title of a painting in essay

How should I style the name of an artwork with an ascribed title?

Note: This post relates to content in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook . For up-to-date guidance, see the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook .

Many works of art, especially older ones, were not given formal titles by their creators or were given one that is no longer known and thus have an ascribed title—that is, a title assigned by others, often scholars or curators.

How you style an ascribed title for a work depends on the period in which the work was created. Ascribed titles of ancient works of art are conventionally styled roman, as shown in the following example, from Tobin Siebers’s “Disability Aesthetics”:

Would the Venus de Milo still be considered one of the great examples of aesthetic and human beauty if she had both her arms? (543)

Ascribed titles of works of art from other periods are styled in italics.

Siebers, Tobin. “Disability Aesthetics.” PMLA , vol. 120, no. 2, Mar. 2005, pp. 542–46.

Daily Writing Tips

Work of art titles.

When a freelance magazine writer asked me how the title of a sculpture should be written, I went to The Chicago Manual of Style to find out if it should be italicized, enclosed in quotation marks, or left plain.

Here is the advice I found and passed on to the writer:

Titles of paintings, drawings, photographs, statues, and other works of art are italicized, whether the titles are original, added by someone other than the artist, or translated. The names of works of antiquity (whose creators are often unknown) are usually set in roman. Though major works of art are generally italicized, some massive works of sculpture are regarded primarily as monuments and therefore not italicized.

According to this advice, one should italicize Kindred Spirits (oil painting), Shore Lunch (non-monumental sculpture), and Rose and Driftwood (Ansel Adams photo), but leave the Venus de Milo (work of antiquity) and the Statue of Liberty (monumental) in roman type.

After the fact, I checked to see what The AP Stylebook has to say about italicizing titles. The AP editors are against it:

italics : AP does not italicize words in news stories.

According to AP guidelines, the titles of just about everything are enclosed by quotation marks: book titles, computer game titles, movie titles, opera titles, play titles, poem titles, song titles, television program titles, and works of art. Exceptions are the Bible and books that are “primarily catalogs of reference material.”

I decided to explore a few publications, American and British, to see how they do it. Two (both British) write the titles without italics or quotation marks. Four (all American) enclose the titles in quotation marks. Only one (also American) italicizes art titles, including works from antiquity. Here are seven of the examples I gathered:

The Telegraph (British) I can hardly bear to look at a horrible little painting of a cloyingly sweet faced little girl entitled The Strawberry Girl, where the paint texture and layers of discoloured varnish were flattened during an early re-lining resulting in the ruin we see today

The Independent (British) His giant sculptures, many of them human figures, include Yellow, a man ripping open his own chest and spilling out Lego innards (11,014 pieces make up the work), and a blue swimmer, as well as interpretations of masterpieces including the Mona Lisa

The New York Times (American) The show includes works on loan as well as some of the gallery’s recent acquisitions that have not been on view before, such as Frantisek Kupka’s ”Organization of Graphic Motifs” and Yves Tanguy’s ”The Look of Amber.”

The Sacramento Bee (American) Immediately you are struck by the rich and evocative figurative abstraction “Martyr With a Red Arm.”

Boston Globe (American) Works like “Patina,” from 1975, and “Clavichord,” from 2002, feel like classic Ihara.

The New Yorker (American) The sixth lot, “The Little White House,” a 1919 landscape by Willard Metcalf, sold for just over a million dollars.

The Smithsonian Magazine (American) The  Venus de Milo  is the most famous sculpture and, after the Mona Lisa, the most famous work of art in the world.

Best advice: Consult the style guide of the publication for which the article is intended.

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4 thoughts on “Work of Art Titles”

OK so my question is, in your last example, why is Venus de Milo in italics but Mona Lisa isn’t?

Bluebird, Good question. Answer: Typographical error.

I noticed you do not mention artworks or art exhibitions in AP style – that is the preferred style for newspaper and blog writing.

Did I miss it. I was told by the Huff post to used quotes for titles of exhibitions….but what about individual artworks?

Bluebird, I goofed. I just looked at my source and both Venus de Milo and Mona Lisa are italicized. Sorry. (I did notice that when I tried to copy and paste the relevant passage, the italics disappeared.)

Henry K. Long, AP recommends quotation marks for all such. Their guidelines about quotation marks apply to “book titles, computer game titles, movie titles, opera titles, play titles, poem titles, album and song titles, radio and television program titles, and the titles of lectures, speeches and works of art.” I believe that art exhibitions, like lectures, would take quotation marks.

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How to Cite Images and Paintings in APA, MLA, and Chicago

Last Updated: April 29, 2024 References

This article was co-authored by Marissa Levis and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Marissa Levis is an English Teacher in the Morris County Vocational School District. She previously worked as an English director at a tutoring center that caters to students in elementary and middle school. She is an expert in creating a curriculum that helps students advance their skills in secondary-level English, focusing on MLA formatting, reading comprehension, writing skills, editing and proofreading, literary analysis, standardized test preparation, and journalism topics. Marissa received her Master of Arts in Teaching from Fairleigh Dickinson University. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been viewed 122,567 times.

You may need to use a painting as a source for a research paper, particularly if you're writing about art history or a related field. To cite a painting, you need more information than you would for a standard text source. Typically, you'll also need to include the current location of the work, its dimensions, and its material or medium. The specific format for your citation varies depending on the citation style you use. Three of the most common citation styles are Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), and Chicago style.

• Example: Goya, Francisco.
• If no artist is credited, start the citation with the title of the painting. If the work is credited to "Anonymous," use "Anonymous" as the artist's name.

• Titled example: Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV .
• Untitled example: Rauschenberg, Robert. Glossy black painting.

Examples of Brief Descriptions

Goya, Francisco. Untitled portrait of the Duchess of Alba.

Nicholson, Ben. White relief painting.

Basquiat, Jean-Michel. Black skull on blue background.

• Example: Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV . 1800, Museo del Prado, Madrid.

MLA Works Cited Entry Format

Artist Last Name, First Name. Title of Painting . Year, Museum or Collection, City.

• Book example: Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV . 1800, Museo del Prado, Madrid. Gardener's Art Through the Ages , 10th ed., by Richard G. Tansey and Fred S. Kleiner, Harcourt Brace, p. 939.
• Website example: Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV . 1800, Museo del Prado, Madrid. WikiArt Visual Art Encyclopedia , www.wikiart.org/en/francisco-goya/charles-iv-of-spain-and-his-family-1800.
• If you viewed the painting on the museum's website, omit the name and location of the museum. Use the name of the website and URL instead. Place a period after the year, since it refers to the date the painting was created, not the date it was published on the website. For example: Goya, Francisco, The Family of Charles IV . 1800. Museo del Prado , www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/the-family-of-carlos-iv/.
• Include the medium and materials at the end of your entry if they are important or relevant to your paper. Otherwise, this information isn't required for an MLA Works Cited entry.

• Example: "One of Francisco Goya's subjects in The Family of Charles IV has her head turned away. Scholars believe this was a member of the family who was not present on the day the portrait was painted."
• If the painting is untitled, use your brief description of the painting along with the artist's name. For example, you might write: "The Duchess of Alba was widely considered to be Francisco Goya's muse, as his many untitled portraits of her suggest."

• Example: Pratt, C. (1965).
• If the artist is unknown, start your reference list entry with the title of the work. However, if the credited artist is "Anonymous," use that word as the name of the author. [7] X Research source
• If the date is not known, use the abbreviation "n.d." inside the parentheses.

• Example: Pratt, C. (1965). Young girl with seashells [Oil on board].
• If the painting is untitled, use the word "Untitled" in place of the title. Since it isn't the title of the painting, it shouldn't be italicized.

• Example: Pratt, C. (1965). Young girl with seashells [Oil on board]. Memorial University Art Gallery Permanent Collection, Corner Brook, NL.

APA Reference List Entry Format

Artist Last Name, First Initial. (Year). Title of painting [Description of material]. Museum or Collection, City, abbreviated state/province or name of country.

• Book example: Jacque, H. (2010). Labrador black duck [Clay tile]. Lawrence O'Brien Auditorium, Goose Bay, NL. In D. Brown, Uncommon clay: The labradoria mural (p. 18). St John's, NL: Creative Publishing. (Original work 2009).
• Website example: Shepherd, H. P. (1962). Sunday morning [Oil]. Collection of Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL. The rooms (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.therooms.ca/artgallery/shepherds.asp

• Example: "Christopher Pratt's painting Young Girl with Seashells (1965) offers a glimpse of classic Newfoundland heritage."

• Example: Gogh, Vincent van.
• If the artist is unknown, simply leave this element out of your citation. If the artist is listed as "Anonymous," use that word in place of the artist's name. [13] X Research source

• Example: Gogh, Vincent van. The Starry Night .
• If the painting is untitled, simply move on to the next element of the citation. Chicago doesn't require you to write a description as a placeholder, or to use the word "Untitled." However, if you do, type this information in plain text rather than italics. Otherwise, it looks like the title.

• Example: Gogh, Vincent van. The Starry Night . 1889.

• Example: Gogh, Vincent van. The Starry Night . 1889. Oil on canvas. 29 in. x 36.25 in.
• As with other elements, if any of this information isn't available, simply leave it out. There's no need to make a separate mention that the information is unknown or unavailable.
• The Chicago Manual of Style doesn't take a position on whether to use imperial or metric measurements. Simply pick one and use it consistently throughout your paper and other citations.

• Example: Gogh, Vincent van. The Starry Night . 1889. Oil on canvas. 29 in. x 36.25 in. Museum of Modern Art, New York.

• Example: Gogh, Vincent van. The Starry Night . 1889. Oil on canvas. 29 in. x 36.25 in. Museum of Modern Art, New York. https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/vincent-van-gogh-the-starry-night-1889/, accessed 23 October 2018.

Chicago Bibliography Entry Format

Artist Last Name, First Name. Title of Painting . Year. Description of material. Dimensions. Museum or Collection, City. URL, accessed Day-Month-Year.

• Book example: Gogh, Vincent van. The Starry Night . 1889. In Bailey, Martin. Starry Night: Van Gogh at the Asylum . London, UK: White Lion Publishing, 2018.

• In-text example: "There is a message of hope in the swirling colors and light of Vincent van Gogh's famous painting The Starry Night . 1 "
• Footnote website example: 1. Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Night , 1889, oil on canvas, 29 in. x 36.25 in., Museum of Modern Art, New York, https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/vincent-van-gogh-the-starry-night-1889/, accessed 23 October 2018.
• Footnote book example: 1. Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Night , 1889, in Martin Bailey, Starry Night: Van Gogh at the Asylum (London, UK: White Lion Publishing, 2018), Figure 49.

Community Q&A

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Expert Interview

Thanks for reading our article! If you’d like to learn more about citations, check out our in-depth interview with Marissa Levis .

• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_works_cited_other_common_sources.html
• ↑ https://guides.library.mun.ca/c.php?g=501606&p=3435023
• ↑ https://guides.library.mun.ca/c.php?g=501606&p=3435051
• ↑ https://aus.libguides.com/apa/apa-no-author-date
• ↑ https://guides.highpoint.edu/c.php?g=19559&p=4947938
• ↑ https://librarybestbets.fairfield.edu/citationguides/chicagoauthor-date
• ↑ https://aut.ac.nz.libguides.com/turabian/artworks

About This Article

To cite a painting in the Modern Language Association style, you only need to give the artist’s full name followed by the title of the work in italics in the body of your essay. For example, you’d write, “In Francisco Goya’s The Family of Charles IV, he creates a contrast of light and dark.” For your works cited entry, you’ll need to write the artist’s name, starting with their surname, then the name of the painting in italics, followed by the year it was painted and the museum or collection where it’s located. If the city of the location isn’t included in the museum’s name, add this at the end. For instance, you would write, “Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV. 1800, Museo del Prado, Madrid.” For more tips, including how to cite a painting using the APA and Chicago styles, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / How to Cite Sources / How to Cite a Painting or Artwork in APA, MLA, or Chicago

How to Cite a Painting or Artwork in APA, MLA, or Chicago

When writing a research paper it is important to properly cite your sources. But what if the source you want to cite isn’t a book or website, but a painting? And does it make a difference if you see the painting in person at a museum, or through a secondary source like a webpage? This article will tell you how to cite a painting you see in person or online in MLA, APA, and Chicago styles. In the spirit of Independence Day, the painting Washington Crossing the Delaware is used for examples.

What you will need

Citing a painting typically requires a bit more information than citing a book. The information you will need is:

• Current location of the piece
• Size dimensions
• The medium (e.g., sculpture, painting, etc.)
• Artist’s name
• Title of the piece
• Date the painting was created

If you’re citing a painting you viewed online, you’ll also need:

• Website URL
• Name of the website
• Date the page was published
• Date you accessed the page (if needed)

Citing a painting you see online in MLA

MLA citation format :

Artist’s Last Name, Artist’s First Name. Title of Artwork OR description. Year of creation. Name of Website , URL.

Leutze, Emmanuel. Washington Crossing the Delaware. 1851. The Met , www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/11417.

In-text citation:

Here’s how the above example would be cited in an in-text citation:

(Artist Last Name)

Formatting notes

Artist’s name: 

Write the artist’s name with their last name first followed by a comma and then their first name, just as you would the author of a book. If they have a middle initial or name list it after the first name. Put a period after the first name or middle name/initial if one is given. If the artist is listed or described as “Anonymous,” put Anonymous. If no artist is credited for the work, just start with the next step, the title of the work.

Title of the piece: 

After the author’s name, put the title in italics, followed by a period. Capitalize nouns, verbs, pronouns, and adverbs. If there is no title given, provide a short and un-italicized description with regular sentence capitalization. For example, you could write “Untitled portrait of King Henry VIII” or “Red rose on yellow background.”

Year and location: 

Next you will need to write the year the painting was made followed by a comma. Then put the piece’s current location by writing the name of the website where you accessed the painting in italics. And finally, include the URL of the artwork’s webpage, starting with “www.” Add a period at the end of the citation.

Citing a painting you see online in APA

APA citation format: 

Artist’s Last Name, Artist’s First Initial. (Year). Title of painting [Description of material]. Museum, City, State Abbreviation/Country. URL

Leutze, E. (1851). Washington crossing the Delaware [Painting]. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY, United States. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/11417

(Artist Last Name, Year)

(Leutze, 1851)

Artist’s name:

Write the last name of the artist followed by a comma and then the first initial and middle initial if one is given followed by a period. If the artist is unknown, then skip this step and start the citation with the title of the work as described in the next step. If the artist is listed as anonymous/unknown, use that as the name.

Year and title of the piece:

After the artist’s name put the year the painting was created in parentheses followed by a period. Then put the title of the painting in italics using sentence case. Then put the medium or materials used in brackets, followed by a period.

After the medium put the name of the museum where the piece is currently on display followed by a comma. Then put the city where the museum is located followed by a comma. Next, if the museum is in the United States, put the abbreviation for the state followed by a comma, and then put United Staes followed by a period. For all other countries, put the name of the country instead of the state followed by a period.

Next add the direct URL for the webpage where you viewed the painting, including https://www. You should not put a period after the URL.

Citing a painting you see online in Chicago (notes-bibliography style)

Artist’s Last Name, Artist’s First Name. Title of Painting. Year painting was created. Description of materials. Dimensions if available. Museum, City. URL.

Leutze, Emmanuel. Washington Crossing the Delaware. 1851. Oil on canvas. 149 x 255 in. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/11417.

Here’s how the above example would be cited in the note:

1. Artist’s First Name Last Name, Title of Painting , Year painting was created, description of materials, dimensions, Museum, City, URL.

1. Emmanuel Leutze, Washington Crossing the Delaware , 1851, oil on canvas, 149 x 255 in, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/11417.

Start with the last name of the artist followed by a comma and then the first name and a period. If the author is listed as Anonymous, use that as the name. If no artist is credited simply skip this step and begin the citation with the title from the next step.

Title of the piece:

After the name and a period, write the title of the painting in italics followed by a period. Use title case, so capitalize all nouns, verbs, pronouns, and adverbs.  If no title is given, you may simply skip this step. You do not need to provide a description or write “Untitled.”

Next list the year the painting was completed followed by a period. If no date is provided, put “n.d.”

Medium and size:

List the materials used to make the artwork in sentence case followed by a period. Then put the dimensions followed by a period. You may use metric or imperial measurements, just be sure to keep it consistent throughout your paper. If this information is not available, simply leave it out.

