d ). 88

Using this approach, the authors performed site-specific modification of peptides and proteins at physiological pH, and in biologically relevant buffers. 89–91 The use of biotin–diazo conjugates as reagents allowed for affinity tagging of the target proteins. They were even able to use designed metallopeptide catalysts to perform selective protein modifications in E. coli lysate. Moreover, they developed a strategy for the site-specific functionalization of antibodies based on the use of a hexarhodium metallopeptide catalyst with affinity for the Fc fragment of the antibody. 92 Based on molecular recognition of the Fc region, this approach enabled the introduction of orthogonal alkyne handles into mono- or polyclonal antibodies, opening the door to the quick production of antibody conjugates.

3.3. Chemoselective modification of nucleic acids

Shortly thereafter, they demonstrated the effectiveness of Cu( I ) salts, generated from copper sulfate and sodium ascorbate, to catalyze a similar insertion of donor/acceptor carbenes into the N–H bond of adenine in MES buffer. The diazo compound was further modified to contain an alkyne or azide handle, thus developing a tandem carbene insertion/CuAAC reaction ( Fig. 8a , right). 94

Interestingly, the use of acceptor carbenes generated from α-diazoesters or diazoacetamides and copper( I ) led to chemoselective alkylation of the O 6 position in guanine (O 6 -G) in mono- and oligonucleotides, attributed to the pre-coordination of the catalyst to the N 7 of guanine ( Fig. 8b ). 95 However, with complex oligonucleotides containing multiple chelation sites, reaction rates are low, likely due to unproductive catalyst sequestration.

Very recently, Park and coworkers reported an elegant site-selective post-synthetic modification of oligonucleotides at unpaired guanosines. The use of a coordinatively saturated Rh( I ) catalyst like [Rh(COD)Cl] 2 circumvented the chelation issues related to the deactivation of the catalyst observed by Gillingham, while maintaining the chemoselectivity towards base-unpaired guanosines in single- and double-stranded oligonucleotides. They exploited this feature and introduced guanosine-bulge loops in duplexes, which resulted in high regioselectivity, and allowed iterative introduction of multiple modifications in a programmable fashion ( Fig. 8c ). 96 The utility of this approach was further showcased by performing DNA-protein cross-linking in cell lysate.

4. Carbene transfer reactions catalyzed by metallobiopolymers

The design and development of ArMs has been largely based on repurposing natural metalloenzymes or on anchoring a metal cofactor to a protein-binding pocket. In the first approach ( Fig. 9 , left), a natural metalloenzyme is modified by directed mutagenesis and/or by introducing a non-natural metal-containing cofactor. In the second approach ( Fig. 9 , right), the metal can be either covalently bound to protein residues, or anchored into a protein cavity through supramolecular association ( e.g. biotin-modified catalysts in streptavidin, strategy primarily developed by Ward).

Although the overwhelming number of reports of the use of ArMs to perform carbene transfer reactions cannot be covered in this review, we present some selected contributions. In this first section, we will mainly focus on the strategies employed to prepare new ArMs and their reactivity profiles, while the following section spotlights the compatibility of the systems with living cells. Besides, we will also disclose some examples of the use of nucleic acids instead of protein as coatings for the catalytic metals in carbene transfer processes.

4.1. Reactions promoted by heme-containing artificial metalloenzymes

Arnold and coworkers, envisioning the structural similarity between the iron-oxo intermediate involved in cytochrome P450-catalyzed oxidations and an iron carbene, repurposed the system to work as a carbene transferase. In 2013, using as benchmark reaction the cyclopropanation of styrene with EDA, they demonstrated that variants of P450 BM3 from Bacillus megaterium can promote the carbene transfer, forming cyclopropane products with high levels of diastereo- and enantioselectivity. 104,105 Additional studies using directed evolution to introduce mutations at the binding pocket of different P450 cytochrome variants allowed to tune the selectivity and activity. Therefore, in the last decade, the group has successfully engineered new variants that catalyze cyclopropanation 106,107 and cyclopropenation 108 reactions, as well as N–H, 109 Si–H, 110 B–H 111 and C–H 112,113 insertions, with high rates and turnovers, and exquisite regio- and stereocontrol.