Put the name of the museum where the piece is currently housed followed by a comma and the city where the museum is located.

Website and access date:

Lastly, put the URL (including https://www) at the end of the citation followed by a period. Note that Chicago style does not require an access date unless there is no listed publication date for the source. If you do need to include an access date, it should be formatted as follows: Accessed Month Day, Year.

Citing a painting you see in person in MLA

To cite a painting you see in person in MLA style, simply follow the same format as online, but replace the name of the website with the name of the gallery/museum (not italicized) followed by a comma and the city where the museum is located.

Artist’s Last Name, Artist’s First Name. Title of Artwork OR description. Year of creation, Museum, City.

MLA example :

Leutze, Emmanuel. Washington Crossing the Delaware. 1851, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

Citing a painting you see in person in APA

Follow the format for citing a painting viewed online, but end the citation after the city and state/country information of the museum. However, even if you saw the painting in person, if it is available online, you should still include the URL, and the citation will be the same as the citation for viewing a painting online in APA.

Artist’s Last Name, Artist’s First Initial. (Year). Title of painting [Description of material]. Museum, City, State Abbreviation/Country. URL (if available)

APA example:

Citing a painting you see in person in Chicago (notes-bibliography style)

Follow the same format as for a painting viewed online, but omit the URL.

Chicago style citation format: 

Artist’s Last Name, Artist’s First Name. Title of Painting. Year painting was created. Description of materials. Dimensions if available. Museum, City.

Leutze, Emmanuel. Washington Crossing the Delaware. 1851. Oil on canvas. 149 x 255 in. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

1. Artist’s First Name Last Name, Title of Painting , Year painting was created, description of materials, dimensions, Museum, City.

1. Emmanuel Leutze, Washington Crossing the Delaware , 1851, oil on canvas, 149 x 255 in, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

For your next essay, get a free grammar check with up to 5 free suggestions at EasyBib.com! In addition, you can also read the EasyBib grammar guides and learn how to properly use possessive nouns , linking verbs , an adverb clause , and other parts of speech. 

Citation Guides

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• Page Numbers
• Reference Page
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• APA 7 Updates
• View APA Guide
• Bibliography
• Works Cited
• MLA 8 Updates
• View MLA Guide

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To cite a painting in APA style, it is important that you know some basic information such as the name of the artist, title, name of the museum, place, and URL (uniform resource locator). The templates for in-text citation and reference list entry of a painting, along with examples, are given below:

In-text citation template and example:

Artist Surname (Publication Year)

Thomas (1921)

Parenthetical:

(Artist Surname, Publication Year)

(Thomas, 1921)

Reference list entry template and example:

Artist Surname, F. M. (Year of Publication). Title of the painting. Name of the museum or gallery, place of the museum or gallery. URL

Thomas, A. H. (1921). Formes et couleurs: vingt planches en couleurs contenant soixante-sept motifs decoratifs [Painting]. The Met Museum, New York, NY, United States. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/591870?searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&high=on&ft=Art+Deco&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=3

Note that the first name and middle name, following the author’s surname, are abbreviated and separated by a space. The title of the painting is set in italics, followed by the word “[Painting]” in brackets.

To cite a painting in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the artist, title, and museum name and location. The templates for in-text citations and works cited list entries of a painting along with examples are given below.

In-text citation templates and examples

For citations in prose, use the first name and surname of the artist in the first occurrence. In subsequent citations, use only the surname of the artist. In parenthetical citations, always use only the surname of the artist.

Citation in prose examples:

First mention: François Boucher …

Subsequent occurrences: Boucher…

Parenthetical template:

Parenthetical example:

Works cited list templates and examples

Viewed online

Artist Surname, First Name. Title of the Painting. Year of creation, Name of the Museum or Gallery, City of the museum or gallery. Title of Website , URL.

Boucher, François . Virgin and Child with the Young Saint John the Baptist and Angels . 1765, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. The Met , www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/435744?searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&ao=on&od=on&ft=painting&offset=0&rpp=80&pos=29.

Viewed in person

Artist Surname, First Name. Title of the painting. Year of creation, Name of the Museum or Gallery, City of the museum or gallery.

Matisse, Henri . Femme au chapeau (Woman with a Hat). 1905, Museum of Modern Art, New York City.

Citation Basics

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Artwork References

This page contains reference examples for artwork, including the following:

• Artwork in a museum or on a museum website
• Art exhibition
• Informational museum plaque

1. Artwork in a museum or on a museum website

van Gogh, V. (1889). The starry night [Painting]. The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY, United States. https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/vincent-van-gogh-the-starry-night-1889/

• Parenthetical citation: (van Gogh, 1889)
• Narrative citation: van Gogh (1889)
• Use this format to cite all types of museum artwork, including paintings, sculptures, photographs, prints, drawings, digital art, crafts, and installations.
• List the artist as the author of the work.
• Always include a description of the medium or format in square brackets after the title. The description is flexible (e.g., a general description such as “[Painting]” or a more specific description such as “[Oil painting]” or “[Oil on canvas]”).
• For untitled artwork, include a description in square brackets in place of a title.
• The name and location of the museum appear in the source element of the reference.
• Provide a link to the artwork on the museum website if available.

2. Art exhibition

Design for eternity: Architectural models from the ancient Americas [Exhibition]. (2015–2016). The Met Fifth Avenue, New York, NY, United States. https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2015/design-for-eternity

Martinez, J.-L., & Douar, F. (2018–2019). Archaeology goes graphic [Exhibition]. The Louvre, Paris, France. https://www.louvre.fr/en/expositions/archaeology-goes-graphic

• Parenthetical citations: ( Design for Eternity , 2015–2016; Martinez & Douar, 2018–2019)
• Narrative citations: Design for Eternity (2015–2016) and Martinez and Douar (2018–2019)
• Provide the curator(s) of the exhibition in the author element of the reference.
• When the curator is unknown, move the title of the exhibition to the author position of the reference.
• The year or range of years of the exhibition appears in the date element of the reference.
• Provide a link to the exhibition on the museum website if available.

3. Informational museum plaque

[Plaque with background information about American Gothic ]. (n.d.). Art Institute Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States.

• Parenthetical citation: ([Plaque with background information about American Gothic ], n.d.)
• Narrative citation: [Plaque with background information about American Gothic ] (n.d.)
• Provide a description of the plaque in square brackets rather than the name of the artwork or item so it is clear that you are citing the plaque itself.
• If the plaque itself is dated, use that date. If the plaque is not dated, use “n.d.” Do not use the date of the artwork or item being described.
• Information on a plaque is likely consolidated from other sources, making the plaque a secondary source . If possible, cite the same information from a primary source that your readers will be able to retrieve.

Artwork references are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 10.14 and the Concise Guide Section 10.12

Visual Analysis: How to Analyze a Painting and Write an Essay

A visual analysis essay is an entry-level essay sometimes taught in high school and early university courses. Both communications and art history students use visual analysis to understand art and other visual messages. In our article, we will define the term and give an in-depth guide on how to look at a piece of art and write a visual analysis essay. Stay tuned until the end for a handy visual analysis essay example from our graduate paper writing service .

What Is Visual Analysis?

Visual analysis is essential in studying Communication, English, and Art History. It's a fundamental part of writing about art found in scholarly books, art magazines, and even undergraduate essays. You might encounter a visual analysis as a standalone assignment or as part of a larger research paper.

When you do this type of assignment, you're examining the basic elements of an artwork. These include things like its colors, lines, textures, and size. But it goes beyond just describing these elements. A good analysis also considers the historical context in which the artwork was created and tries to understand what it might mean to different people.

It also encourages you to look closely at details and think deeply about what an artwork is trying to say. This kind of analysis makes you appreciate art more and teaches you how to explain your ideas clearly based on what you see in the artwork.

What is the Purpose of Visual Analysis?

The purpose of a visual analysis is to recognize and understand the visual choices the artist made in creating the artwork. By looking closely at different elements, analysts can learn a lot about how an artwork was made and why the artist made certain choices. 

For example, studying how colors are used or how things are arranged in the artwork can reveal its themes or the emotions it's trying to convey. Also, understanding the time period when the artwork was created helps us see how societal changes and cultural ideas influenced its creation and how people reacted to it.

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How to Write a Visual Analysis Step-by-Step

To create an insightful visual analysis, you should not only examine the artwork in detail but also situate it within a broader cultural and historical framework. This process can be broken down into three main steps: 

• Identifying, describing, and analyzing the visual material
• Situating the visual material in its context
• Interpreting and responding to the content of the visual material.

Let’s discuss each of these steps in more detail.

Step 1: Identify, Describe, and Analyze the Visual Material

Begin by clearly identifying the visual material you will analyze. This could be a painting, photograph, sculpture, advertisement, or any other visual artwork. Provide essential information such as the title, artist, date, and medium. 

Next, offer a detailed description of the visual material. Focus on the key elements and principles of design, such as:

• Composition

Describe what you see without interpreting its meaning yet. For instance, note the use of bright colors, the placement of objects, the presence of figures, and the overall layout. This descriptive part forms the foundation of your analysis, allowing your reader to visualize the artwork.

Afterward, consider how the artist uses elements like contrast, balance, emphasis, movement, and harmony. Analyze the techniques and methods used and how they contribute to the overall effect of the piece. 

Step 2: Situate the Visual Material in its Context

To fully understand a piece of visual material, you need to consider its historical and cultural context. Start by researching the time period when the artwork was created. Look at the social, political, and economic conditions of that time, and see if there were any cultural movements that might have influenced the artwork.

Next, learn about the artist and their reasons for creating the visual material. Find out about the artist's life, other works they have made, and any statements they have made about this piece. Knowing the artist’s background can give you valuable insights into the artwork's purpose and message.

Finally, think about how the visual material was received by people when it was first shown and how it has impacted others over time. Look for reviews and public reactions, and see if it influenced other works or movements. This will help you understand the significance of the visual material in the larger cultural and artistic context.

Step 3: Interpret and Respond to the Content of the Visual Material

Now, combine your description, analysis, and understanding of the context to interpret what the visual material means. Talk about the themes, symbols, and messages the artwork conveys. Think about what it reveals about human experiences, society, or specific issues. Use evidence from earlier steps to support your interpretation.

Afterward, consider your own reaction to the visual material. How does it personally resonate with you? What emotions or thoughts does it provoke? Your personal response adds a subjective aspect to your analysis, making it more relatable.

Finally, summarize your findings and emphasize the importance of the visual material. Highlight key aspects from your identification, description, analysis, context, and interpretation. Then, it concludes by reinforcing the impact and significance of the visual material in both its original setting and its enduring influence.

Who Does Formal Analysis of Art

Most people who face visual analysis essays are Communication, English, and Art History students. Communications students explore mediums such as theater, print media, news, films, photos — basically anything. Comm is basically a giant, all-encompassing major where visual analysis is synonymous with Tuesday.

Art History students study the world of art to understand how it developed. They do visual analysis with every painting they look it at and discuss it in class.

English Literature students perform visual analysis too. Every writer paints an image in the head of their reader. This image, like a painting, can be clear, or purposefully unclear. It can be factual, to the point, or emotional and abstract like Ulysses, challenging you to search your emotions rather than facts and realities.

6 Questions to Answer Before Analyzing a Piece of Art

According to our experienced term paper writer , there are six important questions to ask before you start analyzing a piece of art. Answering these questions can make writing your analysis much easier:

• Who is the artist, and what type of art do they create? - To place the artwork in context, you should identify the artist and understand the type of art they create. 
• What was the artist's goal in creating this painting? - Determine why the artist created the artwork. Was it to convey a message, evoke emotions, or explore a theme?
• When and where was this artwork made? - Knowing the time and place of creation helps understand the cultural and historical influences on the artwork.
• What is the main focus or theme of this artwork? - Identify what the artwork is about. This could be a person, place, object, or abstract concept.
• Who was the artwork created for? - To provide insight into its style and content, consider who the artist intended to reach with their work. 
• What historical events or cultural factors influenced this painting? - Understanding the historical background can reveal more about the significance and meaning of the artwork.

Count on the support of the professional writers of our essay writing service .

Elements of the Visual Analysis 

To fully grasp formal analysis, it's important to differentiate between the elements and principles of visual analysis. The elements are the basic building blocks used to create a piece of art. These include:

Principles of the Visual Analysis

The principles, on the other hand, are how these elements are combined and used together to create the overall effect of the artwork. These principles include:

Visual Analysis Outline

It’s safe to use the five-paragraph essay structure for your visual analysis essay. If you are looking at a painting, take the most important aspects of it that stand out to you and discuss them in relation to your thesis. 

In the introduction, you should:

• Introduce the Artwork : Mention the title, artist, date, and medium of the artwork.
• Provide a Brief Description : Offer a general overview of what the artwork depicts.
• State the Purpose : Explain the goal of your analysis and what aspects you will focus on.
• Thesis Statement : Present a clear thesis statement that outlines your main argument or interpretation of the artwork.

The body of the visual analysis is where you break down the visual material into its component parts and examine each one in detail. This section should be structured logically, with each paragraph focusing on a specific element or aspect of the visual material.

• Description: Start with a detailed description of the visual material. Describe what you see without interpreting or analyzing it yet. Mention elements such as color, line, shape, texture, space, and composition. For instance, if analyzing a painting, describe the subject matter, the arrangement of figures, the use of light and shadow, etc.
• Analysis of Visual Elements: Analyze how each visual element contributes to the overall effect of the material. Discuss the use of color (e.g., warm or cool tones, contrasts, harmonies), the role of lines (e.g., leading lines, contours), the shapes (e.g., geometric, organic), and the texture (e.g., smooth, rough). Consider how these elements work together to create a certain mood or message.
• Contextual Analysis: Examine how the context in which the visual material was created and is being viewed influences its interpretation. This includes historical, cultural, social, and political factors. Discuss how these contextual elements impact the meaning and reception of the visual material.
• Interpretation: Discuss your interpretation of the visual material. Explain how the visual elements and contextual factors contribute to the meaning you derive from it. Support your interpretation with specific examples from the material.
• Comparative Analysis (if applicable): If relevant, compare the visual material with other works by the same creator or with similar works by different creators. Highlight similarities and differences in style, technique, and thematic content.

The conclusion of a visual analysis essay summarizes the main points of the analysis and restates the thesis in light of the evidence presented.

• Restate Thesis: Reiterate your thesis statement in a way that reflects the depth of your analysis. Show how your understanding of the visual material has been supported by your detailed examination.
• Summary of Main Points: Summarize the key points of your analysis. Highlight the most important findings and insights.
• Implications: Discuss the broader implications of your analysis. What does your analysis reveal about the visual material? How does it contribute to our understanding of the creator's work, the time period, or the cultural context?
• Closing Thought: End with a final thought that leaves a lasting impression on the reader. This could be a reflection on the significance of the visual material, a question for further consideration, or a statement about its impact on you or on a broader audience.

If you want a more in-depth look at the classic essay structure, feel free to visit our 5 PARAGRAPH ESSAY blog.

Visual Analysis Example

In this section, we've laid out two examples of visual analysis essays to show you how it's done effectively. Get inspired and learn from them!

Key Takeaways

Visual analysis essays are fundamental early in your communications and art history studies. Learning how to formally break down art is key, whether you're pursuing a career in art or communications.

Before jumping into analysis, get a solid grasp of the painter's background and life. Analyzing a painting isn't just for fun, as you need to pay attention to the small details the painter might have hidden. Knowing how to do this kind of assignment not only helps you appreciate art more but also lets you deeply understand the media messages you encounter every day. 

If you enjoyed this article and found it insightful, make sure to also check out the summary of Lord of the Flies and an article on Beowulf characters .

If you read the whole article and still have no idea how to start your visual analysis essay, let a professional writer do this job for you. Contact us, and we’ll write your work for a higher grade you deserve. All college essay service requests are processed fast.

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What are the 4 Steps of Visual Analysis?

How to write a formal visual analysis, what is the function of visual analysis.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

• Added new sections
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• Added a new example
• Updated an outline
• Duke University. (n.d.). Visual Analysis . https://twp.duke.edu/sites/twp.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/visual-analysis.original.pdf  
• Glatstein, J. (2019, December 9). Formal Visual Analysis: The Elements & Principles of Composition . Www.kennedy-Center.org. https://www.kennedy-center.org/education/resources-for-educators/classroom-resources/articles-and-how-tos/articles/educators/visual-arts/formal-visual-analysis-the-elements-and-principles-of-compositoin/  
• MADA: Visual analysis . (n.d.). Student Academic Success. https://www.monash.edu/student-academic-success/excel-at-writing/annotated-assessment-samples/art-design-and-architecture/mada-visual-analysis  

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• Writing Tips

How to Reference Artwork

6-minute read

• 14th December 2022

In this article, you’ll learn how to reference artwork in the APA 7th, MLA, MHRA, and Chicago referencing systems. Check out this article to learn how to reference artwork in Harvard .

How to Reference Artwork in APA 7th Referencing

In APA 7th, there are two ways to reference and cite artwork.

1. Artwork in a museum or on a museum website:

Last name, Initial. (Year) Name of painting [Medium/Format]. Museum Name, Location. URL

For example:

Da Vinci, L. (1506). Mona Lisa [Painting]. The Louvre, Paris, France.

In-text citation: (Da Vinci, 1506)

If you viewed the artwork online, include the museum website address.

Flack, A. (1988). Islandia, goddess of the healing waters [Sculpture]. Harn Museum of Art, Gainesville, FL, United States. https://harn.emuseum.com/objects/354/islandia-goddess-of-the-healing-waters

In-text citation: (Flack, 1988)

Narrative citation: Flack (1988)

If the work is untitled, include a description in square brackets in place of the title. If there’s no date available, use n.d. in parentheses in place of the date.

2. Artwork in an art exhibition

Last name, Initial. (Year/Year Range). Art exhibition name [Exhibition]. Museum Name, Location. URL

Put the exhibition curator names in the author section and the year(s) of the exhibition in the date section of the reference.

Spinozzi, A., Lasser, E., & Young, J. (2022–2023). Hear me now: The Black potters of Old Edgefield, South Carolina [Exhibition]. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY, United States.

In-text citation: (Spinozzi et al., 2022–2023)

Narrative citation: Spinozzi et al. (2022–2023)

If the curator(s) name is not available/unknown, move the art exhibition title to the curator(s) name position.

Feminine power: The divine to the demonic [Exhibition]. (2022). The British Museum, London, United Kingdom. https://www.britishmuseum.org/exhibitions/feminine-power-divine-demonic

In-text citation: (Feminine power: The divine to the demonic, 2022)

Narrative citation: Feminine Power: The Divine to the Demonic (2022)

How to Reference Artwork in MLA Referencing

1. painting, sculpture, or photograph seen in person.

Artist’s last name, Artist’s first name. Titles of Artwork. Date, Museum/Institution Name, Location of Museum/Institution.

Da Vinci, Leonardo. Mona Lisa . 1506, Musée du Louvre, Paris.

In-text citation : (Da Vinci)

If you want to include the medium/materials of the artwork, you can add that at the end of the entry; however, this isn’t required by MLA. If the museum/institution name of where the artwork is housed includes the name of the location, then the location isn’t needed (e.g., Istanbul Modern).

2. Artwork viewed online

In this case, use the name of the website as the container and include the website’s publisher and URL at the end of the citation. Don’t use the publisher information if it’s the same as the name of the website. And be sure to add a period after the artwork date because it’s considered optional information.

Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV . 1800. Museo del Prado, museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/the-family-of-carlos-iv/f47898fc-aa1c-48f6-a779-71759e417e74.

In-text citation: (Goya)

3. Photographic reproductions of artwork (images of artwork in a book)

In this case, use the book as a container. Remember that the title is listed before the contributors.

Da Vinci, Leonardo. Last Supper . 1498, Santa Maria della Grazie, Milan. Great Paintings of the Western World , by Gallup, Alison, et al., Barnes & Noble, 1998, p. 223.

In-text citation: (Da Vinci 223)

Narrative citation: Da Vinci (223)

How to Reference Artwork in MHRA Referencing

In MHRA, references for works of art should include:

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●  Name of the artist (if known)

●  Title of the work in italics

●  Date

●  Medium type

●  Dimensions of medium in cm (depending on the medium)

●  Current physical location/source

Please keep in mind that MHRA uses both footnote and author-date systems. We’ll focus on citations for the author-date system.

1. Artwork seen in person

Artist’s First and Last Name, Title of Artwork , Date, medium, dimension in cm, Museum/Institution Name, Location.

Henry Moore, Reclining Woman: Elbow , 1981, bronze, Leeds Art Gallery, Leeds.

In-text citation: (Moore 1981)

Narrative citation: Moore (1981)

2. Artwork in a book

Artist’s First and Last Name, Title of Artwork , Date, medium, from Title of Book (Publisher location: Publisher Name, Year), page number.

Ansel Adams, Monolith, The Face of Half Dome , photograph, from Parmelian Prints of the High Sierras (San Francisco: Grabhorn Press, 1927), p. 24.

In-text citation: (Adams 1927: 24)

Narrative citation: Adams (1927: 24)

3. Artwork viewed online

Artist’s First and Last Name, Title of Artwork , Date, medium, dimension <URL> [access date].

Alphonse Mucha, Bières de la Meuse , 1897, color lithograph, 154.5 × 104.5 cm <http://www.muchafoundation.org/gallery/browse-works/object/46> [accessed 11 December 2014].

In-text citation: (Mucha 1897)

Narrative citation: Mucha (1897)

How to Reference Artwork in Chicago Referencing

There are two styles of Chicago referencing: author-date and notes/bibliography. This guide will go over the notes/bibliography style.

1. Citing paintings, photographs, and sculptures

Information on paintings, photographs, sculptures and other works of art can usually be presented in the text instead of in a note or bibliography. For works of art viewed online, add a URL at the end of the note/bibliography.

Footnote: Artist’s First and Last Name, Title of Artwork , Year, medium, dimension, location, Institution Name. URL if available.

Here are a few examples:

• Michelangelo Buonarroti, The Slave , 1513–15, marble, 2.09 m., Paris, The Louvre.
• Salvador Dalí, The Persistence of Memory , 1931, oil on canvas, 9½ × 13″ (24.1 × 33 cm), Museum of Modern Art, New York, http://www.moma.org/collection/works/79018 .
• Dorothea Lange, Black Maria, Oakland , 1957, printed 1965, gelatin silver print, 39.3 × 37 cm, Art Institute, Chicago, http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/220174.

Bibliography: Artists’ Last Name, Artist’s First Name. Title of Artwork , Year. Medium, dimension. Location, Institution Name. URL if available.

For example (see Section 14.235 in CMOS 17):

Buonarroti, Michelangelo. The Slave , 1513–15. Marble, 2.09 m. Paris, The Louvre.

2. Artwork reproduced in print

CMOS uses the term “illustrations” to refer to figures, artwork, or art in a book (see Section 3.1 in CMOS 17)

The abbreviation fig. is acceptable for figure, but table, map, plate and other illustration forms must be spelled out at the end of the note/bibliography. Page number(s) go before the illustration number with a comma separating them (see Section 14.158 in CMOS 17).

Footnote: Editor’s First and Last Name, eds., Title of Figure/Artwork/Table (Publisher Location: Publisher, Year), page number, table/fig./chart number.

1. Jean-Paul Chavas, David Hummels, and Brian D. Wright, eds., The Economics of Food Price Volatility (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 167, table 4.4.

If you need help with referencing systems, we have an introductory guide to all referencing systems for you to use for free. And if you need additional help with your writing or making sure your citations and reference lists follow your specified guidelines, our experts will proofread your first 500 words for free !

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Art History Analysis – Formal Analysis and Stylistic Analysis

Typically in an art history class the main essay students will need to write for a final paper or for an exam is a formal or stylistic analysis.

A formal analysis is just what it sounds like – you need to analyze the form of the artwork. This includes the individual design elements – composition, color, line, texture, scale, contrast, etc. Questions to consider in a formal analysis is how do all these elements come together to create this work of art? Think of formal analysis in relation to literature – authors give descriptions of characters or places through the written word. How does an artist convey this same information?

Organize your information and focus on each feature before moving onto the text – it is not ideal to discuss color and jump from line to then in the conclusion discuss color again. First summarize the overall appearance of the work of art – is this a painting? Does the artist use only dark colors? Why heavy brushstrokes? etc and then discuss details of the object – this specific animal is gray, the sky is missing a moon, etc. Again, it is best to be organized and focused in your writing – if you discuss the animals and then the individuals and go back to the animals you run the risk of making your writing unorganized and hard to read. It is also ideal to discuss the focal of the piece – what is in the center? What stands out the most in the piece or takes up most of the composition?

A stylistic approach can be described as an indicator of unique characteristics that analyzes and uses the formal elements (2-D: Line, color, value, shape and 3-D all of those and mass).The point of style is to see all the commonalities in a person’s works, such as the use of paint and brush strokes in Van Gogh’s work. Style can distinguish an artist’s work from others and within their own timeline, geographical regions, etc.

Methods & Theories To Consider:

Expressionism

Instructuralism

Postmodernism

Social Art History

Biographical Approach

Poststructuralism

Museum Studies

Visual Cultural Studies

Stylistic Analysis Example:

The following is a brief stylistic analysis of two Greek statues, an example of how style has changed because of the “essence of the age.” Over the years, sculptures of women started off as being plain and fully clothed with no distinct features, to the beautiful Venus/Aphrodite figures most people recognize today. In the mid-seventh century to the early fifth, life-sized standing marble statues of young women, often elaborately dress in gaily painted garments were created known as korai. The earliest korai is a Naxian women to Artemis. The statue wears a tight-fitted, belted peplos, giving the body a very plain look. The earliest korai wore the simpler Dorian peplos, which was a heavy woolen garment. From about 530, most wear a thinner, more elaborate, and brightly painted Ionic linen and himation. A largely contrasting Greek statue to the korai is the Venus de Milo. The Venus from head to toe is six feet seven inches tall. Her hips suggest that she has had several children. Though her body shows to be heavy, she still seems to almost be weightless. Viewing the Venus de Milo, she changes from side to side. From her right side she seems almost like a pillar and her leg bears most of the weight. She seems be firmly planted into the earth, and since she is looking at the left, her big features such as her waist define her. The Venus de Milo had a band around her right bicep. She had earrings that were brutally stolen, ripping her ears away. Venus was noted for loving necklaces, so it is very possibly she would have had one. It is also possible she had a tiara and bracelets. Venus was normally defined as “golden,” so her hair would have been painted. Two statues in the same region, have throughout history, changed in their style.

Compare and Contrast Essay

Most introductory art history classes will ask students to write a compare and contrast essay about two pieces – examples include comparing and contrasting a medieval to a renaissance painting. It is always best to start with smaller comparisons between the two works of art such as the medium of the piece. Then the comparison can include attention to detail so use of color, subject matter, or iconography. Do the same for contrasting the two pieces – start small. After the foundation is set move on to the analysis and what these comparisons or contrasting material mean – ‘what is the bigger picture here?’ Consider why one artist would wish to show the same subject matter in a different way, how, when, etc are all questions to ask in the compare and contrast essay. If during an exam it would be best to quickly outline the points to make before tackling writing the essay.

Compare and Contrast Example:

Stele of Hammurabi from Susa (modern Shush, Iran), ca. 1792 – 1750 BCE, Basalt, height of stele approx. 7’ height of relief 28’

Stele, relief sculpture, Art as propaganda – Hammurabi shows that his law code is approved by the gods, depiction of land in background, Hammurabi on the same place of importance as the god, etc.

Top of this stele shows the relief image of Hammurabi receiving the law code from Shamash, god of justice, Code of Babylonian social law, only two figures shown, different area and time period, etc.

Stele of Naram-sin , Sippar Found at Susa c. 2220 - 2184 bce. Limestone, height 6'6"

Stele, relief sculpture, Example of propaganda because the ruler (like the Stele of Hammurabi) shows his power through divine authority, Naramsin is the main character due to his large size, depiction of land in background, etc.

Akkadian art, made of limestone, the stele commemorates a victory of Naramsin, multiple figures are shown specifically soldiers, different area and time period, etc.

Iconography

Regardless of what essay approach you take in class it is absolutely necessary to understand how to analyze the iconography of a work of art and to incorporate into your paper. Iconography is defined as subject matter, what the image means. For example, why do things such as a small dog in a painting in early Northern Renaissance paintings represent sexuality? Additionally, how can an individual perhaps identify these motifs that keep coming up?

The following is a list of symbols and their meaning in Marriage a la Mode by William Hogarth (1743) that is a series of six paintings that show the story of marriage in Hogarth’s eyes.

• Man has pockets turned out symbolizing he has lost money and was recently in a fight by the state of his clothes.
• Lap dog shows loyalty but sniffs at woman’s hat in the husband’s pocket showing sexual exploits.
• Black dot on husband’s neck believed to be symbol of syphilis.
• Mantel full of ugly Chinese porcelain statues symbolizing that the couple has no class.
• Butler had to go pay bills, you can tell this by the distasteful look on his face and that his pockets are stuffed with bills and papers.
• Card game just finished up, women has directions to game under foot, shows her easily cheating nature.
• Paintings of saints line a wall of the background room, isolated from the living, shows the couple’s complete disregard to faith and religion.
• The dangers of sexual excess are underscored in the Hograth by placing Cupid among ruins, foreshadowing the inevitable ruin of the marriage.
• Eventually the series (other five paintings) shows that the woman has an affair, the men duel and die, the woman hangs herself and the father takes her ring off her finger symbolizing the one thing he could salvage from the marriage.

Generate accurate MLA citations for free

• Knowledge Base
• MLA titles: Formatting and capitalization rules

MLA Titles | How to Format & Capitalize Source Titles

Published on April 2, 2019 by Courtney Gahan . Revised on March 5, 2024.

In MLA style , source titles appear either in italics or in quotation marks:

• Italicize the title of a self-contained whole (e.g. a book, film, journal, or website).
• Use  quotation marks around the title if it is part of a larger work (e.g. a chapter of a book, an article in a journal, or a page on a website).

All major words in a title are capitalized . The same format is used in the Works Cited list and in the text itself.

When you use the Scribbr MLA Citation Generator , the correct formatting and capitalization are automatically applied to titles.

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Table of contents

Capitalization in mla titles, punctuation in mla titles, titles within titles, exceptions to mla title formatting, sources with no title, abbreviating titles, titles in foreign languages, frequently asked questions about mla titles.

In all titles and subtitles, capitalize the first and last words, as well as any other principal words.

What to capitalize

What not to capitalize

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Use the same punctuation as appears in the source title. However, if there is a subtitle, separate it from the main title with a colon and a space, even if different (or no) punctuation is used in the source.

Example of a work with a subtitle

The exception is when the title ends in a question mark, exclamation point or dash, in which case you keep the original punctuation:

Sometimes a title contains another title—for example, the title of an article about a novel might contain that novel’s title.

For titles within titles, in general, maintain the same formatting as you would if the title stood on its own.

Titles and names that fall into the following categories are not italicized or enclosed in quotation marks:

• Scripture (e.g. the Bible, the Koran, the Gospel)
• Laws, acts and related documents (e.g. the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution , the Paris Agreement)
• Musical compositions identified by form, number and key (e.g. Beethoven’s Symphony no. 5 in C minor, op. 67)
• Conferences, seminars, workshops and courses (e.g. MLA Annual Convention)

Sections of a work

Words that indicate a particular section of a work are not italicized or placed within quotation marks. They are also not capitalized when mentioned in the text.

Examples of such sections include:

• introduction
• list of works cited
• bibliography

Introductions, prefaces, forewords and afterwords

Descriptive terms such as “introduction”, “preface”, “foreword” and “afterword” are capitalized if mentioned in an MLA in-text citation or in the Works Cited list, but not when mentioned in the text itself.

Example of descriptive term capitalization

In-text citation: (Brontë, Preface )

In text: In her preface to the work, added in a later edition, Brontë debates the morality of creating characters such as those featured in Wuthering Heights .

If there is a unique title for the introduction, preface, foreword or afterword, include that title in quotation marks instead of the generic section name when referencing the source in the Works Cited list or an in-text citation.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

For sources with no title, a brief description of the source acts as the title.

Example of a source reference with no title

Follow these rules for capitalization:

• Capitalize the first word
• Capitalize proper nouns
• Ignore other MLA rules for capitalization

There are some exceptions to this general format: descriptions including titles of other works, such as comments on articles or reviews of movies; untitled short messages, like tweets; email messages; and untitled poems.