In 2014, Fasan et al. extended this strategy to other heme proteins, developing evolved variants of myoglobin (Mb) and horseradish peroxidase. Furthermore, they demonstrated that it is possible to replace the heme group by porphyrin cofactors with abiotic metals ( i.e. Mn or Co), to give metalloenzymes with similar levels of activity and selectivity. 114 Using directed evolution, they reported Mb mutants that successfully catalyze the cyclopropanation of a variety of aryl-substituted olefins with EDA, with excellent levels of diastereo- and enantioselectivity. 115–120 They also developed variants that catalyze carbene transfer reactions such as insertions into N–H, 121–123 S–H 124 or Si–H 125 bonds, and ylide formations. 126

It is also possible to build ArMs with modified heme scaffolds, such as the one developed by Lehnert with mesoporphyrin IX (RuMpIX) incorporated into wild-type (wt) Mb and Mb mutants ( Fig. 11 ). However, these modified proteins exhibited moderate catalytic activity towards the cyclopropanation of styrene derivatives, and in N–H modifications of aniline derivatives. 130 Hayashi et al. selected an iron porphycene cofactor to reconstitute myoglobin, and demonstrated that the modified protein significantly accelerates a catalytic cyclopropanation reaction, which turned to be 615-fold faster than that obtained using native myoglobin ( Fig. 11 ). Interestingly, the authors performed mechanistic studies and reported the first spectroscopic observation of the active metallocarbene species in this type of reconstituted proteins. 131

All these impressive contributions demonstrate the enormous power of ArMs to perform carbene transfer reactions in aqueous buffers, with rates and selectivities much better than those achieved under standard organometallic conditions with discrete catalysts.

In 2018, Roelfes and coworkers reported the de novo design of a non-native heme protein based on the large, promiscuous, hydrophobic binding pocket of the lactococcal multidrug resistance regulator (LmrR) ( Fig. 12b ). By self-assembly of hemin and LmrR in a buffered solution, they created a biocatalyst for the cyclopropanation of styrene derivatives with EDA. The reaction requires an inert atmosphere and the addition of sodium dithionate as a reductant agent to generate the active Fe( II ) heme complex. Among the different mutants synthesized, LmrR_M8A delivered the product with good yield (45%) and reasonable enantiomeric excess (ee = 51% [1 R ,2 R enantiomer]), and TTNs up to 449. Interestingly, the crystal structure showed that the iron centre is apparently inaccessible for the substrates, as it is sandwiched between two tryptophan residues, and therefore, the dynamic nature of the enzyme seems to be responsible for the observed activity and enantioselectivity. 135

Inspired by the work of Wilson and Whitesides, 136 several groups, and especially Ward's, have designed artificial enzymes based on the use of biotin–avidin interactions to tether the metal cofactor to the protein. In 2018, the group demonstrated that covalently anchoring a dirhodium catalyst to a biotin, and embedding it within engineered streptavidin, gives a hybrid catalyst for olefin cyclopropanation and carbene C–H insertion reactions, albeit with modest performances ( Fig. 12c ). 137 Importantly, they demonstrated that the strategy can be implemented to work in the periplasm of E. coli ( vide infra ).

4.2. Carbene transformations promoted by metals coated on DNA scaffolds

Pioneering work in this field of DNA-based organometallic catalysis was performed by Roelfes et al. ( Fig. 13a ). Using copper complexes with intercalating ligands (dppz derivatives), and salmon testes duplex DNA as a source of chirality, they achieved asymmetric intramolecular cyclopropanation of α-diazo-β-ketosulfones, with enantiomeric excesses up to 84%. 138 Likely, the microenvironment resulting from the stacking of the ligands between the DNA bases may favour cyclopropanation over water addition to the carbene.