Exceptions to general format for sources with no title

If you need to mention the name of a work in the text itself, state the full title, but omit the subtitle.

If you need to refer to the work multiple times, you may shorten the title to something familiar or obvious to the reader. For example, Huckleberry Finn for The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn . If in doubt, prefer the noun phrase.

If the standalone abbreviation may not be clear, you can introduce it in parentheses, following the standard guidelines for abbreviations. For example, The Merchant of Venice ( MV ) . For Shakespeare and the Bible , there are well-established abbreviations you can use.

When you abbreviate a title, make sure you keep the formatting consistent. Even if the abbreviation consists only of letters, as in the MV example, it must be italicized or placed within quotation marks in the same way as it would be when written in full.

Abbreviating very long titles in the Works Cited list

Titles should normally be given in full in the Works Cited list, but if any of your sources has a particularly long title (often the case with older works), you can use an ellipsis to shorten it here. This is only necessary with extremely long titles such as the example below.

In the Works Cited list, if you are listing a work with a title in a language other than English, you can add the translated title in square brackets.

Example of a reference with a translated title

If you are using the foreign-language title in the text itself, you can also include the translation in parenthesis. For example, O Alquimista ( The Alchemist ) .

You don’t need to include a translation in your reference list or in the text if you expect your readers to be familiar with the original language. For example, you wouldn’t translate the title of a  French novel you were writing about in the context of a French degree.

Non-Latin script languages

For works in a language that does not use the Latin alphabet, such as Arabic, Chinese, Greek, Hebrew, Japanese, or Russian, be consistent with how you mention the source titles and also quotations from within them.

For example, if you choose to write a Russian title in the Cyrillic form, do that throughout the document. If you choose to use the Romanized form, stick with that. Do not alternate between the two.

Yes. MLA style uses title case, which means that all principal words (nouns, pronouns , verbs, adjectives , adverbs , and some conjunctions ) are capitalized.

This applies to titles of sources as well as the title of, and subheadings in, your paper. Use MLA capitalization style even when the original source title uses different capitalization .

In MLA style , book titles appear in italics, with all major words capitalized. If there is a subtitle, separate it from the main title with a colon and a space (even if no colon appears in the source). For example:

The format is the same in the Works Cited list and in the text itself. However, when you mention the book title in the text, you don’t have to include the subtitle.

The title of a part of a book—such as a chapter, or a short story or poem in a collection—is not italicized, but instead placed in quotation marks.

When a book’s chapters are written by different authors, you should cite the specific chapter you are referring to.

When all the chapters are written by the same author (or group of authors), you should usually cite the entire book, but some styles include exceptions to this.

• In APA Style , single-author books should always be cited as a whole, even if you only quote or paraphrase from one chapter.
• In MLA Style , if a single-author book is a collection of stand-alone works (e.g. short stories ), you should cite the individual work.
• In Chicago Style , you may choose to cite a single chapter of a single-author book if you feel it is more appropriate than citing the whole book.

The title of an article is not italicized in MLA style , but placed in quotation marks. This applies to articles from journals , newspapers , websites , or any other publication. Use italics for the title of the source where the article was published. For example:

Use the same formatting in the Works Cited entry and when referring to the article in the text itself.

The MLA Handbook is currently in its 9th edition , published in 2021.

This quick guide to MLA style  explains the latest guidelines for citing sources and formatting papers according to MLA.

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When to Punctuate Titles in Italics or Quotes

Illustration by Claire Cohen. © 2018 ThoughtCo.

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You may have wondered in the middle of typing up a research project : Do I italicize  a song title? What about a painting?​ Even the most experienced writers have a problem remembering the proper punctuation for certain types of titles. Books are italicized (or underlined) and articles are put in quotation marks. That's about as far as many people can remember.​

Many teachers require students to use Modern Language Association style for research papers and essays covering language arts, cultural studies, and the humanities . There is a trick to remembering how to treat titles in MLA style, and it works well enough that you can commit most types of titles to memory. It's the big and little trick.

Big Things vs. Little Things

Big things and things that can stand on their own, like books, are italicized. Little things that are dependent or that come as part of a group, like chapters, are put into quotation marks. Think of a CD or an album as a major (big) work that can be divided into smaller parts, or songs. The individual song names (small part) are punctuated with quotation marks .

For example:

• The Sweet Escape , by Gwen Stefani, includes the song "Wind It Up."

While this is not a perfect rule, it can be helpful for determining whether to italicize or surround an item in quotation marks when you have no resources at hand.

Furthermore, italicize or underline any published collection, like a book of poetry. Put the individual entry, like a poem, in quotation marks. However: a long, epic poem that is often published on its own would be treated like a book. The Odyssey is one example.

Punctuating Titles of Works of Art

Creating a work of art is an enormous task. For that reason, you can think of art as a big accomplishment. That might sound a bit corny, but it will help you remember. Individual works of art, like paintings and sculptures, are underlined or italicized:

• Michelangelo 's David
• The Last Supper

Note that a photograph—although not any less significant or important—is often much smaller than a work of created art, and is placed in quotation marks. Following are guidelines for punctuating titles according to MLA standards.

Titles and Names to Italicize

Works to put in italics include:

• A sculpture or statue
• A TV Series
• A cartoon series
• An encyclopedia
• A newspaper

Titles to Put Into Quotation Marks

When deciding how to handle smaller works, put quotation marks around:

• A short story
• A commercial
• An individual episode in a TV series (like "The Soup Nazi" on Seinfeld)
• A cartoon episode, like "Trouble With Dogs"
• A newspaper story

More Tips on Punctuating Titles

Some titles are merely capitalized and not given additional punctuation. These include:

• Religious works, like the Bible or the Koran
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MLA 9th Ed.

There is often confusion over how to write a citation correctly for artwork.  Use this guide to help cite images in the MLA 8th Edition style.  You can also search their FAQ's or ' Submit a question .'  Additionally, you may want to talk with your professor on how they want the citation.

Illustrative visual material other than a table—for example, a photograph, map, drawing, graph, or chart—should be labeled Figure (usually abbreviated Fig. ), assigned an Arabic numeral, and given a caption:

Fig. 1. Hans Holbein, The Ambassadors , 1533, oil on oak, The National Gallery, London.

The label and caption ordinarily appear directly below an illustration and have the same one-inch margins as the text of the paper.

Original Artwork & Reproduced Image Citation

A painting, sculpture, or photograph:.

An item that you see in person will have this information in the citation: 

• Artist's name (last, first)
• Title of the artwork in italics
• Date of creation
• Name of the institution that houses the artwork followed by the location of the institution - if the institutions location is not in its name.

Van Gogh, Vincent. The Starry Night . 1889, Museum of Modern Art, New York.

Photographic Reproductions of Artwork:

These are images that you can find in a book. Begin the citation just like you would for the original artwork, but also cite the bibliographic information for the source in which the photograph appears, including page or reference numbers (plate, figure, etc.).

Van Gogh, Vincent. Night Café . 1889, Yale University Gallery, New Haven. Gardener's Art Through the Ages v. II, 13 ed., by Fred S. Kleiner, Wardsworth, 1994, p. 666.

Journal Article:

Cox, George C. " Walt Whitman, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing right, wearing hat ." 1887, Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Division.  By Christian Winman,  Atlantic, vol. 298, no. 5 , Dec. 2006, p. 75.

Comics or Graphic Novels:

Feyman . By Jim Ottavani , i llustrated by Leland Myrick, First Second, 2011.

"MLA Works Cited: Other Common Sources." Purdue Online Writing Lab, 23 Aug. 2018, https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_works_cited_other_common_sources.html

Images from the Web

Locate as much information as possible for digital images, found on the Internet. If the digital image does not have a title, include a description of the image. 

• The name of the creator of the digital image
• The title of the digital image (if a date is in parentheses as part of the title, include that as well).
• The title of the website that the image was found on
• The date the image was created or published
• The location of the image, such as a URL

Format for image found on the Internet:

Creator’s Last name, First name. “Title of the digital image.”  Publication Date ,  title of website , Web address. 

Scholten, J.A. “Kate O'Flaherty (Kate Chopin, at the Time of Her Marriage)." 1870,  Missouri Historical Society, https://mohistory.org/collections/item/N11927.

Image from a Database

Last Name, First Name (Image creator, if available). Title of Image (Photograph - use quotation marks instead of italics). Work date (if available). Image format (Photograph). Name of individual or institution which owns image (if available), Institution, Location. Library Database . Web. Date retrieved.

Delacroix, Eugène. Liberty Leading the People (July 28, 1830). 1830. oil on canvas. Musée du Louvre, Paris, France. Artstor,  library.artstor.org/asset/LESSING_ART_1039490420.

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Art History

What this handout is about.

This handout discusses a few common assignments found in art history courses. To help you better understand those assignments, this handout highlights key strategies for approaching and analyzing visual materials.

Writing in art history

Evaluating and writing about visual material uses many of the same analytical skills that you have learned from other fields, such as history or literature. In art history, however, you will be asked to gather your evidence from close observations of objects or images. Beyond painting, photography, and sculpture, you may be asked to write about posters, illustrations, coins, and other materials.

Even though art historians study a wide range of materials, there are a few prevalent assignments that show up throughout the field. Some of these assignments (and the writing strategies used to tackle them) are also used in other disciplines. In fact, you may use some of the approaches below to write about visual sources in classics, anthropology, and religious studies, to name a few examples.

This handout describes three basic assignment types and explains how you might approach writing for your art history class.Your assignment prompt can often be an important step in understanding your course’s approach to visual materials and meeting its specific expectations. Start by reading the prompt carefully, and see our handout on understanding assignments for some tips and tricks.

Three types of assignments are discussed below:

• Visual analysis essays
• Comparison essays
• Research papers

1. Visual analysis essays

Visual analysis essays often consist of two components. First, they include a thorough description of the selected object or image based on your observations. This description will serve as your “evidence” moving forward. Second, they include an interpretation or argument that is built on and defended by this visual evidence.

Formal analysis is one of the primary ways to develop your observations. Performing a formal analysis requires describing the “formal” qualities of the object or image that you are describing (“formal” here means “related to the form of the image,” not “fancy” or “please, wear a tuxedo”). Formal elements include everything from the overall composition to the use of line, color, and shape. This process often involves careful observations and critical questions about what you see.

Pre-writing: observations and note-taking

To assist you in this process, the chart below categorizes some of the most common formal elements. It also provides a few questions to get you thinking.

Let’s try this out with an example. You’ve been asked to write a formal analysis of the painting, George Morland’s Pigs and Piglets in a Sty , ca. 1800 (created in Britain and now in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts in Richmond).

What do you notice when you see this image? First, you might observe that this is a painting. Next, you might ask yourself some of the following questions: what kind of paint was used, and what was it painted on? How has the artist applied the paint? What does the scene depict, and what kinds of figures (an art-historical term that generally refers to humans) or animals are present? What makes these animals similar or different? How are they arranged? What colors are used in this painting? Are there any colors that pop out or contrast with the others? What might the artist have been trying to accomplish by adding certain details?

What other questions come to mind while examining this work? What kinds of topics come up in class when you discuss paintings like this one? Consider using your class experiences as a model for your own description! This process can be lengthy, so expect to spend some time observing the artwork and brainstorming.

Here is an example of some of the notes one might take while viewing Morland’s Pigs and Piglets in a Sty :

Composition

• The animals, four pigs total, form a gently sloping mound in the center of the painting.
• The upward mound of animals contrasts with the downward curve of the wooden fence.
• The gentle light, coming from the upper-left corner, emphasizes the animals in the center. The rest of the scene is more dimly lit.
• The composition is asymmetrical but balanced. The fence is balanced by the bush on the right side of the painting, and the sow with piglets is balanced by the pig whose head rests in the trough.
• Throughout the composition, the colors are generally muted and rather limited. Yellows, greens, and pinks dominate the foreground, with dull browns and blues in the background.
• Cool colors appear in the background, and warm colors appear in the foreground, which makes the foreground more prominent.
• Large areas of white with occasional touches of soft pink focus attention on the pigs.
• The paint is applied very loosely, meaning the brushstrokes don’t describe objects with exact details but instead suggest them with broad gestures.
• The ground has few details and appears almost abstract.
• The piglets emerge from a series of broad, almost indistinct, circular strokes.
• The painting contrasts angular lines and rectangles (some vertical, some diagonal) with the circular forms of the pig.
• The negative space created from the intersection of the fence and the bush forms a wide, inverted triangle that points downward. The point directs viewers’ attention back to the pigs.

Because these observations can be difficult to notice by simply looking at a painting, art history instructors sometimes encourage students to sketch the work that they’re describing. The image below shows how a sketch can reveal important details about the composition and shapes.

Writing: developing an interpretation

Once you have your descriptive information ready, you can begin to think critically about what the information in your notes might imply. What are the effects of the formal elements? How do these elements influence your interpretation of the object?

Your interpretation does not need to be earth-shatteringly innovative, but it should put forward an argument with which someone else could reasonably disagree. In other words, you should work on developing a strong analytical thesis about the meaning, significance, or effect of the visual material that you’ve described. For more help in crafting a strong argument, see our Thesis Statements handout .

For example, based on the notes above, you might draft the following thesis statement:

In Morland’s Pigs and Piglets in a Sty, the close proximity of the pigs to each other–evident in the way Morland has overlapped the pigs’ bodies and grouped them together into a gently sloping mound–and the soft atmosphere that surrounds them hints at the tranquility of their humble farm lives.

Or, you could make an argument about one specific formal element:

In Morland’s Pigs and Piglets in a Sty, the sharp contrast between rectilinear, often vertical, shapes and circular masses focuses viewers’ attention on the pigs, who seem undisturbed by their enclosure.

Support your claims

Your thesis statement should be defended by directly referencing the formal elements of the artwork. Try writing with enough specificity that someone who has not seen the work could imagine what it looks like. If you are struggling to find a certain term, try using this online art dictionary: Tate’s Glossary of Art Terms .

Your body paragraphs should explain how the elements work together to create an overall effect. Avoid listing the elements. Instead, explain how they support your analysis.

As an example, the following body paragraph illustrates this process using Morland’s painting:

Morland achieves tranquility not only by grouping animals closely but also by using light and shadow carefully. Light streams into the foreground through an overcast sky, in effect dappling the pigs and the greenery that encircles them while cloaking much of the surrounding scene. Diffuse and soft, the light creates gentle gradations of tone across pigs’ bodies rather than sharp contrasts of highlights and shadows. By modulating the light in such subtle ways, Morland evokes a quiet, even contemplative mood that matches the restful faces of the napping pigs.

This example paragraph follows the 5-step process outlined in our handout on paragraphs . The paragraph begins by stating the main idea, in this case that the artist creates a tranquil scene through the use of light and shadow. The following two sentences provide evidence for that idea. Because art historians value sophisticated descriptions, these sentences include evocative verbs (e.g., “streams,” “dappling,” “encircles”) and adjectives (e.g., “overcast,” “diffuse,” “sharp”) to create a mental picture of the artwork in readers’ minds. The last sentence ties these observations together to make a larger point about the relationship between formal elements and subject matter.

There are usually different arguments that you could make by looking at the same image. You might even find a way to combine these statements!

Remember, however you interpret the visual material (for example, that the shapes draw viewers’ attention to the pigs), the interpretation needs to be logically supported by an observation (the contrast between rectangular and circular shapes). Once you have an argument, consider the significance of these statements. Why does it matter if this painting hints at the tranquility of farm life? Why might the artist have tried to achieve this effect? Briefly discussing why these arguments matter in your thesis can help readers understand the overall significance of your claims. This step may even lead you to delve deeper into recurring themes or topics from class.

Tread lightly

Avoid generalizing about art as a whole, and be cautious about making claims that sound like universal truths. If you find yourself about to say something like “across cultures, blue symbolizes despair,” pause to consider the statement. Would all people, everywhere, from the beginning of human history to the present agree? How do you know? If you find yourself stating that “art has meaning,” consider how you could explain what you see as the specific meaning of the artwork.

Double-check your prompt. Do you need secondary sources to write your paper? Most visual analysis essays in art history will not require secondary sources to write the paper. Rely instead on your close observation of the image or object to inform your analysis and use your knowledge from class to support your argument. Are you being asked to use the same methods to analyze objects as you would for paintings? Be sure to follow the approaches discussed in class.

Some classes may use “description,” “formal analysis” and “visual analysis” as synonyms, but others will not. Typically, a visual analysis essay may ask you to consider how form relates to the social, economic, or political context in which these visual materials were made or exhibited, whereas a formal analysis essay may ask you to make an argument solely about form itself. If your prompt does ask you to consider contextual aspects, and you don’t feel like you can address them based on knowledge from the course, consider reading the section on research papers for further guidance.

2. Comparison essays

Comparison essays often require you to follow the same general process outlined in the preceding sections. The primary difference, of course, is that they ask you to deal with more than one visual source. These assignments usually focus on how the formal elements of two artworks compare and contrast with each other. Resist the urge to turn the essay into a list of similarities and differences.

Comparison essays differ in another important way. Because they typically ask you to connect the visual materials in some way or to explain the significance of the comparison itself, they may require that you comment on the context in which the art was created or displayed.

For example, you might have been asked to write a comparative analysis of the painting discussed in the previous section, George Morland’s Pigs and Piglets in a Sty (ca. 1800), and an unknown Vicús artist’s Bottle in the Form of a Pig (ca. 200 BCE–600 CE). Both works are illustrated below.

You can begin this kind of essay with the same process of observations and note-taking outlined above for formal analysis essays. Consider using the same questions and categories to get yourself started.

Here are some questions you might ask:

• What techniques were used to create these objects?
• How does the use of color in these two works compare? Is it similar or different?
• What can you say about the composition of the sculpture? How does the artist treat certain formal elements, for example geometry? How do these elements compare to and contrast with those found in the painting?
• How do these works represent their subjects? Are they naturalistic or abstract? How do these artists create these effects? Why do these similarities and differences matter?

As our handout on comparing and contrasting suggests, you can organize these thoughts into a Venn diagram or a chart to help keep the answers to these questions distinct.

For example, some notes on these two artworks have been organized into a chart:

As you determine points of comparison, think about the themes that you have discussed in class. You might consider whether the artworks display similar topics or themes. If both artworks include the same subject matter, for example, how does that similarity contribute to the significance of the comparison? How do these artworks relate to the periods or cultures in which they were produced, and what do those relationships suggest about the comparison? The answers to these questions can typically be informed by your knowledge from class lectures. How have your instructors framed the introduction of individual works in class? What aspects of society or culture have they emphasized to explain why specific formal elements were included or excluded? Once you answer your questions, you might notice that some observations are more important than others.

Writing: developing an interpretation that considers both sources

When drafting your thesis, go beyond simply stating your topic. A statement that says “these representations of pig-like animals have some similarities and differences” doesn’t tell your reader what you will argue in your essay.

To say more, based on the notes in the chart above, you might write the following thesis statement:

Although both artworks depict pig-like animals, they rely on different methods of representing the natural world.

Now you have a place to start. Next, you can say more about your analysis. Ask yourself: “so what?” Why does it matter that these two artworks depict pig-like animals? You might want to return to your class notes at this point. Why did your instructor have you analyze these two works in particular? How does the comparison relate to what you have already discussed in class? Remember, comparison essays will typically ask you to think beyond formal analysis.

While the comparison of a similar subject matter (pig-like animals) may influence your initial argument, you may find that other points of comparison (e.g., the context in which the objects were displayed) allow you to more fully address the matter of significance. Thinking about the comparison in this way, you can write a more complex thesis that answers the “so what?” question. If your class has discussed how artists use animals to comment on their social context, for example, you might explore the symbolic importance of these pig-like animals in nineteenth-century British culture and in first-millenium Vicús culture. What political, social, or religious meanings could these objects have generated? If you find yourself needing to do outside research, look over the final section on research papers below!

Supporting paragraphs

The rest of your comparison essay should address the points raised in your thesis in an organized manner. While you could try several approaches, the two most common organizational tactics are discussing the material “subject-by-subject” and “point-by-point.”

• Subject-by-subject: Organizing the body of the paper in this way involves writing everything that you want to say about Moreland’s painting first (in a series of paragraphs) before moving on to everything about the ceramic bottle (in a series of paragraphs). Using our example, after the introduction, you could include a paragraph that discusses the positioning of the animals in Moreland’s painting, another paragraph that describes the depiction of the pigs’ surroundings, and a third explaining the role of geometry in forming the animals. You would then follow this discussion with paragraphs focused on the same topics, in the same order, for the ancient South American vessel. You could then follow this discussion with a paragraph that synthesizes all of the information and explores the significance of the comparison.
• Point-by-point: This strategy, in contrast, involves discussing a single point of comparison or contrast for both objects at the same time. For example, in a single paragraph, you could examine the use of color in both of our examples. Your next paragraph could move on to the differences in the figures’ setting or background (or lack thereof).

As our use of “pig-like” in this section indicates, titles can be misleading. Many titles are assigned by curators and collectors, in some cases years after the object was produced. While the ceramic vessel is titled Bottle in the Form of a Pig , the date and location suggest it may depict a peccary, a pig-like species indigenous to Peru. As you gather information about your objects, think critically about things like titles and dates. Who assigned the title of the work? If it was someone other than the artist, why might they have given it that title? Don’t always take information like titles and dates at face value.

Be cautious about considering contextual elements not immediately apparent from viewing the objects themselves unless you are explicitly asked to do so (try referring back to the prompt or assignment description; it will often describe the expectation of outside research). You may be able to note that the artworks were created during different periods, in different places, with different functions. Even so, avoid making broad assumptions based on those observations. While commenting on these topics may only require some inference or notes from class, if your argument demands a large amount of outside research, you may be writing a different kind of paper. If so, check out the next section!

3. Research papers

Some assignments in art history ask you to do outside research (i.e., beyond both formal analysis and lecture materials). These writing assignments may ask you to contextualize the visual materials that you are discussing, or they may ask you to explore your material through certain theoretical approaches. More specifically, you may be asked to look at the object’s relationship to ideas about identity, politics, culture, and artistic production during the period in which the work was made or displayed. All of these factors require you to synthesize scholars’ arguments about the materials that you are analyzing. In many cases, you may find little to no research on your specific object. When facing this situation, consider how you can apply scholars’ insights about related materials and the period broadly to your object to form an argument. While we cannot cover all the possibilities here, we’ll highlight a few factors that your instructor may task you with investigating.

Iconography

Papers that ask you to consider iconography may require research on the symbolic role or significance of particular symbols (gestures, objects, etc.). For example, you may need to do some research to understand how pig-like animals are typically represented by the cultural group that made this bottle, the Vicús culture. For the same paper, you would likely research other symbols, notably the bird that forms part of the bottle’s handle, to understand how they relate to one another. This process may involve figuring out how these elements are presented in other artworks and what they mean more broadly.

Artistic style and stylistic period

You may also be asked to compare your object or painting to a particular stylistic category. To determine the typical traits of a style, you may need to hit the library. For example, which period style or stylistic trend does Moreland’s Pigs and Piglets in a Sty belong to? How well does the piece “fit” that particular style? Especially for works that depict the same or similar topics, how might their different styles affect your interpretation? Assignments that ask you to consider style as a factor may require that you do some research on larger historical or cultural trends that influenced the development of a particular style.

Provenance research asks you to find out about the “life” of the object itself. This research can include the circumstances surrounding the work’s production and its later ownership. For the two works discussed in this handout, you might research where these objects were originally displayed and how they ended up in the museum collections in which they now reside. What kind of argument could you develop with this information? For example, you might begin by considering that many bottles and jars resembling the Bottle in the Form of a Pig can be found in various collections of Pre-Columbian art around the world. Where do these objects originate? Do they come from the same community or region?

Patronage study

Prompts that ask you to discuss patronage might ask you to think about how, when, where, and why the patron (the person who commissions or buys the artwork or who supports the artist) acquired the object from the artist. The assignment may ask you to comment on the artist-patron relationship, how the work fit into a broader series of commissions, and why patrons chose particular artists or even particular subjects.

Additional resources

To look up recent articles, ask your librarian about the Art Index, RILA, BHA, and Avery Index. Check out www.lib.unc.edu/art/index.html for further information!

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Adams, Laurie Schneider. 2003. Looking at Art . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Barnet, Sylvan. 2015. A Short Guide to Writing about Art , 11th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Tate Galleries. n.d. “Art Terms.” Accessed November 1, 2020. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms .

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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• Writing Tips

Formatting Titles

• 3-minute read
• 23rd April 2018

If you need advice about formatting headings in your work, try this post . But if you want to know about formatting titles of other works in your writing (e.g., books or journal articles), you’re in the right place! Read on to find out when to use italics and quote marks for titles in your work .

First, let’s give an example of what we mean. Take the following sentence:

Here, “Game of Thrones” refers to a popular TV show. If we didn’t know this, we might guess from the capitalization , but most style guides also recommend using distinct formatting for titles. This usually means italicizing the title or placing it in quote marks. But when does each apply?

Longer Works (Italics)

Titles of longer works, such as books or TV shows, are usually italicized:

We use italics for Game of Thrones because it refers to an entire TV series. Works that require italics for titles in this manner include:

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• Books and book-length poems
• Journals, newspapers, magazines, and other periodicals
• Entire websites and blogs
• Movies, radio programs, and TV shows
• Plays, musicals, and other stage shows
• Paintings, statues, and other works of art
• Music albums and other long recordings

Importantly, all of these are standalone works (i.e., published by themselves rather than as part of a larger whole). So, for example, you would italicize the name of a blog (e.g., Jenny’s Cooking Blog ), but not the name of a post taken from that blog (e.g., “How to Make Beef Stroganoff”).

Shorter Works (Quote Marks)

With shorter works that are part of a larger whole, titles should be given in quotation marks . An episode of Game of Thrones , for instance, would be written as follows:

Here, the formatting lets us instantly distinguish between an episode title and the show title. Quotation marks are also used when referring to titles of:

• Chapters from books or edited volumes
• Articles from newspapers, magazines, journals and other periodicals
• Particular pages from a website or posts from a blog
• Individual poems, short stories, and other short literary works
• Single episodes from a TV series
• Songs and other short recordings
• Unpublished writing (regardless of length)

With most of these, the key is that they’re published as part of a longer work or series. The only exception to this is unpublished writing (e.g., a PhD dissertation or an unpublished manuscript).

Beware Exceptions!

As with most rules in writing, there are exceptions to these guidelines about formatting titles. For example, APA has different rules depending on whether a title appears in the main text or the reference list. It is therefore always worth checking your style guide to see if it has specific requirements.

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Art Essay Writing Guide

Table of Contents

What is the purpose of an art essay?

Generally, an art essay is an essay that talks about art in sculpture, paintings, architecture, music and portraits.

These kinds of essays are used for:

• Painting visual pictures: an art essay is an essay that showcases visual arts and creative ideas that people have come up with.
• Improving creativity: the whole purpose of art essays is to provide a platform for students to tap into their creative side and vividly paint a picture of a certain image using words.

Art essay topic choice

Like every other essay, there are general tips that should be considered when coming up with an art essay writing topic.

• The type of art: this may include a painting, a sculpture or just a simple hand diagram. The type of art is important as it sets out what you are supposed to write about.
• What intrigues you about the art: this is the most important part of the essay. The whole art essay is based on what you want others to know about the piece of art.
• Personal interests: what you, as a writer, love is very important as it narrows down the topic. It is easier to write on topics that are well-known to you.

There are a number of art essay writing topics to choose from.

Below is a list of topics for an art essay

• Differences between Picasso’s concepts and Matisse’s
• The history of art in the Netherlands
• Differences between Bernini and Borromini
• The inspiration behind famous painting
• The Mona Lisa
• Leonardo Da Vinci
• Ancient Roman structures
• The sculptures of nude women
• Impressionism era of art in Netherlands
• The graphics of modern day art
• Insinuations behind ‘The Thinker’
• The Pieta of Michelangelo
• The contribution of Vincent Van Gogh and Piet Mondrian
• Flemish Baroque in the 17th century.

The above are some of the good topics for an art essay.

Structure of an art essay

The art essay topics determine the kind of structure to build on. However, most have a standard art essay structure.

Sample of art essay outline

Introduction.

The Mona Lisa is one of the most known paintings in the world. This is the painting of Lisa Gherardini, the wife of Francesco Del Giocondo, believed to have been painted in the 16th century. It is the work of Leonardo da Vinci and it was purchased by King Francis I. The Mona Lisa is currently under the ownership of the French government.

Thesis statement

The Mona Lisa has had a great impact towards the contribution of art in France:

(i)    It is one of the most famous paintings in the world. The Mona Lisa is the painting that everyone wants to see. It is so precious that only a copy of it is actually showcased in the museum.

(ii)    It has led to the growth of art. The Mona Lisa has inspired artists all over France. There has been a rise of many artists including Camille Pissarro, a painter, and Etienne-Jules Marey, a photographer.

It is clear that the Mona Lisa is the soft spot in France. The French take pride in it and have used it to improve their lives. Besides its contribution to art, it has also placed France among the leading countries that celebrate art. This has therefore created a culture of being drawn to art and it is reflected in their way of life.

The above is a sample of outline for an art essay.

Arts essay tips on writing the introduction

An art essay introduction identifies the art and the artist. Art is diverse, as it could be sculptures, architecture, performing arts or paintings in it. This is where you state why you chose that topic.  It also contains a history of the said art and brief details, like who the artist is, the year, the location, etc.

The introduction for an art essay states the thesis. It may be a general statement about the art or a specific aspect of it.

Tips on thesis writing

The thesis statement should be simple and easy to write about. Too complex statements tend to be confusing.

• Pick a statement that is closer to your understanding.
• Ensure it is as simple as possible.
• To avoid irrelevancy, one can have an art essay draft that they can build on.

Tips on the body (transitions, paragraphs, and length)

This is the main part of the essay where you derive analysis based on your point of view.  Describe why the art is so appealing to you. Ensure that your defense covers an angle that has not already been covered for uniqueness. For example, one can focus only on the strokes of a portrait. However, ensure that what you describe is relevant to the thesis of your art essay topics.

The essay should not be too long. The sentence construction should also be well done. For this reason, it is advisable to have your points arranged into paragraphs. Ensure that each paragraph is independent and speaks volumes. This ensures that the art essay hooks the reader.

The transition from one paragraph to the next should also be smooth. Using cliché transitions makes the essay boring; therefore, you need to be creative.

Tips on conclusion writing

In an art essay conclusion, one needs to state their opinion. What you think the artists` feelings were and why they decided to paint it the way they did. At this point, you can state the events that contributed to the artist coming up with that art. The conclusion for an art essay requires a lot of research into the background of both the art and the artist(s). For this reason, the references and sources of the information should be cited.

Advice for writers

In art essay writing it is important to first do your research. Art is so diverse and this can be sometimes confusing. The topic to write on should be related to your interests, for example, as a musician, you would find it easier to write about performing arts and music. Besides this, do not plagiarize any work done. Cite and state all sources, making sure that you observe all rules of patent and copyrights.

For you to be a good writer, these art essay tips will be very helpful.  The best writer is the one who admits to being in a need of help. The art essay writing guide can also be used to find more about art essay writing steps. Different sources could give different art essay outlines so you need to be careful.

Finalizing the essay

After writing the art essay, it is important to have a clean essay. This calls for proofreading and editing. Proofreading ensures that you do not have any grammatical errors, the art essay outlining is as required, your sentence construction is good and the language used is the required one. Some sites offer art essay writing guide for use when one gets stuck.  Proofreading also ensures that the art essay structure is followed. After this is done, ensure that the format used is correct whether APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to analyze an artwork: a step-by-step guide

Last Updated on August 16, 2023

This article has been written for high school art students who are working upon a critical study of art, sketchbook annotation or an essay-based artist study. It contains a list of questions to guide students through the process of analyzing visual material of any kind, including drawing, painting, mixed media, graphic design, sculpture, printmaking, architecture, photography, textiles, fashion and so on (the word ‘artwork’ in this article is all-encompassing). The questions include a wide range of specialist art terms, prompting students to use subject-specific vocabulary in their responses. It combines advice from art analysis textbooks as well as from high school art teachers who have first-hand experience teaching these concepts to students.

COPYRIGHT NOTE: This material is available as a printable art analysis PDF handout . This may be used free of charge in a classroom situation. To share this material with others, please use the social media buttons at the bottom of this page. Copying, sharing, uploading or distributing this article (or the PDF) in any other way is not permitted.