They also implemented the use of porphyrin metal ligands in this type of carbene transfer reactions. In 2016 they reported a DNA-accelerated cyclopropanation of styrene derivatives with EDA, with a moderate enantiomeric excess of 53% in the presence of the salmon testes DNA/cationic iron porphyrin hybrid catalyst ( Fig. 13b ). An ortho -substituted N -methylpyridinium porphyrin that predominantly interacts with DNA through groove binding, and makes the catalytic site accessible for substrates, was shown to be the best catalyst. 139 The authors proposed that the rate acceleration observed may be related to the formation of hydrophobic pockets in the DNA upon binding of the iron porphyrin, thus providing a high effective molarity that benefits reactivity.

Li et al. built hybrid systems using intramolecular antiparallel G-quadruplex variants of thrombin-binding aptamer (TBA) G4-DNAs and cationic Fe porphyrin FeTMPyP4 (Fe-meso-tetra( N -methyl-4-pyridyl)porphyrin, Fig. 13b ). After adequate mutations, two efficient stereocomplementary catalysts were identified. Specific residues in the G4 structure, spatially close to the active site, were crucial for obtaining good selectivities in cyclopropanation reactions. 141

5. Exporting metal carbene reactions into biological environments and living cells

5.1. organometallic reactions in living contexts.

As indicated in the previous sections, reactions involving metal carbenes can be performed in aqueous media, using specifically tailored conditions. A more challenging issue is related with their bioorthogonality, and the possibility of exporting them to complex biological environments and living settings. Although advances in this area have been scarce, a number of reports increasingly show the potential of metal-promoted carbene transfer reactions in the fields of bioorthogonal and biological chemistry.

5.2. Carbene transfer reactions in cellular settings and in bacteria

A particularly remarkable contribution in the area was disclosed by Balskus et al. , who demonstrated that metallocarbene chemistry can be interfaced with bacterial metabolism. They engineered E. coli to generate styrene from D -glucose, and integrated metallocarbene intermediates into the metabolic pathway using a biocompatible iron( III ) phthalocyanine catalyst (FePcCl) that transformed styrene into non-natural phenyl cyclopropanes in single-vessel fermentations ( Fig. 15 ). 143

Very recently, Mascareñas and coworkers reported the first example of a metal-carbene transfer reaction within live mammalian cells ( Fig. 16 ). Using a common copper salt (Cu(OAc) 2 ), they synthesized benzoquinoxalines in cellulo , in a one-pot process that is initiated by an N–H carbene insertion of the in situ generated copper carbenoid into ortho -amino arylamines. The intracellular generation of a fluorescent benzoquinoxaline allowed for in vivo monitoring of the reaction by fluorescence microscopy. Remarkably, the methodology could be applied to elicit biological effects through the intracellular synthesis of Tyrphostin AG1385, a tyrosine phosphorylation inhibitor that disrupts mitochondrial functions, producing mitochondrial fragmentation and depolarization. Moreover, the authors were able to elicit cell-selective responses by equipping the copper catalyst with a targeting unit (RGD motif). 144

It is worth noting the strategy reported by Arnold in 2016, which allowed the in vivo production of organosilicon compounds ( Fig. 18a ). 110 In this case, cytochrome c from Rhodothermus marinus (Rma cyt c) was shown to be the most active hemoprotein. Importantly, high levels of selectivity were achieved for Si–H carbene insertions. Even in the presence of other functionalities such as alcohols or primary amines, styryl olefins or electron rich double bonds, susceptible of undergoing O–H, N–H insertion or cyclopropanations, the C–Si bond formation was predominant. Interestingly, by selecting the adequate ArMs, the authors were able to selectively catalyze the insertion of the carbene either into a Si–H or N–H bond of the same substrate ( Fig. 18b ). 145

Using directed evolution, they could enhance the catalytic function of this ArM for B–H insertions, reporting, one year later, a fully genetically encoded platform for producing chiral organoboranes in bacteria ( Fig. 18c ). 111 These enzymes were found to form carbon–boron bonds in the presence of borane–Lewis base complexes, through carbene insertion into the boron–hydrogen bond. Surprisingly, the variants demonstrated to be even more productive when the reactions were carried out using whole Escherichia coli cells expressing this enzyme.