READ NEXT: How to make an artist website (and why you need one)

Why do we study art?

Almost all high school art students carry out critical analysis of artist work, in conjunction with creating practical work. Looking critically at the work of others allows students to understand compositional devices and then explore these in their own art. This is one of the best ways for students to learn.

Instructors who assign formal analyses want you to look—and look carefully. Think of the object as a series of decisions that an artist made. Your job is to figure out and describe, explain, and interpret those decisions and why the artist may have made them. – The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 10

Art analysis tips

• ‘I like this’ or ‘I don’t like this’ without any further explanation or justification is not analysis . Personal opinions must be supported with explanation, evidence or justification.
• ‘Analysis of artwork’ does not mean ‘description of artwork’ . To gain high marks, students must move beyond stating the obvious and add perceptive, personal insight. Students should demonstrate higher order thinking – the ability to analyse, evaluate and synthesize information and ideas. For example, if color has been used to create strong contrasts in certain areas of an artwork, students might follow this observation with a thoughtful assumption about why this is the case – perhaps a deliberate attempt by the artist to draw attention to a focal point, helping to convey thematic ideas.

Although description is an important part of a formal analysis, description is not enough on its own. You must introduce and contextualize your descriptions of the formal elements of the work so the reader understands how each element influences the work’s overall effect on the viewer.  – Sylvan Barnet, A Short Guide to Writing About Art 2

• Cover a range of different visual elements and design principles . It is common for students to become experts at writing about one or two elements of composition, while neglecting everything else – for example, only focusing upon the use of color in every artwork studied. This results in a narrow, repetitive and incomplete analysis of the artwork. Students should ensure that they cover a wide range of art elements and design principles, as well as address context and meaning, where required. The questions below are designed to ensure that students cover a broad range of relevant topics within their analysis.
• Write alongside the artwork discussed . In almost all cases, written analysis should be presented alongside the work discussed, so that it is clear which artwork comments refer to. This makes it easier for examiners to follow and evaluate the writing.
• Support writing with visual analysis . It is almost always helpful for high school students to support written material with sketches, drawings and diagrams that help the student understand and analyse the piece of art. This might include composition sketches; diagrams showing the primary structure of an artwork; detailed enlargements of small sections; experiments imitating use of media or technique; or illustrations overlaid with arrows showing leading lines and so on. Visual investigation of this sort plays an important role in many artist studies.

Making sketches or drawings from works of art is the traditional, centuries-old way that artists have learned from each other. In doing this, you will engage with a work and an artist’s approach even if you previously knew nothing about it. If possible do this whenever you can, not from a postcard, the internet or a picture in a book, but from the actual work itself. This is useful because it forces you to look closely at the work and to consider elements you might not have noticed before. – Susie Hodge, How to Look at Art 7

Finally, when writing about art, students should communicate with clarity; demonstrate subject-specific knowledge; use correct terminology; generate personal responses; and reference all content and ideas sourced from others. This is explained in more detail in our article about high school sketchbooks .

What should students write about?

Although each aspect of composition is treated separately in the questions below, students should consider the relationship between visual elements (line, shape, form, value/tone, color/hue, texture/surface, space) and how these interact to form design principles (such as unity, variety, emphasis, dominance, balance, symmetry, harmony, movement, contrast, rhythm, pattern, scale, proportion) to communicate meaning.

As complex as works of art typically are, there are really only three general categories of statements one can make about them. A statement addresses form, content or context (or their various interrelations). – Dr. Robert J. Belton, Art History: A Preliminary Handbook, The University of British Columbia 5

…a formal analysis – the result of looking closely – is an analysis of the form that the artist produces; that is, an analysis of the work of art, which is made up of such things as line, shape, color, texture, mass, composition. These things give the stone or canvas its form, its expression, its content, its meaning. – Sylvan Barnet, A Short Guide to Writing About Art 2

This video by Dr. Beth Harris, Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Naraelle Hohensee provides an excellent example of how to analyse a piece of art (it is important to note that this video is an example of ‘formal analysis’ and doesn’t include contextual analysis, which is also required by many high school art examination boards, in addition to the formal analysis illustrated here):

Composition analysis: a list of questions

The questions below are designed to facilitate direct engagement with an artwork and to encourage a breadth and depth of understanding of the artwork studied. They are intended to prompt higher order thinking and to help students arrive at well-reasoned analysis.

It is not expected that students answer every question (doing so would result in responses that are excessively long, repetitious or formulaic); rather, students should focus upon areas that are most helpful and relevant for the artwork studied (for example, some questions are appropriate for analyzing a painting, but not a sculpture). The words provided as examples are intended to help students think about appropriate vocabulary to use when discussing a particular topic. Definitions of more complex words have been provided.

Students should not attempt to copy out questions and then answer them; rather the questions should be considered a starting point for writing bullet pointed annotation or sentences in paragraph form.

CONTENT, CONTEXT AND MEANING

Subject matter / themes / issues / narratives / stories / ideas.

There can be different, competing, and contradictory interpretations of the same artwork. An artwork is not necessarily about what the artist wanted it to be about. – Terry Barrett, Criticizing Art: Understanding the Contemporary 6

Our interest in the painting grows only when we forget its title and take an interest in the things that it does not mention…” – Françoise Barbe-Gall, How to Look at a Painting 8

• Does the artwork fall within an established genre (i.e. historical; mythical; religious; portraiture; landscape; still life; fantasy; architectural)?
• Are there any recognisable objects, places or scenes ? How are these presented (i.e. idealized; realistic; indistinct; hidden; distorted; exaggerated; stylized; reflected; reduced to simplified/minimalist form; primitive; abstracted; concealed; suggested; blurred or focused)?
• Have people been included? What can we tell about them (i.e. identity; age; attire; profession; cultural connections; health; family relationships; wealth; mood/expression)? What can we learn from their pose (i.e. frontal; profile; partly turned; body language)? Where are they looking (i.e. direct eye contact with viewer; downcast; interested in other subjects within the artwork)? Can we work out relationships between figures from the way they are posed?

What do the clothing, furnishings, accessories (horses, swords, dogs, clocks, business ledgers and so forth), background, angle of the head or posture of the head and body, direction of the gaze, and facial expression contribute to our sense of the figure’s social identity (monarch, clergyman, trophy wife) and personality (intense, cool, inviting)? – Sylvan Barnet, A Short Guide to Writing About Art 2

• What props and important details are included (drapery; costumes; adornment; architectural elements; emblems; logos; motifs)? How do aspects of setting support the primary subject? What is the effect of including these items within the arrangement (visual unity; connections between different parts of the artwork; directs attention; surprise; variety and visual interest; separates / divides / borders; transformation from one object to another; unexpected juxtaposition)?

If a waiter served you a whole fish and a scoop of chocolate ice cream on the same plate, your surprise might be caused by the juxtaposition , or the side-by-side contrast, of the two foods. – Vocabulary.com

A motif is an element in a composition or design that can be used repeatedly for decorative, structural, or iconographic purposes. A motif can be representational or abstract, and it can be endowed with symbolic meaning. Motifs can be repeated in multiple artworks and often recur throughout the life’s work of an individual artist. – John A. Parks, Universal Principles of Art 11

• Does the artwork communicate an action, narrative or story (i.e. historical event or illustrate a scene from a story)? Has the arrangement been embellished, set up or contrived?
• Does the artwork explore movement ? Do you gain a sense that parts of the artwork are about to change, topple or fall (i.e. tension; suspense)? Does the artwork capture objects in motion (i.e. multiple or sequential images; blurred edges; scene frozen mid-action; live performance art; video art; kinetic art)?
• What kind of abstract elements are shown (i.e. bars; shapes; splashes; lines)? Have these been derived from or inspired by realistic forms? Are they the result of spontaneous, accidental creation or careful, deliberate arrangement?
• Does the work include the appropriation of work by other artists, such as within a parody or pop art? What effect does this have (i.e. copyright concerns)?

Parody: mimicking the appearance and/or manner of something or someone, but with a twist for comic effect or critical comment, as in Saturday Night Live’s political satires – Dr. Robert J. Belton, Art History: A Preliminary Handbook, The University of British Columbia 5

• Does the subject captivate an instinctual response , such as items that are informative, shocking or threatening for humans (i.e. dangerous places; abnormally positioned items; human faces; the gaze of people; motion; text)? Heap map tracking has demonstrated that these elements catch our attention, regardless of where they are positioned –  James Gurney writes more about this fascinating topic .
• What kind of text has been used (i.e. font size; font weight; font family; stenciled; hand-drawn; computer-generated; printed)? What has influenced this choice of text?
• Do key objects or images have symbolic value or provide a cue to meaning ? How does the artwork convey deeper, conceptual themes (i.e. allegory; iconographic elements; signs; metaphor; irony)?

Allegory is a device whereby abstract ideas can be communicated using images of the concrete world. Elements, whether figures or objects, in a painting or sculpture are endowed with symbolic meaning. Their relationships and interactions combine to create more complex meanings. – John A. Parks, Universal Principles of Art 11

An iconography is a particular range or system of types of image used by an artist or artists to convey particular meanings. For example in Christian religious painting there is an iconography of images such as the lamb which represents Christ, or the dove which represents the Holy Spirit. – Tate.org.uk

• What tone of voice does the artwork have (i.e. deliberate; honest; autobiographical; obvious; direct; unflinching; confronting; subtle; ambiguous; uncertain; satirical; propagandistic)?
• What is your emotional response to the artwork? What is the overall mood (i.e positive; energetic; excitement; serious; sedate; peaceful; calm; melancholic; tense; uneasy; uplifting; foreboding; calm; turbulent)? Which subject matter choices help to communicate this mood (i.e. weather and lighting conditions; color of objects and scenes)?
• Does the title change the way you interpret the work?
• Were there any design constraints relating to the subject matter or theme/s (i.e. a sculpture commissioned to represent a specific subject, place or idea)?
• Are there thematic connections with your own project? What can you learn from the way the artist has approached this subject?

Wider contexts

All art is in part about the world in which it emerged. – Terry Barrett, Criticizing Art: Understanding the Contemporary 6

• Supported by research, can you identify when, where and why the work was created and its original intention or purpose (i.e. private sale; commissioned for a specific owner; commemorative; educational; promotional; illustrative; decorative; confrontational; useful or practical utility; communication; created in response to a design brief; private viewing; public viewing)? In what way has this background influenced the outcome (i.e. availability of tools, materials or time; expectations of the patron / audience)?
• Where is the place of construction or design site and how does this influence the artwork (i.e. reflects local traditions, craftsmanship, or customs; complements surrounding designs; designed to accommodate weather conditions / climate; built on historic site)? Was the artwork originally located somewhere different?
• Which events and surrounding environments have influenced this work (i.e. natural events; social movements such as feminism; political events, economic situations, historic events, religious settings, cultural events)? What effect did these have?
• Is the work characteristic of an artistic style, movement or time period ? Has it been influenced by trends, fashions or ideologies ? How can you tell?
• Can you make any relevant connections or comparisons with other artworks ? Have other artists explored a similar subject in a similar way? Did this occur before or after this artwork was created?
• Can you make any relevant connections to other fields of study or expression (i.e. geography, mathematics, literature, film, music, history or science)?
• Which key biographical details about the artist are relevant in understanding this artwork (upbringing and personal situation; family and relationships; psychological state; health and fitness; socioeconomic status; employment; ethnicity; culture; gender; education, religion; interests, attitudes, values and beliefs)?
• Is this artwork part of a larger body of work ? Is this typical of the work the artist is known for?
• How might your own upbringing, beliefs and biases distort your interpretation of the artwork? Does your own response differ from the public response, that of the original audience and/or  interpretation by critics ?
• How do these wider contexts compare to the contexts surrounding your own work?

COMPOSITION AND FORMAT

• What is the overall size, shape and orientation of the artwork (i.e. vertical, horizontal, portrait, landscape or square)? Has this format been influenced by practical considerations (i.e. availability of materials; display constraints ; design brief restrictions; screen sizes; common aspect ratios in film or photography such as 4:3 or 2:3; or paper sizes such as A4, A3, A2, A1)?
• How do images fit within the frame (cropped; truncated; shown in full)? Why is this format appropriate for the subject matter?
• Are different parts of the artwork physically separate, such as within a diptych or triptych ?
• Where are the boundaries of the artwork (i.e. is the artwork self-contained; compact; intersecting; sprawling)?
• Is the artwork site-specific or designed to be displayed across multiple locations or environments?
• Does the artwork have a fixed, permanent format, or was it  modified, moved or adjusted over time ? What causes such changes (i.e. weather and exposure to the elements – melting, erosion, discoloration, decaying, wind movement, surface abrasion; structural failure – cracking, breaking; damage caused by unpredictable events, such as fire or vandalism; intentional movement, such as rotation or sensor response; intentional impermanence, such as an installation assembled for an exhibition and removed afterwards; viewer interaction; additions, renovations and restoration by subsequent artists or users; a project so expansive it takes years to construct)? How does this change affect the artwork? Are there stylistic variances between parts?
• Is the artwork viewed from one angle or position, or are dynamic viewpoints and serial vision involved? (Read more about Gordon Cullen’s concept of serial vision here ).
• How does the scale and format of the artwork relate to the environment where it is positioned, used, installed or hung (i.e. harmonious with landscape typography; sensitive to adjacent structures; imposing or dwarfed by surroundings; human scale)? Is the artwork designed to be viewed from one vantage point (i.e. front facing; viewed from below; approached from a main entrance; set at human eye level) or many? Are images taken from the best angle?
• Would a similar format benefit your own project? Why / why not?

Structure / layout

• Has the artwork been organised using a formal system of arrangement or mathematical proportion (i.e. rule of thirds; golden ratio or spiral; grid format; geometric; dominant triangle; or circular composition) or is the arrangement less predictable (i.e. chaotic, random, accidental, fragmented, meandering, scattered; irregular or spontaneous)? How does this system of arrangement help with the communication of ideas? Can you draw a diagram to show the basic structure of the artwork?
• Can you see a clear intention with alignment and positioning of parts within the artwork (i.e. edges aligned; items spaced equally; simple or complex arrangement; overlapping, clustered or concentrated objects; dispersed, separate items; repetition of forms; items extending beyond the frame; frames within frames; bordered perimeter or patterned edging; broken borders)? What effect do these visual devices have (i.e. imply hierarchy; help the viewer understand relationships between parts of artwork; create rhythm)?
• Does the artwork have a primary axis of symmetry (vertical, diagonal, horizontal)? Can you locate a center of balance? Is the artwork symmetrical, asymmetrical (i.e. stable), radial, or intentionally unbalanced (i.e. to create tension or unease)?
• Can you draw a diagram to illustrate emphasis and dominance (i.e. ‘blocking in’ mass, where the ‘heavier’ dominant forms appear in the composition)? Where are dominant items located within the frame?
• How do your eyes move through the composition?
• Could your own artwork use a similar organisational structure?
• What types of linear mark-making are shown (thick; thin; short; long; soft; bold; delicate; feathery; indistinct; faint; irregular; intermittent; freehand; ruled; mechanical; expressive; loose; blurred; dashing; cross-hatching; meandering; gestural, fluid; flowing; jagged; spiky; sharp)? What atmosphere, moods, emotions or ideas do these evoke?
• Are there any interrupted, suggested or implied lines (i.e. lines that can’t literally be seen, but the viewer’s brain connects the dots between separate elements)?
• Repeating lines : may simulate material qualities, texture, pattern or rhythm;
• Boundary lines : may segment, divide or separate different areas;
• Leading lines : may manipulate the viewer’s gaze, directing vision or lead the eye to focal points ( eye tracking studies indicate that our eyes leap from one point of interest to another, rather than move smoothly or predictably along leading lines 9 . Lines may nonetheless help to establish emphasis by ‘pointing’ towards certain items );
• Parallel lines : may create a sense of depth or movement through space within a landscape;
• Horizontal lines : may create a sense of stability and permanence;
• Vertical lines : may suggest height, reaching upwards or falling;
• Intersecting perpendicular lines : may suggest rigidity, strength;
• Abstract lines : may balance the composition, create contrast or emphasis;
• Angular / diagonal lines : may suggest tension or unease;
• Chaotic lines : may suggest a sense of agitation or panic;
• Underdrawing, construction lines or contour lines : describe form ( learn more about contour lines in our article about line drawing );
• Curving / organic lines : may suggest nature, peace, movement or energy.
• What is the relationship between line and three-dimensional form? Are  outlines used to define form and edges?
• Would it be appropriate to use line in a similar way within your own artwork?