The P411 scaffold has been further optimized by directed evolution, and demonstrated to work in E. coli for other reactions, such as the synthesis of bicyclobutanes, via successive carbene addition to unsaturated carbon–carbon bonds. 146

Fasan and coworkers reported the first example of intramolecular olefin cyclopropanations with allyl α-diazoacetate derivatives (with high stereocontrol and complementary enantioselectivities), in whole cells, using engineered Mb based catalysts. 147 The same strategy was applied to the synthesis of symmetrically fused cyclopropane-γ-lactams starting from allyldiazoacetamides. 148

Very recently, Arnold et al. evolved a hemoprotein (P411) that exhibits a mechanism entailing an N–H insertion and a protonation at the active site of the protein. This engineered active site also places the necessary water molecules for rapid and stereoselective proton rearrangement prior to product release. The ArM works in whole cells, exhibiting high activity and enantioselectivity (up to 98% ee). 149

All the above reactions are based on the modification of native metalloprotein systems. The intracellular assembly of metalloproteins equipped with non-natural metal cofactors is more difficult.

An interesting example from Brustad's group deals with the engineering of cytochrome P450 to selectively incorporate Ir(Me)–deuteroporphyrin IX (Ir(Me)–DPIX), in lieu of natural heme, directly in bacteria. The strategy required the introduction of mutations within the heme binding pocket. The resulting “in-cell” assembled iridium complex promoted olefin cyclopropanation reactions by EDA, and showed enhanced activity for aliphatic and electron-deficient olefins compared to the native heme enzyme. 150

Hartwig and coworkers recently demonstrated the viability of assembling an iridium containing heme metalloenzyme in bacteria, using the HUG system to transport the Ir(Me)MPIX cofactor into engineered cells expressing CYP119. They even demonstrated that it is possible to combine natural and artificial metalloenzymes in E. coli to afford cyclopropanated products from simple sugars ( Fig. 19 ). 151 Very recently, they identified a second system for transporting iridium porphyrin into Nissle 1917 (a non-pathogenic E. coli strain), based on the presence of an outer-membrane receptor of these cells. 152

In addition to carbene transfer reactions from diazo precursors, metal carbenes are also key reagents and intermediates in alkene metathesis processes, which can also be catalyzed by artificial metaloenzymes. 101 Ward and coworkers designed a biotinylated Hoveyda–Grubbs second-generation catalyst (biot-Ru) that binds to streptavidin in the periplasm of E. coli , to give an effective artificial metalloenzyme that promotes a ring-closing-metathesis ( Fig. 20 , left).

A similar approach, based on the affinity of coumarin for albumin, was employed by the group of Tanaka to build ArMs that perform “in cell” metathesis reactions ( Fig. 20 , right). 153

6. Conclusions

Considering the rich and versatile chemistry of metal carbenes, we foresee a bright future for further expanding the applications of these intermediates in chemical and cell biology, as well as biomedicine.

Current challenges include, among others, the creation of versatile artificial metalloenzymes that can perform chemoselective and bioorthogonal metal-carbene transfer reactions in mammalian cells, increasing rates and turnover with discrete metal catalysts, the development of metallocatalysts embedded in nanoscaffolds that facilitate the reactivity, or the development of biological applications.

Author contributions

Conflicts of interest, acknowledgements, notes and references.

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Recent progress in the development of organometallics for the treatment of cancer

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Hull, Cottingham Road, Hull HU6 7RX, United Kingdom. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 2 Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques (ISIC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland. Electronic address: [email protected].
• PMID: 31812831
• DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2019.11.001

From their early successes in medicine, organometallic compounds continue to attract interest as potential chemotherapeutics to treat a range of diseases. Here, we show from recent literature selected largely from the last two years that organometallics offer unique opportunities in medicine and, increasingly, a mechanistic-based approach is applied to their development, which has not always been the case.

Keywords: Bioinorganic chemistry; Bioorganometallic chemistry; Chemotherapy; Metallodrugs.

Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Conflict of interest statement

Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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