Shape and form

• Can you identify a dominant visual language within the shapes and forms shown (i.e. geometric; angular; rectilinear; curvilinear; organic; natural; fragmented; distorted; free-flowing; varied; irregular; complex; minimal)? Why is this visual language appropriate?
• How are the edges of forms treated (i.e. do they fade away or blur at the edges, as if melting into the page; ripped or torn; distinct and hard-edged; or, in the words of James Gurney, 9 do they ‘dissolve into sketchy lines, paint strokes or drips’)?
• Are there any three-dimensional forms or relief elements within the artwork, such as carved pieces, protruding or sculptural elements? How does this affect the viewing of the work from different angles?
• Is there a variety or repetition of shapes/forms? What effect does this have (i.e. repetition may reinforce ideas, balance composition and/or create harmony / visual unity; variety may create visual interest or overwhelm the viewer with chaos)?
• How are shapes organised in relation to each other, or with the frame of the artwork (i.e. grouped; overlapping; repeated; echoed; fused edges; touching at tangents; contrasts in scale or size; distracting or awkward junctions)?
• Are silhouettes (external edges of objects) considered?

All shapes have silhouettes, and vision research has shown that one of the first tasks of perception is to be able to sort out the silhouette shapes of each of the elements in a scene. – James Gurney, Imaginative Realism 9

• Are forms designed with ergonomics and human scale in mind?

Ergonomics: an applied science concerned with designing and arranging things people use so that the people and things interact most efficiently and safely – Merriam-webster.com

• Can you identify which forms are functional or structural , versus ornamental or decorative ?
• Have any forms been disassembled, ‘cut away’ or exposed , such as a sectional drawing? What is the purpose of this (i.e. to explain construction methods; communicate information; dramatic effect)?
• Would it be appropriate to use shape and form in a similar way within your own artwork?

Value / tone / light

• Has a wide tonal range been used in the artwork (i.e. a broad range of darks, highlights and mid-tones) or is the tonal range limited (i.e. pale and faint; subdued; dull; brooding and dark overall; strong highlights and shadows, with little mid-tone values)? What is the effect of this?
• Where are the light sources within the artwork or scene? Is there a single consistent light source or multiple sources of light (sunshine; light bulbs; torches; lamps; luminous surfaces)? What is the effect of these choices (i.e. mimics natural lighting conditions at a certain time of day or night; figures lit from the side to clarify form; contrasting background or spot-lighting used to accentuate a focal area; soft and diffused lighting used to mute contrasts and minimize harsh shadows; dappled lighting to signal sunshine broken by surrounding leaves; chiaroscuro used to exaggerate theatrical drama and impact; areas cloaked in darkness to minimize visual complexity; to enhance our understanding of narrative, mood or meaning)?

One of the most important ways in which artists can use light to achieve particular effects is in making strong contrasts between light and dark. This contrast is often described as chiaroscuro . – Matthew Treherne, Analysing Paintings, University of Leeds 3

• Are representations of three-dimensional objects and figures flat or tonally  modeled ? How do different tonal values change from one to the next (i.e. gentle, smooth gradations; abrupt tonal bands)?
• Are there any unusual, reflective or transparent surfaces, mediums or materials which reflect or transmit light in a special way?
• Has tone been used to help communicate atmospheric perspective (i.e. paler and bluer as objects get further away)?
• Are gallery or environmental light sources where the artwork is displayed fixed or fluctuating? Does the work appear different when viewed at different times of day? How does this affect your interpretation of the work?
• Are shadows depicted within the artwork? What is the effect of these shadows (i.e. anchors objects to the page; creates the illusion of depth and space; creates dramatic contrasts)?
• Do sculptural protrusions or relief elements catch the light and/or create cast shadows or pockets of shadow upon the artwork? How does this influence the viewer’s experience?
• How has tone been used to help direct the viewer’s attention to focal areas?
• Would it be appropriate to use value / tone in a similar way within your own artwork? Why / why not?

Color / hue

• Can you view the true color of the artwork (i.e. are you viewing a low-quality reproduction or examining the artwork in poor lighting)?
• Which  color schemes have been used within the artwork (i.e. harmonious; complementary; primary; monochrome; earthy; warm; cool/cold)? Has the artist used a broad or limited color palette (i.e. variety or unity)? Which colors dominate?
• How would you describe the intensity of the colors (vibrant; bright; vivid; glowing; pure; saturated; strong; dull; muted; pale; subdued; bleached; diluted)?
• Are colors transparent or opaque ? Can you see reflected color?
• Has color contrast been used within the artwork (i.e. extreme contrasts; juxtaposition of complementary colors; garish / clashing / jarring)? Are there any abrupt color changes or unexpected uses of color?
• What is the effect of these color choices (i.e. expressing symbolic or thematic ideas; descriptive or realistic depiction of local color; emphasizing focal areas; creating the illusion of aerial perspective; relationships with colors in surrounding environment; creating balance; creating rhythm/pattern/repetition; unity and variety within the artwork; lack of color places emphasis upon shape, detail and form)? What kind of atmosphere do these colors create?

It is often said that warm colors (red, orange, yellow) come forward and produce a sense of excitement (yellow is said to suggest warmth and happiness, as in the smiley face), whereas cool colors (blue, green) recede and have a calming effect. Experiments, however, have proved inconclusive; the response to color – despite clichés about seeing red or feeling blue – is highly personal, highly cultural, highly varied. – Sylvan Barnet, A Short Guide to Writing About Art 2

• Would it be appropriate to use color in a similar way within your own artwork?

Texture / surface / pattern

• Are there any interesting textural, tactile or surface qualities within the artwork (i.e. bumpy; grooved; indented; scratched; stressed; rough; smooth; shiny; varnished; glassy; glossy; polished; matte; sandy; grainy; gritted; leathery; spiky; silky)? How are these created (i.e. inherent qualities of materials; impasto mediums; sculptural materials; illusions or implied texture , such as cross-hatching; finely detailed and intricate areas; organic patterns such as foliage or small stones; repeating patterns ; ornamentation)?
• How are textural or patterned elements positioned and what effect does this have (i.e. used intermittently to provide variety; repeating pattern creates rhythm ; patterns broken create focal points ; textured areas create visual links and unity between separate areas of the artwork; balance between detailed/textured areas and simpler areas; glossy surface creates a sense of luxury; imitation of texture conveys information about a subject, i.e. softness of fur or strands of hair)?
• Would it be appropriate to use texture / surface in a similar way within your own artwork?

Industrial and architectural landscapes are particularly concerned with the arrangement of geometries and form in space… Dr. Ben Guy, Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment using CGI Digital Twins, Urban CGI 12

• Is the pictorial space shallow or deep? How does the artwork create the illusion of depth (i.e. layering of foreground, middle-ground, background ; overlapping of objects; use of shadows to anchor objects; positioning of items in relationship to the horizon line; linear perspective ( learn more about one point perspective here ); tonal modeling; relationships with adjacent objects and those in close proximity – including the human form – to create a sense of scale ; spatial distortions or optical illusions; manipulating scale of objects to create ‘surrealist’ spaces where true scale is unknown)?
• Has an unusual viewpoint been used (i.e. worm’s view; aerial view, looking out a window or through a doorway; a scene reflected in a mirror or shiny surface; looking through leaves; multiple viewpoints combined)? What is the effect of this viewpoint (i.e. allows certain parts of the scene to be dominant and overpowering or squashed, condensed and foreshortened ; or suggests a narrative between two separate spaces ; provides more information about a space than would normally be seen)?
• Is the emphasis upon mass or void ? How densely arranged are components within the artwork or picture plane? What is the relationship between object and surrounding space (i.e. compact / crowded / busy / densely populated, with little surrounding space; spacious; careful interplay between positive and negative space; objects clustered to create areas of visual interest)? What is the effect of this (i.e. creates a sense of emptiness or isolation; business / visual clutter creates a feeling of chaos or claustrophobia)?
• How does the artwork engage with real space – in and around the artwork (i.e. self-contained; closed off; eye contact with viewer; reaching outwards)? Is the viewer expected to move through the artwork? What is the relationship between interior and exterior space ? What connections or contrasts occur between inside and out? Is it comprised of a series of separate or linked spaces?
• Would it be appropriate to use space in a similar way within your own artwork?

Use of media / materials

• What materials and mediums has the artwork been constructed from? Have materials been concealed or presented deceptively (i.e. is there an authenticity / honesty of materials; are materials celebrated; is the structure visible or exposed )? Why were these mediums selected (weight; color; texture; size; strength; flexibility; pliability; fragility; ease of use; cost; cultural significance; durability; availability; accessibility)? Would other mediums have been appropriate?
• Which skills, techniques, methods and processes were used (i.e. traditional; conventional; industrial; contemporary; innovative)? It is important to note that the examiners do not want the regurgitation of long, technical processes, but rather to see personal observations about how processes effect and influence the artwork in question. Would replicating part of the artwork help you gain a better understanding of the processes used?
• Painting: gesso ground > textured mediums > underdrawing > blocking in colors > defining form > final details;
• Architecture: brief > concepts > development > working drawings > foundations > structure > cladding > finishes;
• Graphic design: brief > concepts > development > Photoshop > proofing > printing.
• How does the use of media help the artist to communicate ideas?
• Are these methods useful for your own project?

Finally, remember that these questions are a guide only and are intended to make you start to think critically about the art you are studying and creating.

Further Reading

If you enjoyed this article you may also like our article about high school sketchbooks (which includes a section about sketchbook annotation). If you are looking for more assistance with how to write an art analysis essay you may like our series about writing an artist study .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] A guide for Analyzing Works of Art; Sculpture and Painting, Durantas

[2] A Short Guide to Writing About Art , Sylvan Barnet (2014) (Amazon affiliate link)

[3] Analysing Paintings , Matthew Treherne, University of Leeds

[4] Writing in Art and Art History , The University of Vermont

[5] Art History: A Preliminary Handbook , Dr. Robert J. Belton, The University of British Columbia (1996)

[6] Criticizing Art: Understanding the Contemporary , Terry Barrett (2011) (Amazon affiliate link)

[7] How to Look at Art , Susie Hodge (2015) (Amazon affiliate link)

[8] How to Look at a Painting , Françoise Barbe-Gall (2011) (Amazon affiliate link)

[9] Imaginative Realism: How to Paint What Doesn’t Exist James Gurney (2009) (Amazon affiliate link)

[10] Art History , The Writing Centre, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

[11] Universal Principles of Art: 100 Key Concepts for Understanding, Analyzing and Practicing Art , John A. Parks (2014) (Amazon affiliate link)

[12] Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment using CGI Digital Twins , Dr. Ben Guy, Urban CGI (2023)

Amiria has been an Art & Design teacher and a Curriculum Co-ordinator for seven years, responsible for the course design and assessment of student work in two high-achieving Auckland schools. She has a Bachelor of Architectural Studies, Bachelor of Architecture (First Class Honours) and a Graduate Diploma of Teaching. Amiria is a CIE Accredited Art & Design Coursework Assessor.

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Art Essay Examples

Art Essay Examples to Get You Inspired - Top 10 Samples

Published on: May 4, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 30, 2024

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Are you struggling to come up with ideas for your art essay? Or are you looking for examples to help guide you in the right direction? 

Look no further, as we have got you covered!

In this blog, we provide a range of art writing examples that cover different art forms, time periods, and themes. Whether you're interested in the classics or contemporary art, we have something for everyone. These examples offer insight into how to structure your essay, analyze art pieces, and write compelling arguments.

So, let's explore our collection of art essay examples and take the first step toward becoming a better art writer!

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Good Art Essay Examples

In the following section, we will examine a selection of art essay examples that are inspiring for various academic levels.

College Art Essay Examples

Let’s take a look at college art essay examples below:  

The Intersection of Art and Politics: An Analysis of Picasso's Guernica

The Role of Nature in American Art: A Comparative Study

University Art Essay Examples

University-level art essay assignments often differ in length and complexity. Here are two examples:

Gender and Identity in Contemporary Art: A Comparative Study

Art and Activism: The Role of Street Art in Political Movements

A Level Art Essay Examples

Below are some art paper examples A level. Check out: 

The Use Of Color In Wassily Kandinsky's Composition Viii

The Influence of African Art on Pablo Picasso's Les Demoiselles D'avignon

A Level Fine Art Essay Examples

If you're a student of fine arts, these A-level fine arts examples can serve as inspiration for your own work.

The Use Of Texture In Vincent Van Gogh's Starry Night

Exploring Identity Through Portraiture: A Comparative Study

Art Essay Examples IELTS 

The Impact of Art on Mental Health

The Effects of Technology on Art And Creativity

Paper Due? Why Suffer? That's our Job!

AP Art Essay Examples

A Comparison of Neoclassical and Romantic Art

An Examination Of The Effects Of Globalization On Contemporary Art

Types of Art Essay with Examples

Art essays can be categorized into different types. Let's take a brief look at these types with examples:

Art Criticism Essay : A critical essay analyzing and evaluating an artwork, its elements, and its meaning.

The Persistence of Memory" by Salvador Dali: A Critical Analysis

Art History Essay: A comprehensive essay that examines the historical context, development, and significance of an artwork or art movement.

The Renaissance: A Rebirth of Artistic Expression

Exhibition Review: A review of an art exhibition that evaluates the quality and significance of the artwork on display.

A Review of the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Exhibition

Contemporary Art Essay: An essay that explores and analyzes contemporary art and its cultural and social context.

The Intersection of Technology and Art in Contemporary Society

Modern Art Essay: An essay that examines modern art and its significance in the development of modernism.

Cubism and its Influence on Modern Art [insert pdf]

Art Theory Essay: An essay that analyzes and critiques various theories and approaches to art.

Feminist Art Theory: A Critical Analysis of its Impact on Contemporary Art [insert pdf]

Additional Art Essay Example

Let’s take a brief look at some added art essay samples:

Artwork Essay Example

Artist Essay Example

Advanced Higher Art Essay Example

Common Art Essay Prompts

Here are some common art essay topics that you may encounter during your coursework:

• Describe a piece of artwork that has inspired you.
• A comparative analysis of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa and Michelangelo's David.
• Analyze the cultural significance of a particular art movement.
• Discuss the relationship between art and politics.
• Compare and contrast two works of art from different time periods or cultures.
• The representation of identity in art
• The Evolution of Artists' Paintings:
• From Traditional to Contemporary Art
• The representation of identity in Frida Kahlo's self-portraits.
• The significance of oil on canvas in the history of art.
• The significance of the Mona Lisa in the Italian Renaissance

Art Essay Topics IELTS

Here are some art essay topics for IELTS students. Take a look: 

• The value of art education.
• The role of museums in preserving art and culture.
• The impact of globalization on contemporary art.
• The influence of technology on art and artists.
• The significance of public art in urban environments.

Tips For Writing a Successful Art Essay

Here are some tips for writing a stand-out art essay:

• Develop a clear thesis statement that guides your essay: Your thesis statement should clearly and concisely state the main argument of your essay.
• Conduct thorough research and analysis of the artwork you are writing about : This includes examining the visual elements of the artwork, researching the artist, and considering the historical significance.
• Use formal and precise language to discuss the artwork: Avoid using colloquial language and instead focus on using formal language to describe the artwork.
• Include specific examples from the artwork to support your arguments: Use specific details from the artwork to back up your analysis.
• Avoid personal bias and subjective language: Your essay should be objective and avoid using personal opinions or subjective language.
• Consider the historical and cultural context of the artwork: Analyze the artwork in the context of the time period and cultural context in which they were created.
• Edit and proofread your essay carefully before submitting it: Ensure your essay is well-organized, coherent, and free of grammatical errors and typos.
• Use proper citation format when referencing sources: Follow the appropriate citation style guidelines and give credit to all sources used in your essay.
• Be concise and focused in your writing: Stick to your main thesis statement and avoid going off-topic or including irrelevant information.
• Read your essay aloud to ensure clarity and coherence: Reading your essay out loud can help you identify inconsistencies or any other mistakes.

The Bottom Line!

We hope that the art essay examples we've explored have provided you with inspiration for your own essay. Art offers endless possibilities for analysis, and your essay is a chance to showcase your unique opinions.

Use these examples as a guide to craft an essay that reflects your personality while demonstrating your knowledge of the subject.

Short on time? Let CollegeEssay.org help you! All you have to do is to ask our experts, " write college essay for me " and they'll help you secure top grades in college.

Don't wait, reach out to our art essay writing service.

Take the first step towards excellence in your art studies with our AI essay writer !

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Do you underline a title of a painting?

Why did you put a painting in your essay? If you are referring in your essay to a painting done by another person, you should underline the title of that painting, and you should use a resource like the MLA manual for similar questions.

Italics as well as underlining the title are acceptable. Do what you personally feel, if the title is being worked into an essay I use italics simply because I think underlining brings too much attention to the title and less attention to the content surrounding the title.

• Michelangelo's David
• The Last Supper

Note: A photograph, which is much smaller than a work of art, is placed in quotation marks!

Add your answer:

Do you underline a picture title?

You can either use italics or an underline.

When writing the title of a show do you underline it?

yes you do underline it because titles are called pronouns which so you do underline.

Do you underline or italicize the title in a personal narrative piece?

Qutation marks for essays, short stories, poems, movies underline for book titles

Do you underline the title of an epic?

How do you cite the title of a play.

underline it

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Who will save the lonely and unloved Pink House?

Catching sight of such a lonely, unloved place can tug at the heart and move one to reflection in the way a painting or piece of music can..

To outsiders, worrying over the fate of an old, falling-down house that happens to be pink must seem silly, particularly now when there’s so much else to worry about. But to people in Essex County, the recent announcement that the nearly 100-year-old Pink House will be razed is nothing short of devastating.

I grew up in Newburyport, haven’t lived there in decades, and I’m heartbroken.

The backstory is straightforward. The US Fish and Wildlife Service, which runs the nearby Parker River Wildlife Refuge, bought the Pink House and its marshland in 2012. Upon discovering the house was contaminated with asbestos, it decided to tear it down. (The Pink House is technically in Newbury but sits on the road from Newburyport to Plum Island, which serves those communities along with Rowley and Ipswich.)

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A group called Support the Pink House sprung up to save it. For the past nine years, this devoted coalition has spent thousands of dollars and countless hours negotiating with the agency to find a way to keep the Pink House. Nothing worked. Finally, last month, the agency put the house up for auction, but not a single person placed a bid (or even showed up to the three showings). The end.

Even I, a passionate Pink House devotee, am hard-pressed to articulate why this very local fracas matters. Essex County is rich with early American history, including the kind in school textbooks. The Pink House is just a place that some ordinary people once lived in and no longer do.

What makes the Pink House exceptional is that it’s beautiful in spite of itself. It sits alone on acres of marshland, far from town, neglected for so many years now that the paint is peeling. Catching sight of such a lonely, unloved place can tug at the heart and move one to reflection in the way a painting or piece of music can.

Just ask the many painters and photographers who have made a cottage industry out of immortalizing the scene. There are countless Pink House artworks in every season, capturing every mood possible. Plum Island was named for the pink garnet crystals that purple the sands at high tide and the fragile, hot-pink blossoms of the wild beach plum bushes that cover its dunes. By now the Pink House is synonymous with the area, an attraction that draws tourists with their own cameras and paintbrushes.

When the sky is ablaze with pinks and gold, as it is so often, the Pink House appears to be a feature of the natural landscape. The Pink House is a reminder that humans and our habitats are just as much a part of the environment as water, trees, and birds.

Yet the Pink House never seemed to have a community. Until now. In these divided times, that’s reason enough for the Pink House to be preserved.

Kate Bolick is the author of “Spinster: Making a Life of One’s Own” and a lecturer in the English Department at Yale University.

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The Secret to Tom Wolfe’s Irresistible Snap, Crackle and Pop

How the author of “The Right Stuff,” “Radical Chic and Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers” and other classics turned sociology into art.

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By David Brooks

David Brooks is an Opinion columnist for The Times. This essay is adapted from his introduction to a new edition of “Radical Chic and Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers,” to be published by Picador this month.

There are certain writers you should never read before you yourself sit down to write, like P.G. Wodehouse and Tom Wolfe. For if you do, you will not be able to get their voices and rhythms out of your head, and you will have to confront the absolute certainty that you can’t pull off what they did. In Wolfe’s case you’ll find that you can’t quite replicate the raw energy of his prose: the fun; the snap, crackle, pop; the fuzzy effusions of new sociological categories — masters of the universe, social X-rays.

And then there’s his sheer audacity. His essay “Radical Chic” — about a cocktail party the conductor Leonard Bernstein and his wife, Felicia, threw for the Black Panthers in 1970 — begins with Bernstein waking up in the middle of the night in a state of wild alarm. He had mentioned having a bad dream in an interview somewhere, and Wolfe took that little autobiographical morsel and spun it into a grand tour through the inside of Bernstein’s brain. Any responsible journalist can report, “Bernstein had a nightmare,” but Wolfe has the guts to take a flight of fancy and describe the nightmare from the inside, with its moments of narcissistic grandiosity and its descent into degrading humiliation.

Wolfe was known for his style, but it was his worldview that made him. He read Max Weber at Yale and it all clicked : Life is a contest for status. Some people think humans are driven by money, or love, or to heal the wounds they suffered in childhood, but Wolfe put the relentless scramble up the pecking order at the center of his worldview. It gave him his brilliant eye for surfaces, for the care with which people put on their social displays. He had the ability to name the status rules that envelop us in ways we are hardly aware of. He had a knack for capturing what it feels like to be caught up in a certain sort of social dilemma.

He was drawn to times and places where the status rules were shifting. His book “The Right Stuff,” about the U.S. space program, takes place at such a moment. Before, the combat pilots were the tippy-top alpha males in the world of flight, but then along came the astronauts to knock them off their perch. In “Radical Chic,” you can catch glimpses of the old blue-blood Protestant elite — the Astors, the Whitneys, the Rockefellers. But this is 1970. A new crowd is beginning to displace them: the Bernsteins, Barbara Walters. The members of this rising elite have often made their money in culture and the media, and include the formerly unthinkables — Catholics, Jews, Black people.

The old aristocrats had it so easy, those stately bankers in the J.P. Morgan mold. They may have been frequently bewildered about why the masses didn’t like them, but their own place in the social aristocracy was secure. It was right there in their bloodlines — the generations of grandees stretching back centuries. The status rules were simple. All you had to do was live like an English earl and collect European culture by the boatload, and you could cruise through Manhattan amid the sound of others bowing and scraping.

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Opinion: Banksy's London Zoo, art's simple joy during complex times

Scott Simon

ESSAY 08172024

A man eats an apple as he walks past a mural depicting a goat, purportedly by the street artist Banksy, on August 5, 2024 in the Richmond borough of London, England. Carl Court/Getty Images/Getty Images Europe hide caption

London has been abloom with images of animals in recent days. They are the work of Banksy, the mysterious street artist, who has posted art in unexpected places since the 1990s.

Over the past two weeks, he has spray-painted a mountain goat atop a wall buttress in west London, two elephants with their trunks reaching across a brick wall, and a rhinoceros standing on its hind legs, climbing on top of a car or — and I have to be oblique here — availing itself of the automobile below.

ARTnews said one of Banksy’s 13 million followers on Instagram declared, “This has to be a metaphor for technology replacing nature — maybe a commentary on AI and job security,” which, I confess, was not my reaction on seeing the libidinous rhino and the motorcar.

Banksy has also stenciled a pair of pelicans above a fish and chips bar, and monkeys on the side of a train bridge, swinging by their arms or tails, and a wolf, and a cat.

Each of the works posted on Banksy’s Instagram page has included the hashtag "#LondonZoo." On Tuesday, London awoke to behold a Banksy on a security shutter of the zoo, showing a gorilla lifting a cover to allow a seal and five birds to flap out, free.

Have Banksy’s recent artworks been saying, “Come see animals in this zoo!”? Or, “Isn’t it an outrage that animals are put in a zoo?”

But Vanessa Thorpe, arts correspondent for The Guardian, says the Pest Control Office, the organization that supports Banksy’s works, told her such theorizing is “way too involved … (T)he latest street art has been designed to cheer up the public during a period when the news headlines have been bleak.”

We can forget, when we look for artistic statements to fit an argument, that art can just bring cheer, too.

Women Who Shaped History

A Smithsonian magazine special report

History | July 9, 2024

Meet Vivian Maier, the Reclusive Nanny Who Secretly Became One of the Best Street Photographers of the 20th Century

The self-taught artist is getting her first museum exhibition in New York City, where she nurtured her nascent interest in photography

Ellen Wexler

Assistant Editor, Humanities

Vivian Maier took more than 150,000 photographs as she scoured the streets of New York and Chicago. She rarely looked at them; often, she didn’t even develop the negatives. Without any formal training, she created a sprawling body of work that demonstrated a wholly original way of looking at the world. Today, she is considered one of the best street photographers of the 20th century.

Maier’s photos provide audiences with a tantalizing peek behind the curtain into a remarkable mind. But she never intended to have an audience. A nanny by trade, she rarely showed anyone her prints. In her final years, she stashed five decades of work in storage lockers, which she eventually stopped paying for. Their contents went to auction in 2007.

Many of Maier’s photos ended up with amateur historian John Maloof , who purchased 30,000 negatives for about $400. In the years that followed, he sought out other collectors who had purchased boxes from the same lockers. He didn’t learn the photographer’s identity until 2009, when he found her name scrawled on an envelope among the negatives. A quick Google search revealed that Maier had died just a few days earlier. Uncertain of how to proceed, Maloof started posting her images online.

“I guess my question is, what do I do with this stuff?” he wrote in a Flickr post . “Is this type of work worthy of exhibitions, a book? Or do bodies of work like this come up often? Any direction would be great.”

Maier quickly became a sensation. Everyone wanted to know about the recluse who had so adeptly captured 20th-century America. Her life and work have since been the subject of a best-selling book , a documentary and exhibitions around the world .

Now, the self-taught photographer is headlining her first major American retrospective. “ Vivian Maier: Unseen Work ,” which is currently on view at Fotografiska New York, features some 230 pieces from the 1950s through the 1990s, including black-and-white and color photos, vintage and modern prints, films, and sound recordings. The show is also billed as the first museum exhibition in Maier’s hometown, the city where she nurtured her nascent interest in photography.

Born in New York City in 1926, Maier grew up mostly in France, where she began experimenting with a Kodak Brownie , an affordable early camera designed for amateurs. After returning to New York in 1951, she purchased a Rolleiflex , a high-end camera held at the waist, and began developing her signature style: images of everyday life framed with a stark humor and intuitive understanding of human emotion. She started working as a governess, a role that allowed her to spend hours wandering the city, children in tow, as she snapped away.

She left New York about five years later, when she secured a job as a nanny for three boys—John, Lane and Matthew Gensburg—in the Chicago suburbs. The family was devoted to Maier, though they knew very little about her. The boys remember attending art films and picking wild strawberries as her charges, but they don’t recall her ever mentioning any family or friends. Their parents knew that Maier traveled—they would hire a replacement nanny in her absence—but they didn’t know where she went.

“You really wouldn’t ask her about it at all,” Nancy Gensburg, the boys’ mother, told Chicago magazine in 2010. “I mean, you could, but she was private. Period.”

Despite Maier’s reclusive tendencies, the Gensburgs knew about her photography. It would have been difficult to hide. After all, she lived with the family and had a private bathroom, which she used as a darkroom to develop black-and-white photos herself. The Gensburgs frequently witnessed her taking photos; on rare occasions, she even showed them her prints.

Maier stayed with the Gensburgs until the early 1970s, when the boys were too old for a nanny. She spent the next few decades working in other caretaking roles, though she doesn’t appear to have developed a similar relationship with these families, who viewed her as a competent caregiver with an eccentric personality. Most never saw her prints, though they do remember her moving into their homes with hundreds of boxes of photos in tow.

“I once saw her taking a picture inside a refuse can,” talk show host Phil Donahue, who employed Maier as a nanny for less than a year, told Chicago magazine. “I never remotely thought that what she was doing would have some special artistic value.”

Meanwhile, the Gensburgs kept in touch. As Maier grew older, they took care of her, eventually moving her to a nursing home. They never knew about the storage lockers. When she died at age 83, a short obituary appeared in the Chicago Tribune , describing her as a “second mother” to the three boys, a “free and kindred spirit,” and a “movie critic and photographer extraordinaire.”

Maier’s mysterious backstory is a large part of her present-day appeal. Fans are captivated by the photos, but they’re also intrigued by the reclusive nanny who developed her talents in secret. “Vivian Maier the mystery, the discovery and the work—those three parts together are difficult to separate,” Anne Morin, curator of the new exhibition, tells CNN .

The show is meant to focus on the work rather than the mystery. As Morin says to the Art Newspaper , she hopes to avoid “imposing an overexposed interpretation of her character.” Instead, the exhibition aims to elevate Maier’s name to the level of other famous street photographers—such as Robert Frank and Diane Arbus —and take on the daunting task of examining her large oeuvre.

“In ten years, we could do another completely different show,” Morin tells CNN. “She has more than enough material to bring to the table.”

The subjects of Maier’s street photos ran the gamut, but she often turned her lens toward “people on the margins of society who weren’t usually photographed and of whom images were rarely published,” per a statement from Fotografiska New York. The Gensburg boys recall her taking them all over the city, adamant that they witness what life was like beyond the confines of their affluent suburb.

The exhibition is organized thematically, with sections devoted to Maier’s famous street photos, her experimental abstract compositions and her stylized self-portraits. The self-portraits, which frequently incorporate mirrors and reflections, amplify her enigmatic qualities, usually showing her with a deadpan, focused expression. Her voice can be heard in numerous audio recordings, which play throughout the exhibition. As such, even as the show focuses on the work, Maier the person is still a frequent presence in it.

“The paradox of Vivian Maier is that the lifetime of anonymity that has captured the public imagination persists in the work,” writes art critic Arthur Lubow for the New York Times , adding, “An artist uses a camera as a tool of self-expression. Maier was a supremely gifted chameleon. After immersing myself in her work, other than detecting a certain wryness, I could not get much sense of her sensibility.”

The artist undoubtedly possessed a curiosity about her immediate surroundings, which she photographed with a “lack of self-consciousness,” Sophie Wright, the New York museum’s director, tells CNN. “There’s no audience in mind.” There is no evidence that Maier wondered about her viewers—or that she ever imagined having viewers in the first place. They, however, will never stop wondering about her.

“ Vivian Maier: Unseen Work ” is on view at Fotografiska New York through September 29.

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Ellen Wexler | | READ MORE

Ellen Wexler is Smithsonian magazine’s assistant digital editor, humanities.

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Terrifier 3

Art the Clown is set to unleash chaos on the unsuspecting residents of Miles County as they peacefully drift off to sleep on Christmas Eve. Art the Clown is set to unleash chaos on the unsuspecting residents of Miles County as they peacefully drift off to sleep on Christmas Eve. Art the Clown is set to unleash chaos on the unsuspecting residents of Miles County as they peacefully drift off to sleep on Christmas Eve.

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• Trivia Director Damien Leone said that several big studios showed interest in financing this movie based on the unexpected success of Terrifier 2 (2022) , even without a full script. However, he turned them all down because he is certain that they would never let him film the opening scene alone, which he describes as "very controversial". Leone commented that the only reason that he can be so uncompromising in his depiction of horror and gore is because he finances his movies independently, creates all the special effects himself to keep costs down, and has no big studio breathing down his neck to make the movie more mainstream.
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Tom Brady on the Art of Leading Teammates

• Nitin Nohria

When our society talks about leaders, we focus on formal roles, such as the CEO. This view undervalues the role of informal leaders—team members who influence outcomes by the tone they set, how they conduct themselves, and how they interact with their peers. Their job title doesn’t include the word “manager,” but they play an outsize role in how teams perform.

In this article, NFL great Tom Brady and Nitin Nohria, of Harvard Business School, present a set of principles that people in any realm can apply to help teams successfully work together toward common goals.

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• Tom Brady achieved great success in his 23-year NFL career, winning seven world championships. He is also an entrepreneur, a New York Times best-selling author, and a business adviser.
• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. and Distinguished Service University Professor. He served as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School, from 2010 to 2020.

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